Business & Commercial Law
Business & Commercial Law
CONTRACT AND AGENCY
Contract
An agreement enforceable by law is called a contract. Therefore in a contract, there must be‐
1. An agreement;
2. The agreement must be enforceable by law.
There some agreements like an agreement to play cards or go to cinema, which cannot be enforced through the
courts of law, are not contract. So agreements, which can't be enforced through the courts of law, aren't contract.
Elements of a Contract
1. Offer & Acceptance;
2. Intention to create legal relationship;
3. Lawful consideration;
4. Capacity of the parties;
5. Free Consent;
6. Legality of the object;
7. Certainty;
8. Possibility of performance;
9. Void agreement;
10. Writing, registration and legal formalities.
Acceptance & Proposal & Offer
Proposal: when one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything with a view
to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal.
Offer: a proposal is also called an offer. The promisor or the person making of the offer is called offer. The person to
whom the offer is made is called the offeree.
Communication of proposal and acceptance complete
The communication of the proposal is complete when it comes to the knowledge of the person to whom it is made.
How and when a proposal and acceptance can be revoked?
Revocation of Proposal
When the following conditions are met individually or aggregate:
1. by notice;
2. by lapse of time;
3. after expiry of reasonable time;
4. by failure of reasonable time;
5. by failure of condition precedent;
6. by death of insanity;
7. counter offer;
8. by refusal.
Revocation of Acceptance
An acceptance can be revoked any time before the acceptance comes to the knowledge of the proposer but not
afterwards.
Consideration
Consideration is an essential element in a contract. Something which receives and gives by each party to an
agreement is called consideration.
Types of a consideration
Three types:
1. Past, 2. Present, and 3. Future.
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Good consideration
It must be:
1. Real
2. Reasonable;
3. Not illegal, immoral or opposed to public policy;
4. Present, past or future;
Characteristics/Rules/Essential factors of Consideration
1. Desire;
2. Public duty;
3. Promise to stranger;
4. It must be real;
5. not illegal, immoral or opposed to public policy;
6. It may be present, past and future;
7. It may move from promisee or from other person.
Why a consideration is needed? or
In a formation of contract, consideration must be real but need not be adequate‐ explain.
1. The consideration must have some value in the eye of law. It must not be sham or illusory
2. The impossible acts and illusory or non‐existing goods cannot support a contract. Therefore, real
consideration comes from good consideration.
3. A contribution to charity is without consideration. Therefore, it is not real consideration.
"No consideration no contract"‐ exceptions to the rule. or
Can a contract be made without consideration?
Consideration is essential for validity of a contract. A promise without consideration cannot create a legal
obligation. So consideration is essential for a contract.
But there are exceptional cases where a contract is enforceable even though there is no consideration.
They are as follows:
1. Natural love and affection;
2. Voluntary compensation;
3. Time bared debt;
4. Agency;
5. Completed gift.
Silence be fraudulent?
1. Mere silence is not fraud.
2. Silence can be fraudulent in circumstances.
3. Silence is fraud where silence is in itself equivalent to speech.
Void and Voidable contract
Point of view Void Contract Voidable Contract
Definition An agreement not enforceable by law is An agreement which is enforceable by law at
said to be void. the opinion of one or more of the parties
thereto, but not at all the opinion of the
other or others is a voidable contract.
Right and obligation A void agreement confers no right on But in case of voidable agreement the rights
any person and creates no obligations. and obligations of the parties concerned are
present unless it becomes void.
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Contingent Contract vs. Wagering Agreement
The distinctions between contingent contract and wagering agreement are given below:
Point of view Contingent Contract Wagering agreement
Validity A contingent contract is valid. A wagering agreement is void.
Dependency It depends on the happening or non‐happening It is void.
of an event, but the contract is valid.
Reciprocal promises It may not contain reciprocal promises. It consists of certain reciprocal
promises.
Supervening impossibility
When enter into contract it is good but subsequently impossible to perform. The condition is called supervening
impossibility of contract.
Frustration of contract by supervening impossibility
When the common object of a contract can no longer be carried out, the court may declare the contract to be an
end. This is known as the Doctrine of Frustration.
Counter offer. Give an example.
The acceptance shall be unconditional and absolute. If the acceptance is given with any condition changing any
portion of the original offer then it is known as counter offer.
Example: A offer to B to buy his car for Tk. 100,000 but B agrees to pay Tk. 90,000, the offer made by B is a counter
offer.
In which cases a Contract can void? Or
When is an agreement said to be void?
An agreement is said to be void because of mistake, lack of consideration, want of capacity etc.
A list of reasons for void agreements is given below:
1. Lack of capacity;
2. Mutual mistake of fact;
3. Unlawful consideration or object;
4. Consideration or object partly
5. Agreements without consideration;
6. Agreements in restraint of trade;
7. Agreements is restraint of legal proceedings;
8. Uncertain agreement;
9. Agreements by way of wager;
10. Impossible acts;
11. Agreements contingent on impossible event;
12. Reciprocal promises where there are void promises.
Indemnity vs. Guarantee
Point of view Contract of Indemnity Guarantee
Definition One party promises to save the other party A contract of guarantee is a contract to
from loss caused to him by the conduct of perform the promise or discharge the
the promisor himself, or by the conduct of liability of a third person in case of his
any other person. default.
Parties Two parties. Three parties.
Number of contract In a contract of indemnity it is necessary to In a contract of guarantee it is necessary to
have only one contract. have three contracts.
Sue In a contract of indemnity the indemnifier In a contract of guarantee the surety can
can sue only the indemnity holder for his proceed against principal debtor.
loss.
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Express Contract
An express contract is a legally binding agreement between two parties, where all the essential terms of the
contract are explicitly stated, either orally or in writing.
Implied Contract
An implied contract is an agreement that is formed by nature of the contract or behavior of the parties, rather than
through specific words.
Quasi Contract
A quasi contract is a contract that exists by order of a court, not by agreement of the parties. Courts create quasi
contracts to avoid the unjust enrichment of a party in a dispute over payment for a good or service. In some cases a
party who has suffered a loss in a business relationship may not be recover for the loss without evidence of a
contract or some legally recognized agreement. To avoid this unjust result, courts create a fictitious agreement
where no legally enforceable agreement exists.
To illustrate, assume that a homebuilder has built a house on Alicia’s property. However, the homebuilder signed a
contract with Bobby, who claimed to be Alicia’s agent but in fact, was not. Although there is no binding contract
between Alicia and the homebuilder, most courts would allow the homebuilder to recover the cost of the services
and materials from Alicia to avoid an unjust result. A court would accomplish this by creating a fictitious agreement
between the homebuilder and Alicia and holding Alicia responsible for the cost of the builder’s service and
materials.
Executed and Executory Contracts
An executed contract is one in which nothing remains to be done by either party and where the transaction is
completed at the moment that the agreement is made,‐ as where an article is sold, and delivered, and payment
therefore is made on the spot.
A. Contracts to sell personal property are executory, while a completed sale by delivery is executed; but the
language used in an agreement about the sale may not always be decisive whether the one or the other is
meant.
B. An executory contract is a contract to do some future act, such as where an agreement is made to build a
house in six months, or to do an act on or before some future day, or to lend money upon a certain interest
payable at a future time.
C. Where the contract is executory, if the agreement be that one party shall do a certain act, or acts for the
performance of which the other party shall pay a sum of money, the performance of the act is a condition
precedent to the payment of the money.
Bilateral Contract
A bilateral contract is a reciprocal arrangement between two parties where each promises to perform an act in
exchange for the other party’s act. Each party is an (a person who is bound to another) to its own promise, and an
oblige (a person to whom another is obligated or bound) on the other party’s promise. A bilateral contract specifies
a duty to act in exchange for another party’s duty to act.
Unilateral Contract
A legally enforceable promise‐between legally competent party to do refrain from doing a specified, legal act or
acts. In a unilateral contract, one party pays the other party to perform a certain duty. If the duty is fulfilled, the
party on the other side of the contract is obligated to transfer the specified funds. Only this party is under obligation
of the contract, whereas the acting party is not legally obliged to perform the duty.
Valid Contract
A contract that complies with all the essentials of a contract and is binding and enforceable with all associated
parties.
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Void Contract
Contract that (i) is legally (inherently void) from the moment it is made, (ii) is legal but declared null (having no legal
effect) by the courts because it violates a fundamental principle such as fairness, or is contrary to public policy, (iii)
becomes void due to changes in law or in government policy, or (iv) has been fully performed. Lack of capacity to
contract (being an infant or minor, intoxicated, or insane) automatically makes a contract void. Contract that is void
only in one or few parts may be saved by the process of severance. Not to be confused with voidable contract.
Voidable Contract
Unlike a void contract, it is a valid contract. At most, one party to the contract is bound. The unbound party may
repudiate the contract, at which time the contract is void.
For example, depending upon jurisdiction, a minor has the right to repudiate certain contracts. Any contract with a
minor is thus a voidable contract. If a minor were to enter into a contract with an adult, the adult would be bound
by the contract, whereas the minor could choose to avoid performing the contract. Therefore, when entering into
contracts with a minor, people often require the co signature of an adult, preferably a parent or legal guardian.
Illegal Contract
A contract that is prohibited by status (e.g. one between traders providing for minimum resale prices) or is illegal at
common law on the grounds of public policy. An illegal contract is totally void, but neither party (unless innocent if
the illegality) can recover back any money paid or property transferred under it. Related transactions may also be
affected. A related transaction between the same parties (e.g. if X gives Y a promissory note for money due from
him under an illegal contract) is equally tainted with the illegality and is therefore void. The same is true of a related
transaction with a third party (e.g. if Z lends X the money to pay Y) if the original illegality is known to him. In certain
circumstances, illegal contracts may be saved by severance.
Unenforceable Contract
It is a transaction is one that is valid, but which the court will not enforce. Uncorrectable is usually used in
contradistinction to void (or void ab initio) and voidable. If the parties perform the agreement, it will be valid, but
the court will not compel them if they do not.
An example of a transaction which is an uncorrectable contract is a contract for prostitution under English Law.
Prostitution is not actually a crime under English Law, although both soliciting a prostitute and living off the earnings
of prostitution are criminal offences but so long as the contract is fully performed, it remains valid. However, if
either refuses to complete the bargain (either the prostitution after being paid or the payer after receiving the
services), the court will not assist the disappointed party.
To impugn a contract means attacking the integrity of the contract. A way this can be done is by deeming the
contract unenforceable. A contract can be said unenforceable when it goes against the statuses of fraud or the
Statement of Goods Act.
Distinguish between a contract and an agreement
Factors Contract Agreement
Definition. An agreement enforceable by law is Promise or every set of promises forming the
contract. consideration for each other, is an agreement.
Similarity All contracts are agreements All agreements are not contact.
A offer a reward to whosoever shall return his lost briefcase. B returns the lost briefcase, not knowing of the
advertisement reward. Is A bound to pay the reward to B?
No, A is not bound to pay reward to B. As per contract act an offer must be communicated to the offeree. If the
offeree does any act of acceptance without knowing. It will not crate any legal acceptance or agreement.
What are the remedies for breach of contract?
1. Rescission of the contract.
2. Suit for damages.
3. Suit upon Quantum Meruit
4. Specific performance of the contract.
5. Injunction.
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Ignorance of law is no excuse to avoid a contract" – Discuss
We all are working and exercising our right and obligation under the law. These laws are unlikely to be known to all
of us. So, the ignorance of law is not a valid reason to avoid contract. In this case, contract should be performed
specifically.
Can a minor make a contract?
As per section 11 of contract act a minor is not competent to a contract. So he/she cannot make a contract. If any
contract is made by the minor, it will be a void agreement.
Other important questions
Short Notes
1. Express Contract
2. Implied Contract
3. Quasi Contract
4. Executed Contract)
5. Executory Contract
6. Bilateral Contract
7. Unilateral Contract
Classification of Contract
1. Valid contract
2. Void contract
3. Voidable contract
4. Illegal contract
5. Unenforceable contract
Rules regarding an offer
1. An offer may be express or may be implied from the circumstances;
2. An offer may be made to a definite person; to some definite class of persons; or to the world at large;
3. Legal relationship is required;
4. The terms of the offer must be certain, definite, unambiguous and not vague;
5. A mere statement of intension is not an offer;
6. An offer must be communicated to the offeree;
7. An offer may be conditional;
8. Printed contracts.
Who can accept an offer?
An offer can be accepted only by the person or persons for whom the offer is intended which includes the following:
1. An offer made to a particular person can only be accepted by him because he is the only person to accept.
2. An offer made to a class of persons can be accepted by any member of the class.
3. An offer made to the world at large can be accepted by any person whatsoever.
How an offer to be communicated?
An offer may be communicated to the offeree or offerees by word of mouth, by writing or by conduct.
How an acceptance to be communicated?
An acceptance to be communicated by the following:
1. Offer and Acceptance by post
2. Offer and acceptance through telephone
3. Microphone
4. E‐mail
5. Internet
Is a promise to make a contribution to charity enforceable by law?
No, a promise to make to charity is not enforceable because it is without consideration.
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What are the rights of the indemnity holder?
1. All damages which he may be compelled to pay in any suit in respect of any matter to which the promise to
indemnify applies.
2. All costs which he may be compelled to pay in such suits.
3. All sums which he may have paid upon compromise of such suit.
How many types of contracts of guarantee?
1. For payment to the creditor to the principal debt or by the guarantor.
2. Payment of price for goods sold.
3. Fidelity guarantee.
Which are the invalid contracts of guarantee?
1. Misrepresentation.
2. Concealment.
3. Lack of essential elements.
How is a continuing guarantee revoked?
1. By notice of revocation by the surety.
2. By the death of the surety.
What do you mean by Bailment?
A bailment is the delivery of goods by one person to another for some purpose, upon a contract that they shall,
when the purpose is accomplished be returned or otherwise disposed of according to the direction of the person
delivering them.
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What are the kinds of Bailment?
1. Gratuitous Bailment: A gratuitous bailment is one in which neither the bailor, nor the bailee is entitled to
remuneration.
2. Bailment for reward: A bailment for reward is one where either the bailor or the bailee is entitled to
remuneration.
What are the duties of the Bailee?
The duties of the Bailee are given below:
1. Duty of reasonable care.
2. Unauthorized use of goods.
3. Mixture of Bailor’s goods with the Bailee’s.
4. Duty of returning goods.
5. Accretion to the goods bailed.
6. Liabilities of Innkeeper and Hotelkeepers.
7. Liabilities of carrier.
What are the duties of the Bailor?
The duties of the Bailor are given below:
1. Bailor’s duty to disclose faults in goods bailed;
2. Payment of expenses in Gratuitous Bailment;
3. Responsibility for breach of warranty of title;
4. Enforceable of rights;
5. Act inconsistent with the terms;
6. Restoration of goods lent gratuitously.
What are the rights and duties of finder of goods?
1. Possession.
2. Compensation and Lien.
3. Reward.
4. Sale.
What are the duties and obligations of finder of goods?
1. He must take reasonable care of the goods.
2. He must not mix the finder’s goods with his own goods.
3. The goods must be returned to the real owner.
4. If there is an accretion to the goods found, it must be given to the real owner.
5. He must not use the goods for his purpose.
6. He must try to find out the true owner of the goods.
When does a Bailment terminate?
1. Lapse of time;
2. Fulfillment of purpose;
3. Act inconsistent with the term;
4. Goods lent gratuitously;
5. Death.
What do you mean by Pledge or Pawn?
The bailment of goods as security of payment of a debt or performance of a promise is called Pledge or Pawn.
What are the difference between Bailment and Pledge?
The difference between pledge and other kind of bailment lies in the purpose or objectives of the transaction.
1. The purpose of a pledge is to provide security for a debtor or the performance of a promise. But in case of
bailment there are other purposes for example‐ repair, safe custody.
2. Pledge is a particular kind of bailment.
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Sale of Goods Act‐1930
Scope
1. Sale of property/transfer of property
2. Agreement to sell/transfer
3. Movable property
Background
1. Provision relating to sale of goods was previously covered by British Contract Act1872.
2. Then incorporating British Sale of G Act 1893.
3. Then it was revised as S of G Act 1930.
4. In Bangladesh it was adopted in 1972.
Definition
Delivery: willingly / voluntary transfer of possession from one to another.
Delivery state: such state that the buyer under the contract be bound to take the delivery
Goods: moveable property; stock & shares.
Goods may be classified as under:
Existing goods: which are physically present specified or unascertained
Future goods: which will be produced after making contract
Contingent goods: the owner of the goods is not a party of the contract.
Say Salam agreed to sell a cycle to Kalam provided Salam is able to purchase it from Rahim. This is an
agreement for the sale of contingent goods
(Section: 4)
Sale: A contract whereby the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the goods to the buyer for a price
Either transfer of property, or
Agree to transfer
Agreement to Sell:
Where the transfer of property is to take place at a future time or subject to some conditions it is called Agreement
to Sell. An agreement to sell becomes a sale when‐
Prescribed time has elapsed or
The stipulated conditions has been fulfilled
Sale vs. agreement to sale
Definition: same as above
Risk: Risk prima facie passes with property. Where there is a sell subsequent losses falls on the buyer, but not in the
case of agreement to sell.
Possession / title: In case of sell property passes to the buyer but in the case of agreement to sell it remains with
seller.
Essential elements:
Two parties: a sale is a bilateral contract i.e., buyer and seller must be separate person. In an exceptional case a
partner may sell goods to his firm and the film may sell goods to partner. The parties of the contract must be
competent.
Movable goods: the act deals only with movable goods excepting actionable claims and money. An exchange of
goods is not a sale, but it exchange is made partly for goods and party for money it would be considered as sale.
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Formation of a contract: the contract may provide for immediate delivery of goods or immediate payment of price
or both, or for the delivery and payment by installments. A contract of sale may be writing, verbal, or may be
implied from the conduct of the parties.
Terms of contract: essentials terms are called conditions and non‐essentials terms are called warranties.
Other essential elements: the contract must be based on free consent, appropriate consideration and the object
must be lawful.
(Section: 05) how contract is made: offer‐agreement
(Section: 06) subject matter of contract‐existing or future goods
(Section: 07 & 08) contract is void, if
1. Goods unknown to seller
2. Goods have perished or damaged
3. Happening of any event that damages the goods between the times of agreement. to sell and sale
(Section: 09) price‐ consideration
Condition and warranty (S 11‐12)
A condition is a stipulation essential to the main purpose of the contract, the breach of which gives rise to right to
treat the contract as repudiated. It also creates of right to get damages.
A warranty is a stipulation collateral to the main purpose of the contract, the breach of which gives rise to a claim for
damages but not to a right to reject the goods and treat the contract as repudiated.
Consequence of breach of condition and warranty: answer as above
Breach of condition to be treated as a breach of warranty: (S‐13)
Where contract is not servable and the buyer has accepted the goods or part thereof
Goods or property has lost/missing/damaged
Implied condition:
Condition to title, getting possession
Sale by description‐supplied goods shall be in accordance with mentioned specification
By sample‐supplied goods shall agree with provided sample
Quality & fitness
Implied warranty:
Buyer shall have quiet possession
Goods are free from any charge/encumbrance
The doctrine (principle) of Caveat Emptor
Caveat Emptor is a Latin expression which means “buyers beware”. The doctrine of caveat emptor means that,
ordinarily, a buyer must buy goods after satisfying himself of their quality and fitness. If he makes a bad choice he
cannot blame the seller. The rules probably originated at a time when goods were mostly sold in market overt
(open) and the buyer had to depend upon own skill and judgment.
Exceptions:‐
1. Where the buyer relies upon the skill and judgment of the seller.
2. Where by custom an implied condition of fitness is annexed to a contract of sale (say, juice in the container
should be kept with merchantable quality)
3. Where there is a sale of goods by description there is an implied condition that the goods are fit for
sale.
4. Where the seller is guilty of fraud the seller is not protected by the doctrine of caveat.
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Passing /transferring property:
1. No property passes to the buyer until & unless the goods are ascertained; (S‐18)
Case study: an agreement to sell 50 tones out of a large quantity of rice in a godown does not make the
buyer the owner of anything. He can become owner of 50 tons of rice only after this quantity of rice has
been separated out from the other rice in the godown.
2. If parties intend to make delivery at a future time, it passes when time come/elapsed/over; (S‐19)
3. Unconditional contract for specified goods at delivered state, it passes when contract is made. In such a
case payment of prices is not essential (S‐20)
4. when there is a condition to met; seller has to do something; has to ensure certain specification, i.e.
weight, measure, test etc; property does not pass until the act is done, specification is met. (S‐21, 22).
5. When goods are delivered on ‘sale or return’ term, goods pass when
6. Buyer signifies approval/acceptance
7. Retains goods without rejection up to fixed or reasonable time ( S‐24)
8. In case of payment through ‘bill of exchange’ goods not passes until instrument is accepted. (S‐25)
Passing risk (S‐26)
“RISK PRIMA FACIE PASSES WITH THE PROPERTY”
Risk generally passes with the property; that means goods remains at seller’s risk till property is passed; after
passing it is at buyer’s risk.
Exception: delivery has been delayed by default of Buyer or Seller; risk is of the party in default.
Transfer to Title (S 27, 28)
No seller of goods can give the buyer of goods a better title than himself has‐Discuss
“MAKIM NEMO DAT QUOD NON HABET”
The general rule is that only the owner of goods can sell the goods. No one can convey to a transferee a better title
than he himself has.
Exception: in the following cases, a person who is not an owner can give to the transferee a valid title to the goods.
Estoppel:
Under certain circumstances the true owner may be prevented, by his conduct, from denying the seller’s authority
to sell.
X is the owner of certain goods. X acts in such a manner that Y is induced to believe that the goods belongs to Z. On
that belief Y buys the goods from Z. Under these circumstances, the court will not allow X to prove this ownership.
Sale by a mercantile agent:
Sale of goods by a mercantile agent gives goods title to the purchase even in cases where the agent acts beyond his
authority.
Sale by one of the several joint owners:
If one of several joint owners of goods has the sole possession of them by permission of them permission of the co‐
owners, the property in the goods is transferred to any person who buys them from such joint owner provided the
buyer acts in good faith and without notice that the seller had no authority to sell.
Sale of goods obtained under a voidable agreement:
When the seller has obtained possession thereof under a voidable agreement has not been rescinded at the time of
sale, the buyer obtains a good title of the goods, provided he buys in good faith and without notice of the seller’s
defect of the title.
Seller in possession after sale:
When a person having sold goods, continues in possession there of transfer further by way of sale, pledge or other
disposition will pass good title to the second transferee.
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Rules regarding performance/execution of contract:
1. It is seller’s duty to deliver the goods and of the buyer to accept and pay for it. (S‐31)
2. Delivery and payment are concurrent condition. Unless otherwise…..(S‐32)
3. Part delivery‐has the effect of passing as a whole. Unless……(S‐34)
4. In the absence of a contract seller is not bound to deliver until buyer applies for delivery(S‐35)
5. Rules to delivery ( S‐36)
Place: place of sale; place of production
Time: stipulated or reasonable time
3rd party possession: to be acknowledged by 3rd party on behalf of buyer
Unless otherwise mentioned expenses relating to delivery to be borne by seller.
6. Delivery of wrong qty: lesser qty, larger qty, mixed qty, the buyer may reject, if accepts he must pay for it (
S‐37)
7. In the absence of agreement the buyer is not bound to accept delivery of goods by installment ( S‐38)
8. If seller is required by contract to deliver the goods to a carrier, is prima facie delivery to the buyer ( S‐39)
9. Buyer right of examination‐ will get reasonable time to examine the delivered goods ( S‐41)
10. Liability of buyer to take delivery of goods‐buyer will be liable for loss ( S‐44)
Unpaid seller: (S‐45)
Unpaid seller means a seller when,
The whole price has not been paid
Negotiable instrument has not been honored
Right of unpaid seller: (S 46‐56)
Against the goods:
A lien on the goods for the price
Stoppage in transit
Right to resell under certain condition
Against the buyer:
Suit for price
Damage for non‐acceptance
Breach of contract:
Suit for price: seller may sue the buyer for the price of the goods, when goods are sold, passed to the buyer
( S‐55)
Damage for non‐acceptance: seller may sue the buyer for damages……….if the wrongfully refuses/reject ( S‐
56)
Damage for non‐delivery: buyer may sue for damages for non‐delivery by seller ( S‐57)
Specific performance: buyer may sue for specific/described or ascertained performance (S‐58)
Effect of reputation: contract is made, if one party repudiates, other party may keep it alive till to due date
and sue for damages (S‐60)
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The Partnership Act 1932
Partnership can be defined as the relation between two or more persons who have agreed to share the profits of a
business carried on by all or any of them acting for all (S‐4)
Essential elements of Partnership/Characteristics
There are 3 essentials‐
There shall be relationship by agreement between the persons. Relation must be by contract not status
such as Hindu
Should run a business with the intention of sharing profits
business should be run by all or any of them acting for interest of all
Number of partners:
minimum 2
maximum 20
Legal status
Is collective name of individuals who are in partnership
Not an artificial person like a company
Cannot be distinguished from the partners
Rights, duties, obligation of firm are the same of the partner
Name of firm
Any name must be used unless:
A name which will fraudulently imply that the business is the same as some other
Cannot use words like ‘President’, ‘Royal’ etc
Partner may use their own name even though it is identical to other
Existence of partnership/test of partnership (S‐ 6)
To be a partnership all the essentials mentioned must be present.
Case study
Two persons form music club: not a partnership because there is no business in the case;
Joint lease of agriculture land with sharing a return: not constitute a Partnership, business is missing here
Is sharing of profit always constitute partnership
No, profit may be shared without making a partner:
By a lender of money;
By a employee or agent a remuneration/bonus
By the widow or child of a deceased partner as annuity
By a previous partner in consideration of sale of goodwill
Who can be a partner?
Anyone with sound mind and who is not a minor.
Case study
Company: cannot be partner because company cannot incur unlimited liability.
Firm: cannot be a partner.
Man/women: can be a partner ( sound mind, not minor)
Partnership vs. family business
Partnership is result of an agreement, joint family business result from status
Death of a partner dissolve the firm but not a family business
Management of firm is by partners ( 1 or all), management of family business is by karta/senior member
Liability of a partner of a firm is unlimited, of a member of a family is limited to his interest in the family
property
Registration is must for partnership, not require for family business
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Company vs. partnership
Legal status: a company has a separate legal entity from its members; but a firm is not distinct from the persons
compose it.
Property: the property of the company belongs to the company and not to the individuals composing it. In a
partnership property of the firm is the property of the partners.
Liability to creditors: creditors can proceed against the company; members of the company are not liable. In the
case of partnership the firms as well as partners jointly & severally are liable.
Contract with the company or firm: a partner cannot contract with his firm, whereas a member of a company can
do so.
Limit of liability: liability of a shareholder of a company may be limited by shares or guarantee. A partner’s liability
is always unlimited.
Transfer of shares: a member of a company can transfer shares without consent of others; but a partner of a firm
cannot.
Partner vs. co‐ownership:
Partnership arises out of agreement; co‐ownership may be inheritance (Inheritance house, business).
Partnership must have a business; co‐ownership may not have such business,
Co‐ownership can transfer his interest without the consent of others; a partner cannot do so.
Term of partnership/partnership a will (S‐7)
Particular partnership‐ for a particular adventure or undertaking
Partnership a t will‐ when nothing is mentioned in the contract regarding duration of firm, it is called
partnership at will.
Duties of Partners:
(Section ‐9) General:
Partners are bound to carry on the business of the firm to the greatest common advantage.
To be just and faithfully to each other, and
To render true accounts and full information of all things.
(Section ‐10) Indemnity
Every partner shall indemnity the firm for any loss caused to it by his fraud in the conduct of the business
of the firm.
Rights / Duties of partners to each other’s (S‐12)
Rules regarding to the conduct of business
Every partner has a right to take part in the business
Is bound to attend to his duties in the conduct of business
Matters affecting the ordinary business will be decided by a majority vote but a change in the nature of
business by unanimous consent of all the parties.
Every partner has a right to have access to and inspect and copy any of the books of the firm.
Mutual Rights and Duties (S‐13)
No remuneration: a partner is not entitled to receive remuneration.
Equality of profits/losses: profits and losses will be apportioned equally among the partners.
Interest on capital: is entitled to get interest on the capital out of profits only.
Interest on advance: is entitled interest @ 6% on excess amount beyond the capital.
To get indemnity: the firm shall indemnity a partner in respect of payment and liability incurred by him, the
ordinary and proper conduct of business.
Partnership property (S‐24)
Following are the property of the firm and not of any partner individually
Property originally bought into the firm with all rights and interest therein
Property acquired by purchase or otherwise by the firm
Property acquired by one or more partners for the purpose of the firm
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Case study: where premiums for insurance are paid out of partnership fund was held that the policies formed part
of the partnership assets.
Application of property of firm: property of the firm shall be held and used by the partners exclusively for the
purpose of the business (Section‐15)
Personal profit earned by partners (S‐16)
1. If a partner derives any profit for himself from any transaction of the firm or firm use of firm name, he shall
account for that profit and pay it to the firm.
2. If a partner carries on any business of the same nature of the firm, he shall account for and pay all profits
to the firm.
Changes in partner, term/period, nature of business (S‐17)
Incoming or going out of partner
Doing business after expiry of term
Carrying additional undertaking
Relation of partners to third parties (S‐18)
Agency‐a partner is the AGENT of the firm for all the purposes of the business of the firm.
Authority can be two types (S‐20)
Express authority
Implied authority
Expressed authority: Any authority given to a partner by the agreement.
The firm is bound by all acts done by such a partner.
Implied authority: Act of a partner in the usual way to carry on the business binds the firm.
Act must be executed in the firm’s name.
Case study:
Mr. X, partner purchases bricks on credits in the firm name, the firm are bound to pay for it.
Mr. Y, borrows money in his personal name, the firm is not bound/liable
Limitations of Implied Authority/Exceptions:
Submit a dispute to arbitration relating to the business
Opening a bank account on behalf of the firm in his own name
Compromise any claim by the firm
Withdraw a suit on behalf of the firm
Acquire/transfer immovable property on behalf of the firm
Liability to outsides:
Every partner is liable jointly and severally
For all acts of the firm, all debts due to 3rd parties (S‐25)
For loss caused to any 3rd party (S‐26)
Misapplication of money/property of 3rd party receives in the course of business (S‐27)
Partnership by holding out or estoppels (S‐28)
a person, be liable for the debts of a firm although he is not a partner.
If he, by words spoken or written or by conduct represents to be a partner of the firm.
Case study: A induce X to believe that he is a partner of a AB firm, believing this X gives credit to AB. X will be
responsible . This fall under principle of estoppels.
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Minor as partner (S‐30)
a minor cannot enter into a contract of partnership. It explicit that a minor cannot become a partner. He may be
admitted to the benefits of partnership. In that case his rights & liabilities are:
Right to share profits of the firm as agreed
Right to access to inspect and copies of the accounts
His share is liable for acts of the firm but he personally not liable
He cannot file a suit against other partners
Within six months of his obtaining knowledge (attaining majority) he will give a public notice of his
becoming/not becoming partner of the firm.
If such notice not given, he shall become a partner.
Public Notice:
Format‐section 72, to be sent to Registrar and in at least one newspaper.
Reconstitution
Incoming & Outgoing
New partner (S‐31): With the consent of all existing partner.
Retirement (S‐32): With the consent of all, By giving notices (S‐72)
Expulsion (S‐33): Unless contract permits a partner cannot be expelled.
Insolvency (S‐34): Partner adjudication insolvent‐ceases to be partner.
Firm may dissolve or continue under a contract.
Insolvent partner and the firm not liable for activities of each other.
Death of partner (S‐35): Firm may dissolve or continue under a contract.
Partner not liable for activities of the firm.
Rights of outgoing partner (S‐36, 37)
An outgoing partner can carry on a competing business [by a agreement among the partners, he may be prevented
from similar business for a specified period, S‐36(20)]
He cannot:
Use the firm’s name
Represent himself as carrying on business of the firm
Solicit (invite) customers of the firm
Dissolution:
A firm may be dissolved in any of the following ways/grounds (S40‐40)
By consent of all the partners
By agreement‐partnership is created by contract, it can also be terminated by contract
Compulsory dissolution:
By adjudication of all the partners or all the partners but one as insolvent
By happening of any event which makes the partnership unlawful
By happening of certain contingencies:
expiry of fixed term
completion of particular adventures or undertakings
death of a partner
by the adjudication of a partner as an insolvent
By notice: by notice of intention where it is a partnership at will
By the court: at the suit of a partner.
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Dissolution by the court (S‐44)
At the suit of one or more partners on the following grounds:
that a partner has become of unsound mind
that the partner has become permanently incapable of performing his duties as a partner
if a partner is guilty of misconduct which effect prejudicially the carrying on of the business
Example: conviction for an offence involving moral turpitude, Misapplication of money of a client
willful and persistent (continual) breach of contract
if a partner transfers his whole interest to a 3rd party or allows his share to a charged in execution of a
decree
loss: suffering continuous loss, for period of 4 years (Mohammad Yaseen Vs. Mohammad Yasin
On any other ground which the court considers just and equitable. ‘just & equitable’ is discretionary power
of the court
Example: deadlock in the management. Partners not a speaking terms. Disappearance of the substratum of
the business.
CONSEQUENCES OF DISSOLUTION (S 45‐55)
Continuing Liability: until public notice is given the partners continue to be liable to 3rd parties for all acts.
Winding up: on dissolution of the firm a partner has a right‐
To have the property of the firm applied in payment of debts of the firm
To have the surplus distributed among them
Continuing authority:
A partner’s authority as agent terminates on dissolution
Authority, mutual rights and obligation remains‐ to wind up the affairs of the firm and for completing
unfinished transactions.
Settlement of accounts: (S 48)
Losses will be paid
First out of profit
Then out of capital and
Finally by the partners individually in the promotion they are entitled to share profits.
Asset of the firm will be applied in the following order
Debts to 3rd parties
Advances made by partners rateably
…….. due to each partner rateably
Surplus will be divided according to share of profits
Firm’s debt and separate debts (S 49)
The property of the firm shall 1st be applied in payment of the firm debts, and if a surplus is left the share of
each partner in the surplus will be applied for payment of his separate debt.
The separate property of each partner will be applied in the payment of his separate debt first and the
surplus for payment of the firm debt then.
Goodwill after dissolution (S‐55)
Goodwill of the firm is part of the assets of the firm. The goodwill may be sold separately or together with the other
property of the firm.
Registration of firm (S‐67‐71)
Registration of the firm is not compulsory. Therefore an unregistered firm is not an illegal association. But an
unregistered firm suffers from certain disabilities and therefore registration is necessary.
Consequence of non‐registration:
A partner of an unregistered firm cannot file a suit against the firm or any partner therefore regarding right
conference by the partnership act.
No suit can be filed on behalf of an unregistered firm against any 3rd party.
Exceptions:
A partner of an unregistered firm can file a suit for the dissolution of the firm.
Suit can be filed for the realization of the properties of dissolution
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BANKRUPTCY ACT 1997
What is meant by bankruptcy? What are the purposes of the law of bankruptcy? M‐09, N‐06
Bankruptcy:
A debtor owe money to other
His assets must be insufficient to meet all the claims
The debtors has committed an act of insolvency
Purpose/Object:
to ensure fair distribution of the property of a bankrupt debtor
to allow the debtor to relieve himself of the burden and start to fresh start further
to prevent abuses (mistreatment) of the process
Court & Judge (S‐4)
The district court shall be the court and The District Judge shall be the judge to deal with and dispose of the
proceeding under this act.
What are the acts of insolvency? (M‐08, M‐07, M‐02, N‐02)
ACTS OF BANKRUPTCY (S‐9)
A debtor commits an act of bankruptcy if
1. he transfer of all or substantially all his property to a third party for the benefit of creditors
2. he transfers of property to defeat or delay creditors
3. he transfers of property which would be void as fraudulent preference
4. if to defeat or delay creditors
a. he departs or remains out of Bangladesh
b. he departs from place of business
c. he secludes himself to deprive his creditors
5. if his property has been sold in execution of a decree for money
6. if he files petition to be adjusted as bankrupt
7. if he notifies his creditors that he has suspended or about to suspend payment of debts
8. if he is imprisoned in execution of the decree of any court for the payment of money
9. if a formal demand has been sent by a creditor for payment a legal and matured debt for at least tk. 5 lac
or to provide security and the demand is not met by the debtor within 90 days.
Which institutions are not subject to bankruptcy proceedings under the Act M‐04, M‐03?
No plaint shall be accepted by the court against:
any govt. organization including Parliament and Judicial body
any charitable or religious
such statutory bodies whose principal object is not financial gain
any autonomous body established by or with the financial assistance of the govt.
Who can /can’t insolvent?
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When creditor can apply? (S‐12)
The following condition is to be fulfilled before a creditor to present a bankruptcy petition:
the amount owing by the debtor to creditor must be tk.5 lac or more
the debtor must have committed an act of insolvency within one year before the presentation of the
petition.
When debtor can apply (S ‐13) (M‐04)
A debtor is entitled to present a petition if any one of the following conditions is fulfilled:
his debts amount to Tk. 20,000; or more
he is under arrest or imprisonment in execution of the decree of any court for the payment of debt
an order of attachment in execution of such a decree has been made, and is subsisting against his
property;
Procedure of Insolvency:
presentation of petition
appointment of Assignee or Receiver
passing the order of adjudication
discharge of the insolvent
What is an order of adjudication? What are the effects of an order of adjudication? (N‐07, N‐05)
Order of Adjudication (S‐30)
The order of the court by which a person is declared to be insolvent is called the Order of Adjudication. After such
an order: (Debtor becomes Bankrupt)
DEBTOR BANKRUPT
Effects of an order of adjudication:
The insolvent must produce his books of account, schedule of the assets and liabilities.
The bankrupt shall assists to his utmost capacity in the realization of his property.
All the property (except the exempted property) shall stand vested in the Court/Receiver and shall be
divisible among the creditors.
Suits against insolvent: after Order of Adjudication no creditor can further commence any suit without
permission of the court.
All creditors will get the right to prove their claims and get a share of the estate.
Personal Disqualification: After Order of Adjudication an insolvent loses certain civic rights (Until the
order of discharge). He cannot hold the post of a magistrate or any office under local authority, or be a
member of a local authority.
(Name the properties of a bankrupt debtor that are exempt from attachment and sale under section 32 of the
act) M‐08, N‐05, M‐04, M‐03, N‐01
Exempted Property (S‐32)
The following are the property of a debtor which shall not be vested for distribution among the creditors:
Property held by the insolvent in trust or on behalf of other persons
Tools of trade, wearing apparel and household furnishing and other like accessories of himself, spouse
and children. (Provided that the total value of the articles shall not exceed Tk. 3 lacs)
Debtor’s un‐mortgaged dwelling house, (the area of which not exceeding 2500 sq. feet of land in urban
area or 5000 sq. feet of land in any other area.
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(Enumerate the different types of debts which are entitled to priority in the distribution of property of an
insolvent) N‐07, N‐05
Property in the distribution of property of an Insolvent
Payment must be made first to meet the following claims‐
Debts due to the govt. or any local authority
Wages of any clerk, servant or labor
Arrears rent of the landlord
Arrear of compensation payable to a workman under the labor act.
The debts mentioned above rank equality and must be paid in full before any payment can be made for other debts.
If the assts are not sufficient to pay all these debts in full, they are reduced in equal promotion)
Discharge of the Insolvent
(What is meant by discharge of a bankrupt N‐04)
Order of Discharge
The order of discharge is an order of the court by which the insolvent is released from the burden of his pre‐existing
debts and is relieved of the personal disqualification.
Such an order can be passed by the court at or after completion of proceedings, or the insolvent can apply (within
60 days from the order of discharge) for issuing such an order. After such an order the term insolvent cannot be
used.
Insolvent Good
Effects of the order of discharge
Release the insolvent from all debts
Removes personal disqualifications
Debts continue after the order of discharge
The order of discharge does not release the insolvent from the following debts‐
A debt due to the govt.
Any debt or liability incurred by means of fraud or fraudulent breach of trust
(Debts and liabilities of the aforesaid type continue after the order of discharge. The insolvent is bound to meet
these obligations from his after acquired property or earnings)
Disqualification of Un‐discharged Bankrupt
An Un‐discharged Bankrupt shall be disqualified in the following matter:
Election as a member of Parliament or of a legal authority or other statutory body
Appointment as a Judge, Magistrate, Justice
Appointment as Receiver
Obtaining loan bank or Non Banking Financial Institution
However, above disqualification shall cease when‐
The order of adjudication is annulled
The court makes an order of discharge of the bankrupt
Who are official receivers? M‐08, N‐04, N‐03, M‐03
Official Receiver
Upon making an order of adjudication, the Court shall, appoint a person from the approved list of receivers to
realize the properties of the insolvent and distribute among the creditors is OFFICIAL ASSIGNEE OR RECEIVER.
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Powers of Official Receiver
He can sell all or any part of the property of the insolvent
He can give receipts for any money received by him
With the consent of the court do all or any of the following things:
Carry on the business of the insolvent so far as may be necessary
Institute, defend or continue any suit or other legal proceedings relating to the property of the
insolvency
Employee a legal practitioner or other agent to take any proceedings
Mortgage, pledge any part of the property for the purpose of raising money
Refer any dispute to arbitration and compromise debts, claims etc.
Duties of Official Receiver
Realise the property of the insolvent with all convenient speed
Money received by him must be kept and accountant for
He must distribute the moneys received among the creditors
He must pay due regard to the wishes of the creditors and submit schemes of arrangement and
composition.
(What does u know about relation back, protected transaction, reputed ownership and onerous property?) N‐02
Doctrine of Reputed Ownership
Goods left with the insolvent (insolvent is not original owner of the goods) can be taken possession of by the
Official Receiver on behalf of the creditors. This is known as the Doctrine of Reputed Ownership). Circumstances
are:
They must be movable
They must be in possession of the insolvent
There must be no mark or indication showing that the goods belong to other
Goods will not apply under “Doctrine of Reputed Ownership”
Immovable properties
Goods taken on hire purchase
Goods which were in the possession of the insolvent as repair or carrier or commission agent or as
Pawnee
Goods in the possession of the insolvent as trustee
Doctrine of Relation Back
The insolvency of a person commence, not from the date when the order of adjudication is passed, but from an
earlier date (from the date when debtor commits an act of insolvency). This is known as the “Doctrine of Relation
Back”.
Projected antecedent (predecessor) Transactions
Protected transactions mean those transactions by bankrupt with a third party which cannot be impeached by the
official Receiver.
All such transactions are protected transaction unless the following cases
Transactions entered into Transfers of property made without consideration prior
before the commencement of Volunteer transfer
(within 2 years) to commencement of insolvency.
the insolvency proceedings Fraudulent Transfer propriety to a creditor under fraudulent
Preference preference
Transactions entered into
between the date of the filling It is not a volunteer transfer or transaction or fraudulent
Unless
of the insolvency petition and preference
the order of adjudication
Secured Creditors
A secured creditor is one who has lent money to the insolvent on the security of some movable or immovable
property. He has the right to realize his dues in full out of the security given to him and his right is not affected by
the insolvency proceedings.
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THE ENRON ACCOUNTING SCANDAL
Executive Summary
Enron was founded originally as a natural gas pipeline company in Houston, Texas in 1985 and quickly expanded
into creating a market for itself ‐ the energy trade. Their business included many long term risk investments that
had no short term revenues, which lead the company to create special purpose entities (SPE’s) to spread the risk of
these investments. Although this spread of risk was in itself not illegal, the way the SPE’s were created and
ultimately managed was to create these illegal SPE’s, Enron used the 3% rule (EITF 90‐15), which states that 3% of
subsidiary’s startup capital must come from an outside investor; Enron actually received this outside investment
from mangers in Enron or their views.
Enron’s auditor has also been accused of conducting business in an unethical manner in its attempt to retain the
royalty of Enron executives. Current laws and SEC regulations allow firms like Arthur Anderson to provide consulting
services to a company and then turn around and provide the audited report about the financial results of these
consulting activities; therefore making an “independent audit” by Arthur Anderson independent in name only.
Our legal system allows companies like Enron to manage their own employee pension funds, producing a conflict of
interest because the company has an incentive to use these funds in ways that benefit the company even when the
negatively affect employees. Most companies also have codes of ethics that prohibit managers and executives from
getting involved in another business. The managers and executives are faced with a conflict of interest because they
have a duty to act in the best interest of the company and its shareholders.
Enron’s top level management violated several accounting laws, SPE laws, and bent the accounting rules to satisfy
their own desires to profit in the short term, completely ignoring long term repercussions for investors,
stockholders, employees and the business itself. When Enron corrected these problems in their financial
statements, they restated with a loss of $609 million, Wall Street devalued their equity by $1.2 billion, and less than
a month later filed for bankruptcy.
Most of the problems faced by Enron derive from the immoral and unethical actions taken on by the board of
directors in their attempt to achieve personal profits. In order to prevent these unethical acts from re‐occurring
among other organizations. There needs to be an emphasis on the integrity of executives. Due to accounting frauds
of organizations such as Enron, the SEC has begun to take significant steps in preventing loopholes within the
accounting and financial disclosure system by enacting the Sarbanes‐Oxley bill. Due to the accounting frauds that
occurred in the Enron scandal, several accounting firms have begun recognizing their employees towards remaining
loyal to the ethical standards demanded by the SEC. In order for companies to prevent an Enron‐like scandal, there
needs to be supervision over managers and executives as they exercise their own business judgments about what is
in the best interest for an organization.
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CONTRACT OF AGENCY
What is contract of agency? Discuss the general rules of agency.(4)
Definition and nature of agency;
An agent is a person employed to do any act for another or to represent another in dealings with third person. And
therefore a contract of agency means a CONTRACT whereby a person act for another or to represent another in
dealing with third parties.
The person for whom such act is done, or who is so represented, is called the principal. P appoints X to buy 50 bales
of cotton on his behalf. P is the principal and X is his agent. The relationship between P and X is called agency.
Power of Attorney
An agent may be appointed by the principal, executing a written and stamped document. Such a document is called
power attorney. There are two kinds of power of Attorney:
General Power of Attorney: It is one by which the agent is given the authority to do certain general
objectives, e.g. managing an estate or a business.
Special Power of Attorney: A special or particular power may be appointed by which an agent is authorized
to do a specific thing, e.g. selling some goods.
Enforcement and consequences of Agents contracts/
General rule of agency:
The function of an agent is to bring about contractual relations between the principal and parties. Usually agent are
appointed with specific instructions and authorized to act within the scope of their instructions. Acts of the agent
within the scope of instructions bind the principal as if he has done them himself. There is legal maxim (saying)
regarding agency viz6, “Qui facit per alium facit per se” , which means – “He who acts through another does the act
himself”. The act of an agent is the act of the principal.
Who can appoint an agent?
Any person who is the age of majority according to the law to which he is subject, and who is of sound mind, may
employ an agent.
Who may be an agent?
Any person may be agent, even a minor. A minor acting as agent can bind the principal to third parties. But a minor
is not himself liable to his principal.
Different classes of agent:
There are certain well‐ known varieties of agency:
Broker: A broker is one who brings buyers and sellers into contract with one another. His duties are at and end
when the parties are brought together. The contract of sale and purchase is entered into directly by the parties. The
broker does not keep the goods or the property of the principal in his possession.
Commission Agent: A commission agent is one who secures buyers for sellers of goods and sellers for a buyer of
goods in return for a commission on the sale. A commission agent may have possession of his goods or not. His
position is very similar to that of a broker.
Auctioneer: An auctioneer is one who is authorized to sell goods of his principal by auction. He has a particular lien
on the goods for his remuneration. He has the goods in his possession and can sue the buyer in his own name for
the purchase price. An auctioneer has implied authority to sell the goods without any restriction.
A del credere agent: A del credere agent is one who, for extra remuneration, guarantees the performance of the
contract by the other parties. If the other party fails to pay the price or otherwise cause damage to the principal, the
del credere agent must may compensation to the principal.
General agent and particulars agent: A contract of agent is one who represents the principal in all matters
concerning a particular business. A Particular agent is one who is appointed for a specific purpose, e.g. sell a
particular article.
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Method of creating agency:
1. Agency by express agreement: A contract of agency may be created by express agreement. The agreement
may be either oral or written. It is usual in many cases to appoint agents by executing a formal power of
attorney on a written and stamped document.
2. Agency by implied agreement: An agency agreement may be implied under certain circumstance from the
contract of the parties or the relationship between them. Agency by estoppels and agency of necessity are
case of implied agency.
3. Agency by estoppels: Agency may be created by estoppel. When a man has by his conduct or statements
induce other to believe that a certain person is his agent, he is precluded (not allowed) from subsequently
denying it. Thus an agency is created by implication of law.
Y allows his agent X to buy goods for him on credit regularly. On one occasion the agent buys some goods
not order by Y on credit. Y is responsible to the shopkeeper for the price because X is deemed to be his
agent by estoppel.
4. Agency be necessity: Circumstances sometimes force a person to act on behalf of another without any
express authority for him. In such cases an agency of necessity is said to be created.
Three conditions must be satisfied before an agency can be created by necessity: (a) it must be impossible
to get the principal’s instruction (b) there must be an actual necessity for acting on his behalf (c) the agent
of necessity must act honesty in the interest of the parties concerned.
A captain of a ship finds himself in a distant port without money. The owner cannot be communicated with.
The captain can pledge the ship for obtaining money. He will be considered the agent of the owner by
necessity.
5. Agency by Ratification: Ratification means subsequent adoption and acceptance of an act originally done
without instruction or authority. P buys ten tons of wheat on behalf of Q. Q did not appoint P as his agent
and did not instructed him to buy wheat for him. Q may upon hearing of the transaction, accept it. If he
does so, the act is ratified and becomes his agent with retrospective effect.
Write down the agents duty to the principal Vs principal duty to the agent N‐2
Agent’s duty of principal
1. Conducting principal’s business: An agent is bound to conduct the business of his principal according to
the directions given by the principal.
2. To render accounts: An agent is bound to render proper accounts to his principal demand.
3. Communicate to principal: It is the duty of an agent to communicate with the principal and seek necessary
information from him.
4. Note to deal on his own accounts: If an agent deals of his own account in the business of agency, without
obtaining consent of the principal and acquainting him with all material circumstances which have come to
his own knowledge on the subject, the principal may repudiate (reject) the transaction.
5. Principal to get benefit of agent dealing: If an agent, without the knowledge of the principal, deals in the
business of the agency on his own account, instead of on account of his principal, the principal is entitled to
claim from the agent any benefit which may have resulted to him from the transaction.
6. To pay sums received for principal: The agent is bound to pay to the principal all sums received on his
account after deducting therefore his dues on account of remuneration and expenses.
7. Principal’s death or insanity: When an agency is terminated by the principal dying or becoming of unsound
mind, the agent is bound to take on behalf of the representatives of his late principal. All reasonable steps
for the production and preservation of the interests entrusted to him.
8. Miscellaneous: The agent must give all information to the principal, he must not delegate authority, must
avoid the clash between his duty and self‐interest. Agent should be loyal to the principal, the must not set
up an advance title against the principal.
Duty of Principal to agent:
To indemnify the agent against the consequences of all lawful acts done by the agent.
To indemnify the agent for the activity of good faith.
To pay his remuneration / commission etc.
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THE ARBITRATION ACT 2001
What is Arbitration?
When there is any dispute between two or more parties regarding any matter which may or may not be pending in
court that they may refer it to arbitration so that it may be settled by a private tribunal. The reference must be done
by an agreement.
Arbitration agreement is an agreement between two or more parties to settle a matter in the private tribunal.
Who can prefer dispute to arbitration?
Those people who are capable of entering into agreement contract.
Minor can’t
Lunatic can’t
Bankrupt can’t
They can‐
Trustee
Partner of such power is provided in partnership agreement.
Which can be referred to arbitration?
Any matter (except some exception) which can be settled by a civil court.
Disputes about property/money
For any damages
Maintenance payable to wife
Question To law
Which matter cannot be referred to arbitration?
1. Matrimonial matter like divorce.
2. Restitution of conjugal right.
3. Bankruptcy matter that is the adjudication of a person as bankrupt.
4. Criminal matter.
Composition of Arbitration Tribunal
The parties are free determining the number of arbiter.
Otherwise the tribunal consists of 3 members.
Where the parties appoint an even number of arbiter, the arbiter appoints an additional arbiter who shall
Act as a Chairman of tribunal.
Effect of an Arbitration Agreement
When two or more persons into an arbitration agreement enter settle matter relating to arbitrator
They should not agitate/place the same matter in a court of law.
Such agreement is a bar to the civil suit relating to matters covered by the agreement.
If one party disregards the agreement and files a suit other party may file an application for stay order.
Appointment of Arbitrators
If, the appointment arbitrators fail to agree on the 3rd arbitrators within 30 days of other appointment upon an
application of a party.
The district judge shall appoint arbitrators
The chief justice arbitrators in the case of international commercial arbitration.
Termination of Arbitrators mandate
He withdraws himself from
He dies Both parties agree on termination
He is unable to perform function.
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Place of Arbitration
The parties are free to agree or place failing such; the tribunal shall set the place of arbitration.
Award Judgement
1. The award means the decision of the tribunal.
2. The award shall be in writing.
3. To be signed by the arbitrators.
4. The cost of the process shall be fixed by the tribunal.
5. The party to pay the cost shall be specific by the tribunal.
Correction of award/Judgement
1. Within 40 days from the received of the judgement a party or any party with notice to other party may
request the tribunal to correct any computation error.
2. May request the tribunal to keep an interpretation of the award or judgment.
3. The arbitration tribunal shall correct the errors, clerical the matter within 14 days.
Ground on which court can set aside an award
The party making the application to the court shall apply, which proof that,
A party was under some incapacity
The arbitration agreement is not valid under the law of land
The related party was not given proper notice.
The award is in conflict with the public policy of Bangladesh.
The award is affect corruption or fraud.
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NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS ACTS 1881
Drawer
The maker of the instrument is called the drawer or maker.
Drawee:
The person/party/thereby directed to pay against the instrument is called the drawee.
Drawee in case of need:
When in a bill the name of any person is given in addition to the drawee to be resorted to in case of need, such
person is called a drawee in case of need.
Payee:
The person named in the instrument to whom or to whose order the money is directed to be paid is called the
payee.
Holder:
the person legally entitled to receive the money due on the instrument, is called the Holder.
The clerks or servants having the instrument in their custody are not holder.
A person who obtains possession of the instrument by illegal means (e.g. theft) is not holder.
Holder in due course:
Holder in due course means any person who for consideration becomes the possessor of a Promissory Notes, Bill of
Exchange or CHEQUE (if payable to bearer). Before a person to be the holder in due course he must show:
That for a consideration he became the possessor of the instrument
That he become the holder of the instrument before the maturity
That there is no reason to believe that there is any defect existed in the title of the person:
A Promise to pay C Payee
Drawer/Maker Drawee
A Directed/Ordered B to pay C
Various Negotiable Instrument Party of Negotiable Instruments
Promissory Notes Drawer/Maker
Bill of Exchange Drawee
Cheques Drawee in case of need
Payee
Holder
Holder in due course
Define Negotiable Instruments? What are the essential characteristics of Negotiable Instrument?(N‐06, N‐02, and
M‐01)
Negotiable: transferable by delivery
Instrument: a written document by which a right is created in favor of some person
Negotiable Instrument: Document by which the true owner could transfer the engagement contained therein by
simple delivery of the instrument.
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Characteristics:
The property in a Negotiable Instrument can be transferred without any formality. In case of a bearer
instrument, the property passes by mere delivery to the transferee.
The transferee of a Negotiable Instrument can sue in his own name, in case of dishonor.
It can be transferred any number of times till its maturity. The holder of the instrument need not give
notice of transfer to the party liable to pay.
It is as good as cash because cash can be obtained any moment (even before maturity) by paying small
commission.
What is promissory note? (M‐04, M‐03, N‐01)
Promissory notes: a promissory note is a written instrument (not being a bank note) containing an unconditional
undertaking signed by the maker, to pay a certain sum of money to a certain person.
A promise to pay C
Essentials elements/requisites of a Promissory Note:
the promissory note must be in writing
must be signed by the drawer/making of it
must contain a undertaking/promise to pay
the promise to pay must be unconditional
the maker, the amount and the payee must be certain
the promissory note may be payable on demand or after a certain definite period of time
Promissory Note
On demand I promise to pay A of ……………….. (Address)…………..Tk.10000 (ten thousand) only with interest at 8
percent per annum.
OR
On………… (date) I promise to pay A of ……………….. (Address)…………..Tk.10000 (ten thousand) only with interest at
8 percent per annum.
Name & sign: ………..……………
Address: ………….…..…………...
Date: …………….…..…….………..
Bill of exchange:
A bill of exchange is a written instrument containing an unconditional order, signed by the maker, directing a certain
person to pay a certain sum of money to the order of a certain person or to the bearer of the instrument.
A Directed/Ordered B to pay C
Drawer/Maker Drawee Payee
Essentials elements/requisites of a bill of exchange:
the bill of exchange must be in writing
must be signed by the drawer/maker of it
must contain an order to pay
the order contained in the bill must be unconditional
the maker, the drawee, the amount and the payee is must be certain
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Bill of exchange
To……………………...…ABCC.of…………………………………………………………….
On…………….(date)…………..pay CDD of ………….address…………………..Tk. 1000( one thousand only.
Name & sign:……..………
Address…..………………...
Date:……………….………..
Differences between of Promissory Note and Bill of Exchange
Promissory Note Bill of Exchange
A promissory note is a written instrument (not A bill of exchange is a written instrument containing an
being a bank note) containing an unconditional unconditional order, signed by the maker, directing a certain
undertaking signed by the maker, to pay a person to pay a certain sum of money to the order of a
certain sum of money to a certain person. certain person or to the bearer of the instrument.
Two (02) parties Three (03) parties
Promise to pay Order to pay
The maker signed the note, no acceptance is Requires to be accepted
necessary
Drawer is directly liable Drawer is liable if the drawee does not accept the bill
Cheque:
A cheque is a bill of exchange drawn upon a specified banker and payable on demand.
XYZ
A Issued a cheque of in favor of C
Bank
Drawer/Maker Drawee Payee
NOTE: ALL CHEQUES ARE BILL OF EXCHANGE BUT ALL BILL OF EXCHANGE ARE NOT CHEQUES
Essential elements/requisites of a Cheque:
the bill of exchange must be in writing
must be signed by the drawer/maker of it
must contain an order to pay
the order contained in the bill must be unconditional
the maker, the drawee, the amount and the payee is must be certain
payable on demand
must be drawn upon a bank
Bill of exchange vs. cheque:
Bill of Exchange Cheque
A bill of exchange is a written instrument containing an A cheque is a bill of exchange drawn upon a
unconditional order, signed by the maker, directing a certain specified banker and payable on demand.
person to pay a certain sum of money to the order of a certain
person or to the bearer of the instrument.
Can be drawn upon any person can only be drawn upon a bank
The acceptor usually allowed a grace period Payable on demand
There is no provision for crossing a Bill of Exchange a cheque must be crossed
A bill of exchange stamp A cheque does not require any stamp
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Who can cross a cheque? (M‐04, N03)
A cheque may be crossed by the drawer, the holder and Bank (for collection).
Account payee only:
The word’s “account payee” on a cheque is interpreted as a direction on the banker to credit the proceeds of the
cheque to the account of the payee.
No way to collect cash
It is the bank duty to collect the proceeds of the cheque and shall credit only to his account.
What is the difference between a general crossing and a special crossing of cheque? (N‐08, M‐06)
General Crossing: when cheques are crossed by two parallel lines on the left corner of the cheque mentioning or
not mentioning account payee only, then it is known as General Crossing of cheques. The cheques can be collected
through any bank.
Special Crossing: when cheques are crossed by two parallel lines mentioning the name of any bank, then it is
known as Special Crossed cheque. It can only be collected through the bank mentioned in the cheque.
Who can accept a Bill of Exchange? (M‐08, N‐04, M‐03)
A bill of exchange can be accepted only by person or persons on whom it is drawn. Only the following persons can
accept a bill of exchange:
The drawee of the bill
The drawee in case of need
The legal representative, when the drawee is dead
The Official Assignee or Official Receiver, when the drawee has become insolvent
Where there are several drawees of a bill, each of them can accept it for himself
What is the acceptance for honour? (M‐08, M‐03)
A bill may be accepted by a person for the honor of the drawee. This is known as acceptance of honour.
The holder, however, is not bound to take an acceptance for honour. The holder has the option to take or refuse
such an acceptance. If the holder gives his consent to acceptor for honour he waives his right of immediate action
against the party liable to him.
Essentials of a valid acceptance for honour:
It is made by a person who is not liable on the bill
It must be for the honour of any party liable on the bill
It must be made with the consent of the holder
It must be made before the bill is overdue
It must be signed by the acceptor for honour
Dishonour by non‐acceptance vs. dishonour by non‐payment
Dishonour by non‐acceptance
A bill of exchange is dishonoured by non acceptance in the following cases:
When a bill of exchange is presented by the drawer to the drawee for acceptance and the drawee
disagrees to accept it.
In cases where presentation for acceptance is excused, the bill is treated as dishonoured if it is not
accepted without presentation.
Where drawee is incompetent to contract, the bill may be treated as dishonoured.
Dishonour by non‐payment
When a promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque is presented to the drawee for payment and the
drawee regrets of disagrees to pay it is known as dishonour by non‐payment.
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What is payment for honour? (M‐06, N‐04, N‐03)
When the bill is presented to the drawee for payment and the drawee dishonored it and subsequently paid by the
acceptor or by a third party, it is known as payment for honored.
Not NEGOTIABLE
A cheque marked with the words “not negotiable” can be transferred or assigned by the payee. The
transferee will get the same rights, as regards payment as the transferor had.
Banker’s Draft
A bill of exchange drawn by a bank is called a Banker’s Draft. The characteristics features of the bank draft are
stated below:
It is drawn by a bank
It is payable on demand
It cannot be payable to bearer
It cannot be stopped or countermanded, except by order of the court
Common Latin phrases:
1. A.M. = Ante Meridiem (before noon)
2. ab initio = At the beginning
3. ad hoc = For this purpose
4. Bona fide = In good faith, sincerely
5. Caveat Emptor = Let the buyer beware
6. Del credere = For belief or trust
7. e.g. = As an example
8. Estoppel = Rule of evidence
9. Et Alia (et al.) = And others
10. Et Cetera (etc) = And the rest
11. i.e. = That is to say
12. Inter Alia = Among other things
13. Inter Alios = Among other persons
14. P.M. = Post Meridiem (after noon)
15. Per Annum = By the year, every year
16. Per Capita = Per person
17. Post Mortem = After death
18. Prima Facie = At first sight, on the face of it
19. Pro Forma = For form’s sake, As a formality only
20. Pro Rata = Proportionally
21. Quantum Meruit = What one has earned
22. Uberrimae fidei = Utmost good faith
23. Ultra vires = Beyond the power or legal authority
24. Veni, Vidi, Vici = I came, I saw, I conquered
25. vice versa = With the order reversed
26. vis‐à‐vis = Face to face
27. Viz = As follows
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