Diffusion

and gas exchange

Objective:
Describe the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface
area to volume ratio, thickness of surface, di erence in concentration) and explain
how the structure of the mammalian lung is adapted for rapid gaseous exchange

The human respiratory system links the circulatory system with the atmosphere
through the mouth and the nose. It is adapted to:
• Clean and warm the air that enters during breathing
• Maximize the surface area for diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the blood and the atmosphere
• Maintain the adequate gradients for this diffusion

Nasal cavity: main route for entrance of air; has large surface area, large blood
supply that raises the level of temperature of inhaled air; lining secretes mucus and
is covered in hairs that filter out and clean up much of the dust and small particles
(bacteria) that you breathe in; surface is moistened to increase the level of water
vapor in air

Mouth: air enters through it but misses out on the cleaning, warming, and
moistening effect of the nasal cavity

Larynx: contains vocal cords that produce sounds as air passes through it

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Epiglottis: closes over the pharynx in a reflex action when food is swallowed; this
prevents food from entering into the trachea

Trachea: is a tube that connects the pharynx or larynx to the lungs, allowing the
passage of air; It is lined with ciliated epithelial cells and goblet cells that produce
mucus. This mucus lines the cells of the trachea to trap inhaled foreign particles
(larger than 5-10µm) that the cilia then waft upward toward the larynx and then the
pharynx where it can be either swallowed into the stomach or expelled as phlegm;
There are about fifteen to twenty incomplete C-shaped cartilaginous rings that
reinforce the trachea to protect and maintain the airway (prevent collapsing)

Bronchi: They are branches of the trachea; protected by irregular rings of cartilage;
lined with ciliated epithelial cells and goblet cells that secrete mucus.

Bronchioles: branches of bronchi; divide into alveoli; have no cartilage; act as an
airway but little gaseous exchange might occur (respiratory bronchioles)

Alveoli: main sites of gaseous exchange in the lungs

Ribs: protective bony cage around the respiratory system

Intercostal muscles: found between the ribs and important for breathing

Pleural membranes: surround the lungs and line the chest cavity

Pleural cavity: space between the pleural membranes, filled with a fluid that acts as
a lubricant to reduce friction between lungs and chest cavity during the process of
breathing

Diaphragm: sheet of muscular tissue that separates the chest from the abdomen;
Important for breathing

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Factors affecting the rate of diffusion of O2 and CO2 across a membrane

• Surface area: the larger the surface area, the more particles to be exchanged
at the same time
• Concentration gradient of the particles diffusing: the more particles there
are on one side of the membrane in comparison with the other, the faster
they move across
• Distance over which diffusion is taking place: the shorter the diffusion
distance, the faster diffusion can take place

This can be used to calculate the rate at which substances of a given size and at a
known temperature will diffuse. This relationship is called Fick’s law:

!"#$%&' %#'% × &*+&'+,#%,-*+ .-$$'#'+&'
Rate of diffusion ☐
,/-&0+'!! *$ '1&/%+2' 3'34#%+'

Where ☐= proportional to

Gas exchange in alveoli

• Alveoli provide a large surface area for the diffusion of gases (480-500 million
alveoli in human lungs comparable to a surface area of 100m2)
• Alveoli are tiny thin walled air sacs with a rich blood supply. They are just one
cell thick (flattened epithelium) as are the capillaries that surround them (one
layer of endothelial cells), meaning that the gases diffuse across a distance of
only 2 cells thick (0.5-1.5µm) to gain access to the blood stream.
• The internal surface of an alveolus is covered with a moist film allowing the
oxygen from the air to dissolve on it and a surfactant, rich in phospholipids
and proteins which prevents it from collapsing when we breath out.
• Alveoli contain elastic tissue that stretch during the process of inhalation and
recoil during exhalation. This elasticity allows alveoli to expand according to
the volume of the air breathed in
• Each alveolus contains a large number of macrophages that engulf particles
and debris and kill bacteria that have entered the lungs and have been
trapped on the moist walls.

Adaptations of alveoli for gas exchange

• Extremely thin walls (1 cell thick)
• Large surface area in relation to volume
• Fluid lining that helps in exchange of dissolved gases
• Large number of capillaries surrounding each alveolus that are thin walled (1
cell thick)
• Steep concentration gradient maintained by continuous blood flow on the
capillary side and continuous refreshing of air inside alveoli though breathing

Breathing

Moving air between the lungs and the external environment is an active process
called breathing. There are two parts to the process of breathing:

1. Inhalation: taking in air into the lungs; is an active, energy-using process; The
diaphragm contracts and moves down so more space is created at bottom of
thoracic cavity; Intercostal muscles contract, ribs are pulled upward and
outward; volume of chest cavity increases; pressure decreases; air moves in

2. Exhalation: breathing air out; is a passive process; the diaphragm relaxes and
is pulled upwards reducing the space at the bottom of the thoracic cavity;
intercostal muscles relax and the ribs move down and in; volume in the chest
cavity decreases, pressure increases; air moves out