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Cambridge Excellence in Biology Senior Secondary offers
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Cambridge Biology Senior Secondary 1

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Excellence in
Biology

SECONDA
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1
SENIO

RY
OK
ST

UD
O

ENT’S B

Contributors/Reviewers:
F. Fakeye
P. A. Ojajuni
J. O. Afolabi

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Dear Teacher

Welcome to Cambridge Excellence in Biology!

Cambridge University Press understands that education is a top priority for all Nigerians. We are
now expanding our global offering to include learning and teaching material for all Nigerian
schools that follow the NERDC curriculum.

Cambridge Excellence in Biology will give every student in Nigeria the opportunity to benefit from
the tradition of excellence that is the hallmark of Cambridge University.

We invite you to take advantage of our Nigerian specific, world-class learning, teaching and digital
resources, developed by international and Nigerian experts.

Cambridge Excellence in Biology has been specifically developed to provide you with a:
•• complete
•• accessible
•• affordable
solution to ensure excellent results and to introduce your students to a lifetime of achievement.

Cambridge Excellence in Biology offers the following:

A Student’s Book, written in clear and easy to understand language to make learning effortless,
which is also available in digital format.

A print and digital Teacher’s Guide to help you prepare your lessons and save time.

We trust that Cambridge Excellence in Biology will lay a solid foundation on the journey towards a
bright and successful future!

Aim for Excellence with Cambridge!

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Contents
Theme 1: Organisation of life
Topic 1: Recognising living things
Topic 2: The classification of living things
Topic 3: The cell
Topic 4: The cell and its environment
Topic 5: Some properties and functions of cells

Theme 2: The organisation at work

Topic 7: Tissues and supporting systems
Topic 8: Nutrition in animals

Theme 3: The organism and its environment

Topic 8: Basic ecological concepts
Topic 9: A functioning ecosystem
Topic 10: Energy transformation in nature
Topic 11: The relevance of Biology to agriculture
Topic 12: Micro-organisms around us
Topic 13: Micro-organisms in action
Topic 14: Towards better health
Topic 15: Aquatic habitats – marine, estuarine and freshwater
Topic 16: Terrestrial habitat

Theme 4: Continuity of life

Topic 17: Reproduction in unicellular organisms and
invertebrates

Glossary

11

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Topic 2: The classification of living things

Performance objectives
2.1 State the characteristic features of the kingdoms and give specific examples of representative
organisms.

How scientists classify The following criteria or questions are used to

organisms classify these organisms into the separate
kingdoms listed above:
Scientists estimate that there are more than • Are they unicellular, multicellular or
2 million different plant and animal species in colonial (living in clusters or groups)?
the world. Amazingly, new species are being • Is a nucleus present or absent in the cell and
discovered all the time. are there organelles (such as chloroplasts)?
It is important for scientists to use a • What does the cell wall consist of ?
consistent method to sort these organisms so • Is the organism mobile?
there is a clear way of grouping them • How does it feed (is it autotrophic/
according to shared features or characteristics. heterotrophic)?
Classification systems generally take into • How does it reproduce (sexual or asexual
account the main features of organisms such reproduction)?
as body shape, skeleton type, type of limbs,
the number of legs or how the internal organs We will now look at each of the five kingdoms
are arranged. There is a range of other in greater detail. We will also investigate the
characteristics used to classify organisms. different characteristics in each and will look
The name given to the classification process at examples of representative organisms in
is taxonomy. You will find out about a few each kingdom.
of these in this topic.

The difference between The five kingdoms

Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes are cells with a nucleus. Their In Biology, we divide organisms into very large
DNA lies within this nucleus and they groups called kingdoms. The five kingdoms are
contain complex organelles. They include as follows:
fungi, plants and animals, as well as single- 1. Monera (bacteria)
celled organisms called protists. Prokaryotes 2. Protista
are cells without a nucleus and their DNA lies 3. Fungi
freely inside the cytoplasm. Bacteria fall into 4. Plantae
this group. 5. Animalia

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Kingdom Monera (bacteria) Kingdom Protista

• Bacteria are microscopic and single-celled Protists are a diverse group of microscopic
organisms. organisms (that are eukaryotic). There are
• They vary considerably in shape and size about 64 000 species and they include
and can be round, spiral, chained, unicellular protozoans, algae (unicellular,
branched or rod-shaped. colonial and multi-cellular) and slime moulds.
• Bacterial cells are what we call • Protists are different from simpler bacteria
prokaryotic. This means that they do not in that they contain complex organelles
have a nucleus or complex organelles. such as chloroplasts and mitochondria.
• Bacteria reproduce by a process of binary • They move using flagella or cilia.
fission which is a form of asexual • They respire aerobically and reproduce
reproduction. sexually producing male and female gametes.
• Bacteria are a vital group of organisms • Protists have no tissues or organs.
and play a very important role in nutrient • They exist in symbiotic, parasitic and
cycling and decomposition. free-living forms.
• They also help to maintain atmospheric • Protists are either phototrophs (able to
levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen. photosynthesise) or heterotrophs (able to
• Harmful bacteria can cause diseases in engulf and absorb their food).
plants which can damage crops. In animals • They form the basis of most freshwater
and humans, bacteria can cause diseases and marine ecosystems.
such as cholera, leprosy and pneumonia. • Many of the diseases that affect
• Some are mobile. Some are not. agriculture, humans and animals are
caused by protists.

coccus – sphere bacillus – rod

Cocci in various arrangements Rods of various shape and arrangement

pair short rod long rod curved rod

group of four group of eight

chain

chain

irregular group branched

spiral

Figure 2.1  Examples of the different shapes of bacteria

14 Theme 1  Organisation of life

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FREE-LIVING PROTOZOANS

Euglena ×150 Paramecium ×150 Amoeba ×60 Vorticella ×100

PARASITIC PROTOZOANS

Plasmodium ×1 000 Trypanosoma ×1 500

FRESH WATER ALGAE

Scenedesmus Chlamydomonas
Volvox

Ulothrix

Diatoms Gonium

MARINE ALGAE

Gonyaulax (causes red tide) Amphiroa (red alga)

Eklonia (kelp)

Ulva (sea lettuce) Codium (green alga)

Figure 2.2 Examples of different body shapes and forms found in protists

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A  Amoeba sp.
• They move using cilia. Ciliophora can be
contractile vacuole pseudopods
cytoplasm food particle divided into flagellates (those with flagella),
being ingested e.g. Euglena, amoeboids (amoeba) and
by pseudopods
(phagocytosis) ciliates (those with cilia), e.g Paramecium.

Algae (plant-like protists)

food vacuole
• These are photosynthesising protists. They
nucleus mostly contain chlorophyll.
direction of movement • Algae are found on land and in the water.
Phytoplankton are found in the ocean and
B  Euglena sp. are a vital part of the ocean food chain.
anterior end • Green algae, also known as chlorophyta, are
flagellum
stigma (eye spot)
found in freshwater and ocean environments.
reservoir They exist in a variety of forms such as
nucleus chlamydomonas volvox and spirogyra.
chloroplasts
• Brown and red algae also exist.
contractile vacuole

posterior end Fungus-like protists

Figure 2.3  Examples of protists – Euglenia sp. and Amoeba sp. • This group includes slime moulds and
water moulds.
Types of protists • Many of these are decomposers and live
Protozoa (animal-like protists) in water or in soil.
• Protozoa are animal-like protists. They
cause many human diseases such as
malaria, sleeping sickness and vaginitis. Activity 2.1  Examine amoeba and
They are mainly single-celled protists that chlamydomonas
are about 0.01−0.5 mm in size and are You will need:
only visible with a microscope. • a glass container or test tube
• They feed by ingesting their food with • a light microscope
mouth-like structures or structures called • a glass slide/slip to view samples under
pseudopodia that engulf their prey. the light microscope
• Their prey items usually include bacteria • a sample of ditch water or water from a
or other single-celled organisms. stagnant pond
• Amoeba live in freshwater and are a form • paper and a pencil
of the division rhizopodia. They are also
single-celled organisms with pseudopodia. Method:
• One form (entamoeba histolytica) causes 1. With the help of your teacher, you will
dysentery in humans. identify a source of ditch or pond water
• Another form of rhizopoda is plasmodium and collect it in a glass jar or test tube.
vivax, which causes malaria. 2. Your teacher will help you to prepare a
• Paramecium is an example of the group of slide with a sample of pond/ditch water.
the division of protists called ciliophora. 3. Look at the sample under the
These are solitary organisms that live in microscope. What do you see?
fresh water.

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4. Draw the organisms you observe. • Most of these organisms are able to
5. What kingdom do you think they photosynthesise as they contain the
belong to? pigment chlorophyll.
6. List some of the characteristics of • They have the capacity to store starch as
these organisms. an energy reserve.

The kingdom can be grouped in a number of

Kingdom Fungi ways, but the most common way of dividing
or classifying it is to look at:
Mushrooms, toadstools, moulds and yeasts are • their reproductive characteristics
examples of organisms in this kingdom. They • their tissue structure (non-vascular
lack chlorophyll so they feed heterotrophically. or vascular)
This means they must absorb organic • their seed structure (naked, covered seeds
compounds from decaying organic matter, the or spores)
soil, or from the dead bodies of other organisms. • their size – mosses, ferns, shrubs, trees
The main characteristics of fungi are: or herbs.
• They are made up of eukaryotic cells.
• Their cell walls contain cellulose. The kingdom has three main sub-divisions:
• They are heterotrophs (with many being 1. Non-vascular plants: mosses (bryophytes)
saprophytes or parasites). and liverworts (hepatophytes)
• They reproduce sexually by dispersing 2. Vascular plants (without seeds, but with
spores (using wind, water or ingestion by spores): ferns, horsetails and club mosses
animals) as well as asexually. 3. Vascular plants (with seeds):
• Most respire aerobically, but some yeasts gymnosperms and angiosperms.
are anaerobic and respire anaerobically.
A B C

Types of fungi
There are a few divisions of fungi and these
include Basidiomycota, Ascomycota and
Zygomycota. Basidiomycota includes
mushrooms, puffballs and rusts.

Kingdom Plantae
A: Non-vascular B: Vascular C: Vascular
(without seeds) (with seeds)
The plant kingdom includes flowering plants,
Figure 2.4  Examples of the three main divisions in the plant
mosses, conifers, horsetails and liverworts. kingdom
There are approximately 300 000 species and
most of these are flowering plants. Non-vascular plants
• These organisms are multicellular and are • Mosses are non-vascular.
made up of eukaryotic cells. • They are usually a vital foundation plant
• Their cell walls are made of cellulose. in forest ecosystems, helping to prevent
• Most of them have roots, stems and leaves. soil loss through erosion.

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• They reproduce by means of spores and • Flowering dicots include trees, shrubs,
not by means of seeds. flowers and vines. Most fruit and
• They rarely produce flowers, and are vegetables are from this class.
found growing on the ground, on rocks,
and on other plants.
• The approximately 24 000 bryophyte species Kingdom Animalia
are grouped into the divisions Mosses
(Bryophyta), Liverworts (Hepatophyta), and The animal kingdom is divided into
Hornworts (Anthocerotophyta). vertebrates (animals with backbones) and
invertebrates (animals without backbones).
Vascular plants with spores It is estimated that there are between 20 and
• Ferns and other species in this division have 50 million species of animals, with the largest
a vascular system (with well-developed group being insects.
tissues responsible for water transport). Figure 2.5 shows how we classify organisms
• They reproduce from spores as opposed into sub-categories within a kingdom. See also
to seeds. Table 2.1 on the following page:
• Ferns are the most plentiful division in
this group. (There are 2 000 species.). Domain Eukarya
• Other divisions include club mosses,
horsetails and whisk ferns.
Kingdom Animalia
Vascular plants with seeds
The two categories of vascular plants with
seeds are gymnosperms and angiosperms. Phylum Chordata
Gymnosperms include conifers, cycads,
pines, firs and cedars.
• They are evergreens. Class Mammalia
• Gymnosperms reproduce from seeds.
• The seeds (usually in cone-like structures)
are ‘naked’. Order Carnivora
• They often have needle-like leaves.

Angiosperms include monocotyledons Family Felidae

(monocots) and dicotyledons (dicots).
• The majority of plants (around 230 000)
belong to this category. Genus Panthera
• They include trees, shrubs, vines, flowers,
fruits, vegetables, and legumes. Panthera
Species
• Their seeds grow inside an ovary, which is pardus
embedded in a flower or fruit.
• Flowering monocots include orchids,
palms and grasses. They have parallel leaf
veins and do not produce wood. Figure 2.5  The different sub-categories in the classification
of animals

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Table 2.1 summarises the chief characteristics

of some of the main phyla in this kingdom.
Table 2.1  The characteristics of the main phyla

Phylum Examples Characteristics

Profiera sponges • no tissues or organs
• contain a few specialised cells, which perform various
functions
• their bodies are random/asymmetrical
• adults are sessile, filter feeders
• tiny pores all over body for water flow
• collagen important in their structure
Cnidaria jellyfish, • soft bodied, jelly-like stinging tentacles
anemones • two-layered bodies with radial symmetry
• polyps (fixed) and medusae (free swimming)
• reproduction asexual
Echinodermata starfish, sea • spiny skeleton with several arms reaching from
urchins, central point
sand dollars, • internal skeleton
brittle stars • water vascular system
Annelida earthworms, • body divided into segments, separated by internal walls
leeches
• bristles are attached to each segment
• similar nervous system to arthropods
• head includes tentacles, palps and eyespots
Arthopoda shrimps, • approximately 900 000 species known in this phyla
spiders,
crabs, ticks
• jointed legs
• tough exoskeleton made of chitin
• segmented body with a head, thorax, abdomen
Platyhelminthes planarians, • unsegmented, flattened body
tapeworms
• bilateral symmetry
• they have a ‘head end’ to the body
• gastrovascular cavity with a pharynx
Mollusca clams, • soft-bodied organisms
mussels,
snails,
• internal or external shell
squid, • foot, mantle, shell, visceral mass
octopus • aquatic form has lungs
• use of cillia for feeding, respiration and digestion
Chordata fish, birds, • dorsal, hollow, nerve cord (spinal cord)
amphibians
and
• post-anal tail (apes and frogs have no tail as adults)
mammals • pharyngeal pouches (gill slits)
• found in most places (oceans, rivers, forests and
mountains)
Nematoda roundworms • tiny slender, unsegmented, tapering ended worms free
living and parasitic
• found in every environment (50 species parasitise
humans)

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Activity 2.2  Answer questions A

1. Which of the following is in the correct
order of classification in order of
increasing relatedness?
A phylum, kingdom, order, species,
family, class, genus, domain
B domain, species, order, family,
phylum, class, genus, kingdom
C species, order, class, family, domain, B
genus, kingdom
D domain, kingdom, phylum, class,
order, family, genus, species
2. The name given to the science of
classification is:
A relatedness
B genetics
C grouping C
D taxonomy
3. The key feature that distinguishes
eukaryotes from prokaryotes is their:
A cell wall
B mitochondria D
C chloroplasts
D nucleus
4. Name one beneficial bacteria and two
harmful bacteria.
5. Name four characteristics of protists.
6. Protozoa are -like protists
and algae are -like protists.
E
7. Explain the difference between
gymnosperms and angiosperms and
give examples of each.
8. What is the most common way to classify
or group organisms in the plant kingdom?
9. List three characteristics of the king-
dom fungi and indicate their value in
ecosystem functioning.
Summary
10. Look at the photographs and answer • Taxonomy is the classification of organisms.
the questions that follow: • Organisms are grouped into domain,
a) Identify the phylum for organisms kingdom, phyla, class, order, family, genus
A to E. and species.
b) List three characteristics of each. • The five kingdoms are: Bacteria, Protista,
Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

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Key words
How are you doing? Do you know the meanings of these terms? If not,
Use the Revision questions to check if look up these words in the glossary at the back of
there is anything you do not understand. the book.
Ask your teacher to explain. classification, eukaryotes, kingdoms, prokaryotes
and taxonomy

Revision questions
1. We classify organisms into Bacteria, (Hint: look at the three animals on
Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. the purple blocks for a clue).
What are the six criteria or questions we f) What do you think the word Ursus
use to do so? means?
2. Study the diagram and answer the g) What do you think the word lupus
questions that follow: means?
a) Name the Kingdom illustrated here. 3. Eukaryotes and prokaryotes are
b) What is common to all these different types of cells.
organisms and defines the phylum? a) State the single most important
c) The fact that they are ____________ difference between eukaryotes and
defines their class. prokaryotes.
d) What do all of them feed on (this b) Which large and important
defines their order)? kingdom(s) represent prokaryotes?
e) What is the English word derived 4. List three characteristics of the
from the latin word Felidae? Kingdom Fungi.

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Mammalia

Order Carnivora

Family Felidae Canidae Ursidae

Genus Felis Panthera Canis Ursus

Specific Catus pardalus pardus arctos horribilis

epithet familiaris lupus

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Topic 8: Nutrition in animals

Performance objectives
8.1 Understand different food substances.
8.2 Understand the different classes of food.
8.3 Understand the importance of a balanced diet.
8.4 Understand and name the digestive enzymes and their characteristics, classes and functions.
8.5 Understand the different modes of nutrition in different organisms.

Food substances Fat provides a layer of insulation under the

skin for warmth. Fats are also found in the
myelin sheaths that surround nerve cells.
The foods we eat are made up of:
Fats in the diet also allow the body to use
• fats and oils
fat-soluble vitamins.
• proteins
• carbohydrates
• minerals
• vitamins.

All of these are necessary for a balanced diet

in mammals.

Fats
Fats and oils are lipids. A fat is a lipid that is a
solid at room temperature. An oil is a lipid that
Figure 8.1  Foods that contain fats
is liquid at room temperature.

Fats and oils are found in these foods:

• meat Activity 8.1  Test for the presence
• butter and margarine of fats and oils (the translucent
• olives spot test)
• acovados What you need:
• cheese • a small amount of oil
• milk and yogurt. • ethanol
• test tubes
Fats provide energy. One gram of a lipid • filter paper
provides more than twice the amount of energy
than does one gram of carbohydrate. But, A filter paper B
because the biological processes that are needed drop of drop of
to release energy from fats in the cell are long oil-ethanol ethanol
solution solution only
and complicated, cells use carbohydrates for
energy more easily than they use fats.

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Method:
1. Put two drops of oil into a test tube. Activity 8.2  Test for the presence
Add 5 ml of ethanol to the oil. Shake of proteins (Millon’s reagent test)
thoroughly until the oil dissolves. What you need:
2. Put a drop of the mixture on filter • egg white
paper A. Draw a ring around the • water
position of the drop with a pencil. • test tubes
3. As a control, put a drop of ethanol on • Millon’s reagent
filter paper B and draw a ring around • a water bath
the position of the drop with a pencil. • a heat source
4. Allow the filter paper to dry and
compare filter paper A and B.
A B

Answer these questions:

1. Why is the stain left on filter paper A
called a ‘translucent’ stain?
2. What other oil solvent could be used
instead of ethanol?

Proteins
Proteins are found in foods such as meat, eggs,
milk, cheese and beans. 2 ml egg white 2 ml glucose
+ 2 drops Millon’s + 2 drops
reagent Millon’s reagent
+ heat + heat

Method:
1. Pour an equal quantity of egg white and
water into test tube A. Mix thoroughly.
2. Add 1 ml of Millon’s reagent to the test
tube. (Take care because it contains
mercury and is poisonous.)
3. Heat the test tube in a water bath
containing boiling water. Note the
Figure 8.2  Foods that contain proteins
colour of the contents of the test tube.
Proteins are part of the building materials of 4. As a control, repeat the procedure but
all cell membranes, chromosomes, cytoplasm use 2 ml of a glucose solution instead of
and cell organelles. All enzymes and some using egg white (test tube B).
hormones are made up of proteins.
Proteins are also necessary for the immune Result:
system to work properly. You will see that the solution in test tube A
Proteins are seldom used for energy, becomes a brick-red precipitate (positive
except in extreme malnutrition when the body result) and no colour change occurs in test
has used up all carbohydrate and fat reserves. tube B (negative result).

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Carbohydrates
Activity 8.3 Carry out an alternative Carbohydrates are found in grains and the
test for proteins (the Biuret test) foods such as bread, cereals, potatoes, rice,
What you need: yams and sugars that are made from grains.
• dilute solutions of sodium hydroxide Carbohydrates are an important source of
and potassium hydroxide (both dilute) energy, especially sucrose and glucose.
• test tubes Carbohydrates store energy, for example,
• copper sulphate starch in plants and glycogen in humans. Plant
• egg white cell walls are made of carbohydrates.

A B
Activity 8.4  Test for the presence
2 ml egg white 2 ml glucose
of a carbohydrate (glucose)
+ 10 ml NaOH/KOH + 10 ml NaOH/KOH What you need:
+ 2 drops CuSO4 + 2 drops CuSO4 • Fehlings A Solution
• Fehlings B Solution
• (You can use Benedict’s Solution instead
of Fehlings)
• glucose
• test tubes
Method: • a source of heat
1. Pour about 10 ml dilute sodium hydroxide • chalk
(NaOH) or dilute potassium hydroxide
(KOH) solution into a test tube. (Be A B
careful: both are corrosive.)
2. Add two drops of copper sulphate
(CuSO4) solution. The solution is blue.
3. Add 2 ml of egg white to the test tube.
Note: Do not heat the solution.
reducing sugar crushed chalk
4. As a control, repeat the procedure but (glucose) + Fehling's
use 2 ml of glucose solution instead of + Fehling's solution + heat
solution + heat
egg white (test tube B).

Answer these questions: 1. Mix 2 ml of Fehlings A Solution and

1. Name the protein found in egg-white. 2 ml of Fehlings B Solution in test
2. Name one other food stuff that tube A (4 ml of Benedict’s Solution can
contains protein. be used instead of Fehlings Solution).
This mixture is a deep blue colour.
Result: 2. Add 2 ml of glucose solution to test
The solution in test tube A becomes violet tube A containing Fehlings A Solution
(positive result) indicating that the solution and Fehlings B Solution or Benedict’s
contains protein. No colour change occurs Solution. Heat the mixture in a water
in test tube B (negative result). bath containing boiling water.

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3. As a control, repeat the procedure but

iodine solution
use crushed chalk instead of glucose in
test tube B. A B

Answer these questions:

starch non-starch
1. Why is the mixture in test tubes A and B solution solution
heated in a water bath?
2. Name three other sugars which
would give the same result when Answer these questions:
heated in a water bath with Fehlings A 1. Name two foods that contain starch –
solution and Fehlings B solution or test them using iodine.
Benedict’s solution. 2. Give an example of a substance you
would have used in B.
Result: 3. How would you test a solution to see if
The solution containing glucose (test tube A) it contained iodine?
turns yellow and then orange (positive Result:
result). The crushed chalk solution (test tube A substance that turns blue-black in the
B) remains blue (negative result). This shows presence of iodine contains starch (positive
that glucose is a carbohydrate because when result) and a substance that takes on the
it is added to Fehling’s Solution, the solution colour of iodine (brown) does not contain
turns yellow and then orange. starch (negative result).
If you are given an unknown sample of
food and asked whether glucose is present,
then you have to apply the Fehlings or Activity 8.6  Classify different food
Benedict’s test to the sample, that is, you use Your teacher will provide you with samples
the food sample instead of glucose. of different kinds of food such as yam,
garri, butter, cooking oil, salt, fish, prawns,
pepper, cowpea, crab and onions.
Activity 8.5  Test for the presence 1. In groups classify the different foods
of starch into fats, oils, proteins or carbohydrates.
You will need: Some foods contain more than one
• starch solution food type.
• iodine solution 2. Make a table with the headings: fats,
• test tubes oils, proteins and carbohydrates. List the
• glucose foods under the correct heading.

1. Add 3 ml of the starch solution to test Minerals

tube A. Minerals that are necessary in the diet are
2. Add two drops of iodine solution to test divided into groups. Macro-elements, which
tube A. The solution turns blue-black. are needed in large quantities, include
3. As a control, repeat the procedure on nitrogen, sodium and calcium. Micro-elements,
glucose in test tube B. The solution takes which are needed in small quantities, include
on the colour of iodine (it remains brown). iodine and iron.

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Table 8.1 shows the function of the more important minerals in humans.
Table 8.1  The functions of minerals

Mineral Function Deficiency diseases

Nitrogen (N) Essential for the synthesis of amino acids that form Retarded growth; Kwashiorkor in young children
protein;
Forms part of the nucleotides of DNA and RNA.

Sulphur (S) Present in most proteins, co-enzymes and the Poor growth
hormone insulin.

Magnesium Essential component of chlorophyll molecules; Poor growth

(Mg) Plays a part in muscular contractions and the
functioning of the nervous system;
Activates enzymes.

Phosphorus (P) Important for bones and teeth formation; Rickets, malfunctioning of muscle and nerves
Part of the energy carrier ATP;
Important component of DNA and RNA;
Found in phospholipids of cell membranes.

Sodium (Na) Maintains osmotic and acid-base balance of body Hyponatraemia leading to nausea, vomiting,
fluids; lethargy, coma and death
Necessary for osmoregulation in the kidneys;
Necessary for the secretion of HCl in the stomach;
Necessary for functioning of nerves and muscles.

Calcium (Ca) Essential for the structure of bone and teeth; Rickets, blood clotting delay
Calcium ions needed for blood clotting;
Plays a part in cell membrane permeability.

Iron (Fe) Part of haemoglobin in red blood cells (deficiency Anaemia

results in anaemia);
Component of electron carriers in respiration.

Iodine (I) Constituent of the hormone thyroxin that is secreted In humans, cretinism in children, goitre in adults
by the thyroid gland (deficiency causes goitre).

Potassium (K) Necessary for functioning of nerves and muscles. Malfunctioning of muscle and nerves, heart
irregularities

Vitamins lacteals. Fat soluble vitamins can be stored in

Vitamins are organic compounds that are the bodies of plants and animals. However, the
essential for the maintenance of many water soluble vitamins (B and C) cannot be
metabolic activities. Some are water soluble, stored and must be renewed daily.
while others are soluble in fat. If we do not take in vitamins in our diet,
Fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) are we may get what is called a vitamin deficiency
absorbed with glycerol and fatty acids into the disease.

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Table 8.2 shows the source and functions body. It also shows the deficiency diseases that
of the more important vitamins needed by our are caused by a lack of these vitamins.

Table 8.2  The source and function of vitamins

Vitamin Source Function Deficiency disease

A carrots Essential for the correct Night-blindness-poor vision in
(retinol) yellow fruit functioning of the eye; dim light;
milk Improves the eye’s adjustment Xerophthalmia – cornea becomes
dairy products to darkness. dry and develops small sores.
liver
fresh green vegetables
D animal fats and oils Plays a role in bone growth; Rickets – bone deformity in
(calciferol) dairy products (milk, cream, Increases calcium and children;
butter, cheese) phosphorus absorption by the Osteomalacia – in adults, bones
egg yolk small intestine and deposition of become soft and fractures
fish liver oils these salts in bone. may occur.
E green, leafy vegetables, Acts as an anti-oxidant – prevents Causes neuro-muscular disorders,
(tocopherol) e.g. spinach, lettuce cell membrane damage. e.g. nerve degeneration in the
eggs hands and feet;
whole wheat bread Deficiency is rare.
K green leafy vegetables, Needed for blood clotting. Failure of blood to clot;
e.g. spinach, lettuce; Bleeding gums and easy bruising
made by intestinal bacteria of skin.
B3 whole grains of cereal Part of co-enzymes used in Pellagra – weakness, loss of
(niacin) fish cellular respiration. weight, diarhoea, irritability.
liver
lean meat
C Citrus fruit (oranges, lemons) Maintains intercellular substance Scurvy – bleeding under skin and
(ascorbic acid) fresh vegetables in bone, cartilage and dentine; bleeding gums;
guavas Formation of connective tissues, Poor healing of wounds,
tomatoes e.g. collagen. degeneration of skin, teeth and
blood vessels.

A balanced diet
What is a balanced diet?
Humans and other mammals rely on
food produced from plants and animals.
A balanced diet includes all the energy
nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins and
lipids), vitamins, minerals, water and fibre
required to maintain good health.

Figure 8.3  A food guide pyramid

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The energy released from foods is expressed in 3. Draw a pie chart to show the relative
kilojoules. The amount of energy required by proportions of protein, carbohydrate,
individuals differs in terms of the age, gender, fats and fibre in this 100 bowl of cereal.
activity and the kind of work a person does.
Table 8.3 shows this difference. Malnutrition
Table 8.3  The energy requirements of different groups A person may get malnutrition if their diet is
not balanced or if the digestive system
Child/adult Type of activity/ Amount of energy
occupation per day (kJ) malfunctions.
2-year old 5 000 Two common forms of malnutrition are
5-year old 7 000 kwashiorkor and marasmus. Kwashiorkor is the
Child 8-year old 8 000 result of a high intake of carbohydrate with
11-year old 9 000 too little protein. Marasmus is a lack of foods
13-year old 10 000 in all food groups. These two disorders are
Woman Basic metabolic 6 000 usually seen in children in resource-poor areas.
Man rate − sleeping 7 000
Woman 8 000
Man
Desk-bound job
9 000 Digestive enzymes
Active housewife 12 500
Active job
Shopkeeper 14 000 An enzyme is a protein molecule that acts as a
Labourer (man) Very active job 20 000 biological catalyst because it speeds up
biochemical reactions. Enzymes are specific to
Activity 8.7  Study the nutritional the substrates that they act on. For example,
composition of foods all enzymes that act on proteins are called
The following information appears on the proteases. So proteases will not be able to
package of a brand of cereal eaten by a break down carbohydrates. In addition, they
young boy. work best in particular environmental
conditions such as pH and temperature.
Ingredients Nutritional information
(Values per 100 g)
Table 8.4 summarises the broad groups of
whole rolled oats, Energy 2 000 kJ
enzymes, where they are produced, on what
roasted wheat flakes, Protein 12,5 g
substrate they work, the type of pH they prefer
cane syrup, brown
Carbohydrates 50 g
and the end products of their action.
sugar, vegetable oil,
Fats 12,5 g Table 8.4  A summary of the groups of enzymes
sun-dried raisins
Fibre 25 g
Group of Carbohydrases Proteases Lipases
Cholesterol 0 mg enzymes
Study it and then answer these questions. Where mouth, small stomach, small
1. State two reasons why the boy needs they are intestine, pancreas small intestine
produced intestine,
each of the following nutrients:
pancreas
a) protein b) fibre
Substrate carbohydrates proteins lipids
2. The total energy value of 100 g cereal
Preferred alkaline – neutral acid neutral
is 2 000 kJ. The boy requires 5 500 kJ pH
of energy per day. How much cereal End glucose amino fatty acids
does he need to eat to get this? Show products acids and
all calculations. glycerol

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Method:
Activity 8.8 Break down starch 1. Prepare a sample of cooked starch as
You will need: you did in the previous activity.
• bread or crackers 2. Divide your sample equally between
• something to break up the bread or three test tubes.
cracker, such as a pestle and mortar 3. Add saliva from your mouth to each
• test tubes and dropping pipettes test tube.
• iodine a) Add dilute hydrochloric acid to the
first test tube.
Method: b) Add dilute sodium hydroxide
1. Break up a small piece of bread or solution to the second test tube.
cracker with a knife in a pestal and c) The third test tube is neutral.
mortar. Mix it with a little water. This is 4. Leave the test tubes for five minutes.
your sample of cooked starch. Use a dropping pipette to take out a
2. Divide this sample equally between two little of the solution from each test tube.
test tubes. Test the solution with iodine solution to
3. Add your own saliva to one test tube see if it contains starch.
and leave it for five minutes.
4. The second test tube is the control. Answer the following questions:
5. Use a dropping pipette to take a small 1. What happened in the acid conditions?
sample from each test tube and test it 2. What happened in the alkaline conditions?
with a few drops of iodine. 3. What happened in neutral conditions?
6. Record your results. 4. Of the three conditions, in which did the
salivary amylase work best?
Result:
Starch is broken down by the digestive Result:
enzyme in your saliva, which is called Salivary amylase works best in the slightly
salivary amylase or ptyalin. alkaline conditions of the mouth. It does
The action of enzymes is affected by not work well in very acid or alkaline
pH and temperature. Enzymes work best at conditions.
the pH and temperature that is found in
living organisms.
The next two activities demonstrate this. Activity 8.10  Observe the effect of
temperature on salivary amylase
You will need:
• bread or crackers
Activity 8.9  Observe the effect of • something to break up the bread or
pH on salivary amylase cracker, such as a pestle and mortar
You will need: • test tubes
• bread or crackers • dropping pipettes
• test tubes and dropping pipettes • spotting tiles
• hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, • ice and iodine
iodine • a source of heat such as a Bunsen burner

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Method: are necessary for many body functions

1. Prepare a sample of cooked starch. and vitamins are organic compounds that
2. Divide your sample equally between are essential for the maintenance of many
four test tubes. metabolic activities in the body.
a) Add two drops of saliva to the first • A balanced diet is one that has all these
test tube and boil the contents for different food in the correct proportions.
three minutes. • Digestive enzymes act on different
b) Put the second test tube into a components of foods to break them down
beaker containing ice, or put it in into molecules to be used by the body.
the fridge.
c) Put the third test tube into a beaker
containing water at room temperature. How are you doing?
d) Put the fourth test tube into a Use the Revision questions to check if
beaker containing water at about there is anything you do not understand.
37ºC (body temperature). Ask your teacher to explain.
3. Add two drops of saliva to test tubes B
to D. Note the time.
4. At 1-minute intervals, use a dropping Key words
pipette to take out a little solution from Do you know the meanings of these terms? If not,
each test tube. Test it with iodine look up these words in the glossary at the back of
solution on a spotting tile. the book.
Carbohydrates, enzymes, fats and oils, minerals,
Answer the following questions: proteins, vitamins.
1. What happened when the enzyme
was boiled?
2. What happened in the very Revision questions
cold conditions?
3. What happened at room temperature? 1. Why are nutrients important?
4. What happened at body temperature? 2. What is the role of fats in the diet?
5. At which temperature did the salivary 3. What is the role of proteins in the diet?
amylase work most quickly to break down 4. Why is calcium an important mineral in
the starch? What is the advantage of this? the diet?
6. Describe the way in which temperature 5. What deficiency disease occurs if there is
affects the action of the enzyme. not enough iron in the diet?
6. What deficiency disease occurs if there is
not enough vitamin D and calcium in
the diet?
Summary 7. Name two common forms of
malnutrition and list the features of each.
• Our food is made up of fats, oils, proteins, 8. What is an enzyme?
carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. 9. What type of nutrition do green
• Fats provide energy and insulation; plants show?
proteins are the building blocks for tissues; 10. What is chemosynthesis?
carbohydrates provide energy; minerals

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Glossary
abstinence – a method of contraception in which the camouflage – a disguise in the form of either colour or
couple do not have sexual intercourse, 100% effective shape, that allows an organism to blend in with its
adaptation – in evolutionary biology, a feature that is environment to avoid predators
common in a population because it provides some central nervous system – that portion of the nervous
improved function system that is made up of the brain and the spinal
adaptive radiation – the process in which organisms cord
diversify rapidly into a multitude of new forms, cerebellum – the second largest part of the brain,
particularly when a change in the environment makes which controls the co-ordination of voluntary
new resources available, creates new challenges or muscular movement, balance, muscle tone and
opens new environmental niches equilibrium
allele – a particular form of a gene which usually cerebrum – the largest part of the brain that controls
occurs in pairs, one of each homologous chromosome all voluntary actions, contains centres of vision, taste,
in a diploid cell nucleus hearing, smell and touch and contains the areas where
allelopathy – a chemical process used by plants that higher functions lie
helps prevents other plants from germinating or chemoreceptor – a receptor that senses chemical
growing too close to the next plant, overcrowding it stimulus, such as the tongue
amnion – the embryonic membrane that secretes the choroid – the layer of the eye that contains the blood
amniotic fluid, which is the fluid in which the embryo tissue and connective tissue, found between the retina
is supported during development and the sclera, supplies food and oxygen to the eye
ampullae – the base of the semi-circular canals of the chromosome – a coiled structure that is found in the
ear which are enlarged into hollow, round areas nucleus of cells that contains DNA and basic proteins
analogous structures – structures that are found in cirrhosis – the scarring of liver tissue that results from
different species that look the same or have the same excess alcohol and some other toxin ingestion
function, but which did not evolve from a common climax community – a stable, self-perpetuating set of
ancestor, for example wings in birds and bats organisms that experiences very little fluctuation with
androecium – male part of a flower regards to species composition over a long period of time
autonomic nervous system – a part of the nervous comparative anatomy – the study of similarities and
system made up of the sympathetic and the differences in the anatomy of different species, to
parasympathetic nervous systems show relationships during evolution
bilharzia – also called schistosomiasis, caused by comparative embryology – a branch of embryology
parasitic flatworms that burrow through the skin that compares and contrasts embyros of different
when swimming in contaminated water, where there is species to look at evolutionary relationships
no proper sanitation conditioned reflex – a reflex action in response to a
biological evolution – the genetic changes that take stimulus that has been repeated several times, such a
place over time and lead to new species of organisms salivation by a dog in response to a bell that marks
blastocyst – the early stage of an embryo when it is meal times
made up of a hollow ball of cells, the next stage from condom – a barrier method of contraception, a sheath
the morula that is placed over the erect penis to prevent sperm
blood group – in humans there are four blood groups, from entering the vagina and so the Fallopian tubes
A, AB, B and O, these are the ABO blood conjunctiva – the tissue that lines the inside of the
groups,there are other also many other types of blood eyelids and covers the sclera (white part of the eye)
groups in humans, such as Rhesus grouping and the connector neurons – the neurons that link sensory
Kell system neurons to motor neurons via synapses
blood typing – humans can be typed into their continuous variation – the smooth gradation in the
different blood groups in the ABO and Rhesus differences between individuals in a population, for
systems using tests that distinguish which person is example variations in height
which group, used before a blood transfusion contraceptive implant – an implant under the skin that
brain – the enlarged top (anterior) part of the spinal contains hormones that are slowly released over time
cord, made up of the cerebrum, cerebellum, mid- that prevent ovulation, which lasts for varying lengths
brain and hypothallamus of time and must be replaced when no longer effective

Glossary 31

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contraceptive injection – an injection that contains a ecological succession – the process of change in which
hormone that prevents ovulation for a period of two a set of natural communities are established and then
to three months, depending on the formulation, needs replaced over a period of time, looks at the structure
to be repeated every two to three months of a community and how it evolves over time
contraceptive patch – a patch that contains hormones endocrine gland – a gland that produces hormones
that prevent ovulation that sticks to the skin and endocrine system – the system in the body that is made
releases hormone over time that prevent ovulation, up of endocrine glands that produce hormones that
which must be replaced when no longer effective are released directly into the blood and transported to
converging lens – a lens for people who are long- target organs around the body
sighted that allows them to see close objects, bends endolymph – fluid found in the membranous labyrinth
light rays inwards to focus on the retina of the ear
cornified layer – the outermost layer of the epidermis is epidermis – the outer, protective layer of the human skin
also called the horny layer and it is made up of dead cells eustachian tube – a tube from the pharynx to the
courtship – a type of behaviour used to select partners middle ear that equalises pressure on either side of
for reproduction the ear drum/tympanic membrane
courtship colours – colours that may only appear in a evolution – the changes that take place in organisms,
particular species during the breeding season that often over millions of years but also in recent time, to
form part of courtship displays, usually in males only form new species
Darwin – Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, the exponentially – something that is increasing very
‘father of evolution’, who published On the origin of rapidly in large amounts or numbers
species by means of natural selection and who is fatty liver – a form of liver disease in which the organ
responsible for the modern theory of evolution is infiltrated with fatty deposits which prevent it from
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – a nucleic acid found in functioning correctly
the chromosomes of almost all organisms and which femidom – a barrier method of contraception, a
is the primary genetic material sheath that is inserted into the vagina, which also
dermis – the name given to the connective tissue layer covers the external genitalia in a woman to prevent
found below the epidermis of the skin; contains nerve sperm from entering the vagina and so the
endings, sebaceous and sweat glands as well as blood Fallopian tubes
vessels fertilisation – process where pollen is transferred from
diabetes mellitus – a disease of insulin production and the anther to the stigma of a plant
glucose metabolism, split into type 1 diabetes and floral whorls – part of the flower that includes the
type 2 diabetes calyx, corolla, androecium and gynaecium (all
diaphragm – a barrier method of contraception, a attached to the receptacle)
diaphragm that is placed high up in the vagina, fossil record – a term used by people who study fossils
preventing sperm from getting through the cervix and and evolutionary biology to refer to the total number
into the Fallopian tubes of fossils that have been discovered as well as the
dihybrid cross – a dihybrid cross is a cross made to information derived from them
study the inheritance of two traits (instead of one) at gametes – the ova and sperm or sex cells in
the same time an organism
discontinuous variation – a form of variation where gene – a sequence of nucleotides that codes for the
organisms either have or do not have a particular amino acid sequence of an enzyme or other protein
characteristic, for example male or female gene pool – the sum total of all the alleles that are
display – ritual displays used by different species of found in breeding population of a particular species
animals during the courtship process genetics – the study of how characteristics are
diverging lens – a lens for correcting short sight, bends transmitted from one generation to another
light rays outwards to focus on the retina genome – an organism’s entire hereditary information,
DNA profile – a technique used to identify individuals encoded either in DNA or RNA (in many types
by characteristics of their DNA of virus)
ear drum/tympanic membrane – the membrane that genotype – the alleles that an individual receives at
separates the middle ear and outer ear and which fertilisation
vibrates in response to sound waves, which are geographic barrier – a feature such as a river, a sea or
transmitted by the ear ossicles to the oval window a mountain, which stops species from meeting

32 Glossary

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