THYRISTORS

The term Thyristor defines a broad range of solid-state components which are used as electronically controlled
switches. Each of these devices can switch between a conducting (on) state and a non-conducting (off) state to
effectively pass or block electrical current. Some Thyristors are capable of switching currents flowing in one
direction while others can switch currents flowing in either direction.

Thyristors are widely used in applications where dc and ac power must be controlled. These devices are often used
to apply a specific amount of power to a load or to completely remove it however, they are also used to regulate or
adjust the amount of power applied to a specific load. For example, a Thyristor could be used to simply turn an
electric motor on or off or it could be used to adjust the speed or torque of the motor over a wide operating range.

Thyristors should not be confused with bipolar junction transistors (BJT’s) or field effect transistors (FET's).
Although BJT's and FET's can be used as electronic switches, these devices are not as efficient and they do not have
the power handling capability of Thyristors. Thyristors are devices that are used expressly for the purpose of
controlling electrical power while BJT's and FET's are primarily used to provide amplification.

A various Thyristors are now available but some of these devices have similar or related characteristics. Most
applications which involve power control are therefore handled with a few basic components. The Thyristors that
are most widely used are the Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), the Bidirectional Triode (TRIAC), and the
Bidirectional Trigger Diode (DIAC).

SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

The SCR is the most popular member of the Thyristor family. Unlike the transistor which has two junctions and
provides amplification, the SCR has three junctions and is used as a switch. As its name implies, the device is
basically a diode which conducts current in only one direction. However, the device can be made to conduct (turn
on) or stop conducting (turn off) and therefore provide a switching action that can be used to control electrical
current.

Basic Construction and Operation

An SCR is a solid-state device which has four alternately doped semiconductor layers. The device is almost always
made from silicon but germanium has been used.

A simplified diagram of an SCR is shown in Figure 1A. As shown, the SCR's four (PNPN) layers are sandwiched
together to form three junctions.

However, leads are attached to only three of these layers. These three leads are referred to as the Anode, Cathode,
and Gate.

The manner in which an SCR operates cannot be easily determined by examining the four-

Figure 1:
A C
layer structure shown in Figure 1A. However, the SCR's four layers can be divided so that two three-layer devices
are formed as shown in Figure 1B. The two devices obtained are effectively PNP and NPN transistors and when
interconnected as shown they are equivalent to the four layer device shown in Figure 1A. These two transistors can
also be represented by their schematic symbols as shown in Figure 1C.
We will now bias the equivalent circuit in Figure 1C just like we would bias the actual SCR shown in Figure 1A.
First, we will make the anode of the circuit positive with respect to the cathode but we will leave the gate open.
Under these conditions the NPN transistor will not conduct because its emitter junction will not be subjected to a
forward bias voltage which can produce a base current. This will, in turn, cause the PNP transistor to turn off
because the NPN transistor will not be conducting and therefore will not allow a base current to flow through the
emitter junction of the PNP transistor. So, the equivalent SCR circuit will not allow current to flow from its cathode
to its anode under these conditions.

If the gate of the equivalent SCR circuit is momentarily made positive with respect to the cathode, the emitter
junction of the NPN transistor will become forward biased and this transistor will conduct. This will in turn cause a
base current to flow through the PNP transistor which will cause this transistor to conduct. However, the collector
current flowing through the PNP transistor now causes base current to flow through the NPN transistor. The two
transistors therefore hold each other in the on or conducting state thus allowing current to flow continously from
the cathode to the anode of the circuit. It is important to note that this action takes place even though the gate voltage
is applied only for a moment. This momentary gate voltage causes the circuit to switch to the on or conducting state
and the circuit will remain in that state even though the gate voltage is removed.

In order to switch the equivalent SCR circuit back to its off or non-conducting state, it is necessary to reduce its
anode-to-cathode voltage to almost zero. This will cause both transistors to turn off and remain off until the
conditions previously described are repeated.

The SCR in Figure 1A operates just like the equivalent circuit in Figure 1C. In other words the SCR can be turned
on by a positive input gate voltage and must be turned off by reducing its anode-to-cathode voltage. When the SCR
is turned on and is conducting a high cathode-to-anode current, the device is said to be conducting in the forward
direction. If the polarity of the cathode-to-anode bias voltage was reversed, the device would conduct only a small
leakage current which would flow in the reverse direction, that is, it turns off.
The SCR is usually represented by the schematic symbol shown in Figure 2. Notice that this symbol is actually an
ordinary diode symbol with a gate lead attached. The circle surrounding the diode may or may not be used and the
SCR's anode, gate and cathode leads may or may not be identified. When the leads are identified, they are usually
represented by the letters A, G, and K as shown.

A properly biased SCR is shown schematically in Figure 3, Notice that a switch (S) is used to apply or remove the
input gate voltage which is obtained from a voltage source and resistor Rg. This resistor is used to limit the gate
current (IG) to a specific value. The SCR’s anode-to-cathode voltage is provided by another voltage source and a
series load resistor (RL) is also used to limit the SCR's cathode-to-anode current to a safe value when the device is
turned on. Without this resistor, the SCR would conduct a very high cathode-to-anode current (also referred to as
anode current or IA ) and could be permanently damaged.

A better understanding of SCR operation can be obtained by examining the voltage-current (I-V) curve shown in
Figure 4. This curve shows the I-V characteristics of a typical SCR. Such a curve is plotted by varying the SCR's
cathode-to-anode voltage over a wide range while observing the SCR's anode current. The corresponding values are
then plotted and a continuous curve is formed. The SCR is first biased in the forward direction while its gate is left
open as shown in Figure 4. The SCR's cathode-to-anode voltage is designated as VF at this time. The curve shows
that as VF increases from zero, the SCR conducts only a small forward current (IF ) which is due to leakage. As VF
continues to increase, IF remains very low and almost constant but eventually a point is reached where IF increases
rapidly and VF drops to a low value (note the horizontal dotted line). The VF value required to trigger this sudden
change is referred to as the Forward Breakover Voltage (Vp). When this value of Vp is reached the SCR simply
breaks down, and conducts a high IF which is limited only by the external resistance in series with the device. The
SCR switches from the off state to the on state at this time. The drop in VF occurs because the SCR' s resistance
drops to an extremely low value and most of the source voltage appears across the series resistor.
When the SCR is in the on state, only a slight increase in VF is required to produce a tremendous increase in IF (the
curve is almost vertical and straight). Furthermore, the SCR will remain in the on state as long as I F remains at a
substantial value. Only when IF drops below a certain minimum value, will the SCR switch back to its off-state. This
minimum value of IF which will hold the SCR in the on state is referred to as the SCR's Holding Current and is
usually designated at IH . As shown in Figure 4, the IH value is located at the point where breakover occurs (just to
the left of the horizontal dotted line).

When a reverse voltage is applied to the SCR as shown in Figure 4, the device functions in basically the same
manner as a reverse-biased PN junction diode. As the reverse voltage
(VR ) across the SCR increases from zero, only a small reverse current (IR) will flow through the device due to
leakage. This current will remain small until VR becomes large enough to cause the SCR to breakdown. Then IR will
increase rapidly if VR increases even slightly above the breakdown point (the curve is almost vertical and straight).
The reverse voltage (VR) required to breakdown the SCR is referred to as the SCR's Reverse Breakdown Voltage. If
too much reverse current is allowed to flow through the SCR after breakdown occurs, the device could be
permanently damaged. However, this situation is normally avoided because the SCR is usually subjected to
operating voltages which are well below its breakdown rating.

The I-V curve in Figure 4 shows the relationship between VF and IF when the SCR's gate is open. In other words no
voltage is applied to the SCR's gate and therefore no gate current is flowing through the device. The curve in Figure
4 could therefore be labeled accordingly to indicate that gate current is equal to zero.

When the gate is made positive with respect to the cathode, gate current will flow and the SCR's forward
characteristics will be affected. The changes that take place in the SCR's forward characteristics are graphically
represented in Figure 5. In this figure, three I-V curves are plotted to show how changes in gate current (designated
as Ig) affect the relation-
ship between the SCR's forward voltage and forward current. The Ig = 0 curve shows the relationship between VF
and IF when the gate current is zero and is therefore simply a more detailed representation of the forward
characteristics shown in Figure 4. The Ig1 curve is plotted for a specific but relatively low value of gate current.
Notice that this curve has the same general shape as the Ig = 0 curve but the forward breakover point occurs sooner
(at a lower VF value). The Ig2 curve is plotted for a slightly higher gate current and also has the same general shape
as the other two curves. However, the breakover point occurs even sooner at this higher for different values of gate
value of gate current.
Figure 5

The curves in Figure 5 show that the SCR's forward breakover voltage decreases as the gate current increases. In
fact, the gate current could be increased to a point where the breakover voltage would be so low that the device
would have characteristics that closely resemble those of an ordinary PN junction diode. This ability of the gate to
control the point where breakover occurs is used to advantage in many types of electronic circuits.

The curves in Figure reveal much about the SCR's most important electrical characteristics. Basically these curves
show that for any given gate current, a specific forward breakover voltage must be reached before the SCR can turn
on. However, the curves also show that for any given forward voltage across the SCR, a specific value of gate
current must be reached before the device can turn on. Therefore, an SCR can be turned on only when it is subjected
to the proper combination of gate current and forward voltage values.

In normal operation the SCR is subjected to forward voltages which are below its breakover voltage and the SCR is
made to turn on by the application of a suitable gate current. This gate current is usually made high enough to insure
that the SCR is switched to the on state at the proper time. Furthermore, the gate current is usually applied for just an
instant in the form of a current pulse. A constant gate current is not required to trigger the SCR and would only
cause more power to be dissipated within the device. Once the SCR turns on, it can be turned off only by reducing
its forward current below its respective holding current value.

The SCR is primarily used to control the application of dc or ac power to various types of loads. It can be used as a
switch to open or close a circuit or it can be used to vary the amount of power applied to a load. A very low current
gate signal can control a very large load current. The SCR in Figure 3 is basically used as a switch to apply dc power
to the load resistor (R2) but in this basic circuit there is no effective means of turning off the SCR and removing
power from the load. However this problem could be easily solved by simply connecting a switch across the SCR.
This switch could be momentarily closed to short out the SCR and reduce its anode-to-cathode voltage to zero. This
would reduce the SCR's
forward current below the holding value and cause it to turn off.

A more practical SCR circuit is shown in Figure 6. With this circuit, mechanical switches have been completely
eliminated. In this circuit SCR1 is used to control the dc power applied to load resistor RL and SCR2 along with a
capacitor (C) and a resistor (R1 are used to turn off the circuit. When a momentary gate current flows through
SCR1, this SCR turns on and allows a dc voltage to be applied to RL .

Figure 6
This effectively grounds the left hand side of capacitor C and allows it to charge through resistor R1. This, in turn,
causes the right hand plate of C to become positive with respect to the left hand plate. When a momentary gate
current pulse is applied to SCR2, this SCR turns on and the right hand plate of the capacitor C is grounded thus
placing this capacitor across SCR1. The voltage across capacitor C now causes SCR1 to be reverse- biased. This
reverse voltage causes the forward current through SCR1 to drop below its holding value thus causing this SCR to
turn off and remove power from RL. Therefore a momentary gate current through SCR1 will turn on the circuit and a
momentary gate current through SCR2 will turn off the circuit.

When using SCR's in dc switching circuits it is often necessary to use additional components (not always additional
SCR's) to provide a means of turning off the circuits. The previous example shows only one way this can be
accomplished.

An SCR may also be used to control the application of ac power to a load. However, when used in ac circuits, the
device is capable of operating on only one alternation of each ac input cycle. A simple ac switch circuit is shown in
Figure 7. The SCR can conduct only on those alternations which make its anode positive with respect to its cathode.
Furthermore, switch S must be closed so that gate current will flow through the SCR and allow it to conduct.
Resistor Rl limits the peak value of this gate current and diode Dl prevents a reverse voltage from appearing
between the SCR's gate and cathode during the reverse portion of each cycle. Therefore, by closing switch S the
SCR is allowed to conduct on one alteration of each input cycle and apply this portion of the ac voltage to load
resistor RL. When switch S is opened, the SCR will turn off within one-half cycle of the ac signal. In other words
when no gate current can flow through the SCR. the device will turn off as soon as the input ac voltage drops to zero
and starts increasing in the direction which causes the SCR's anode to be negative with respect to its cathode. The
SCR will remain off until the switch is closed again.

Figure 7

The ac switch circuit in Figure 7 is actually less complicated than the dc circuit in Figure 6. In the ac circuit no
additional components are required to turn off the SCR since this occurs automatically when the ac input voltage
drops to zero. Instead, the additional components are used to insure that the SCR turns on during the proper portion
of each cycle. It is also important to note that this switch circuit can deliver only half of the available ac power to the
load since the SCR can conduct only on one alternation of each ac cycle. However, other circuit arrangements can
be used which will allow full ac power to be applied to the load. This is often accomplished by first rectifying the ac
input signal so that both alternations of each input cycle will properly bias the SCR into conduction. In other words
the positive and negative alternations of each cycle are converted to all positive or all negative alternations and so
that they become a pulsating dc current.

The circuits in Figure 6 and 7 are simply used to apply or remove electrical power and take the place of a
mechanical switch. However, when compared to mechanical switches or relays, these SCR circuits have many
advantages. They do not wear out like mechanical devices and they do not have contacts which can bounce or stick
and cause intermittent operation. The SCR circuits are much more reliable than mechanical devices in applications
where large amounts of power must be controlled. SCR circuits may in turn be controlled mechanically or
electrically. In either case, it is only necessary to control the SCR's very small gate current. If this is done
mechanically, a relatively inexpensive switch that has low current and voltage ratings can be used.

SCR's may also be used to vary the amount of power applied to a load instead of just simply switching the power on
or off. In fact, they are widely used in power control applications where the source of power is 50 Hz ac. One of the
most basic ac power control circuits which utilizes an SCR is shown in Figure 8. This circuit is commonly referred
to as a half-wave phase control circuit. It uses just one SCR and it is capable of controlling the ac power applied to
load resistor RL.

Figure 8
The ac voltage applied to the control circuit in Figure 8 is the standard 110 volts, 50 Hz sine wave. Two complete
cycles of this waveform are shown in Figure 9A. On each negative alternation of the input voltage, capacitor C
charges through forward biased diode D2 and the SCR is biased in the reverse direction so that it cannot conduct.
Also, on each negative alternation, diode D1 is reverse-biased and will not allow gate current to flow through the
SCR. During each positive alternation the SCR is forward-biased so that it can conduct forward current through R L
if its gate current is high enough to turn it on. However, the SCR's gate current is controlled by resistor R1 and
capacitor C. This capacitor will discharge and then recharge through R1 during the positive alternations since D2 is
reverse-biased during these portions of the ac cycle. Furthermore, the rate at which capacitor C charges can be
controlled by adjusting the resistance of R1. If the resistance of R1 is set to zero, capacitor C will charge almost
immediately and the voltage across capacitor C (which is connected to the SCR's gate through D1) will quickly rise
to a level which will cause the SCR to turn on. In fact, when R1 is equal to zero the SCR will turn on almost at the
beginning of each positive alternation and apply power to RL for the entire alternation. Once the SCR turns on it will
not turn off until the ac input voltage drops to zero. Therefore, when R1 is equal to

zero the SCR simply acts like an ordinary junction diode and conducts during each positive alternation of the input
ac voltage. This causes the voltage across RL to appear as shown in Figure 9B.

When the resistance of R1 is increased slightly, capacitor C cannot discharge and then recharge as quickly during
each positive alternation. This means that it will take slightly longer for the voltage across capacitor C to rise to a
level which will cause the SCR to turn on. However, when the SCR does turn on, it remains on for the remainder of
each positive alternation. This means that the SCR turns on shortly after each positive alternation has started and not
at the beginning of each alternation as it did before. This causes the voltage across RL to appear as shown in Figure
9C.
The resistance of Rl can be further increased to further extend the time required for the SCR to turn on during each
positive alternation. Figure 9D shows the voltage across RL when Rl is increased to the point where the SCR
conducts for only half of each positive alternation and Figure 9E shows the voltage across RL when Rl is made even
larger. If the value of Rl is increased further, the SCR will not conduct at all and no power will be applied to RL.

As shown in Figure 9, the half-wave phase control circuit is capable of controlling the amount of power applied to
the load. With this circuit, the power applied to the load can be varied from zero to approximately 50 % of the input
ac power.

It is also possible to use an SCR to control current during both alternations of an ac signal, however it is necessary to
first rectify the ac signal so that both alternations of each cycle are made to flow in the same direction (known as full
wave rectification) before being applied to the SCR. Another method of achieving full control of an ac signal is to
use two SCR's that are connected in parallel but in opposite directions. This arrangement allows each SCR to
conduct alternately. Either of these two methods will allow full control of the input ac signal so that the power
applied to the load can be varied from zero to the full value of the ac input.

BIDIRECTIONAL TRIODE THYRISTORS

The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) previously described is capable of controlling current which is flowing in one
direction and is therefore a unidirectional device. The SCR is used in many applications which involve the control of
direct currents as well as alternating currents. Unfortunately when used in ac applications. a single SCR is capable of
operating on just one alternation of each ac input cycle. In order to achieve full control of each ac input cycle, it is
necessary to use two SCR's in parallel or it is necessary to convert each entire ac cycle into a pulsating dc signal
before it is applied to a single SCR.

In applications where it is necessary to achieve full control of an ac signal, it is often much easier to use a device
known as a bidirectional triode Thyristor. This device is more commonly referred to as a TRIAC. The Triac has
basically the same switching characteristics as an SCR, however it exhibits these same characteristics in both
directions. This makes the Triac equivalent to two SCRs which are in parallel but are connected in opposite
directions.
We will now briefly examine the Triac's basic construction and operation and then we will consider its important
characteristics and applications.
Figure 11

A simplified diagram of a Triac is shown in Figure 10. Notice that the device has three leads which are designated as
main terminal 1, main terminal 2 and the gate. Main terminal 1 and main terminal 2 are each connected to a PN
junction at opposite ends of the device. The gate is also connected to a PN junction which is at the same end as
terminal 1. If you examine the entire structure closely you will see that from terminal 1 to terminal 2 you can pass
through an NPNP series of layers or a PNPN series of layers. In other words the Triac is effectively a four-layer
NPNP device in parallel with a four-layer PNPN device. These NPNP and PNPN devices are often compared to two
SCRs which are connected in parallel but in opposite directions. This equivalent SCR arrangement is shown in
Figure 11.

The Triac's gate region is more complex and a detailed analysis of its operation will not be considered. However, the
gate is basically capable of directly or remotely triggering either equivalent SCR into conduction. Notice that both of
the equivalent SCR gates are tied together in Figure 11 to show the equivalent relationship.

The circuit in Figure 11 is not in all ways equivalent to the Triac. This circuit is used simply to explain the basic
concept involved. The primary difference is that the two equivalent SCRs would actually require different gating
circuits to trigger them into conduction but the Triac is designed to respond to the currents that flow through its
single gate terminal.

Unlike an SCR which can control currents flowing in only one direction, the Triac can control currents flowing in
either direction. The Triac is therefore widely used to control the application of ac power to various types of loads or
circuits. The conditions required to turn a Triac on or off in either direction are similar to the conditions required to
control an SCR. Both devices can be triggered to the on state by a gate current and they can be turned off by
reducing their operating currents below their respective holding values. In the case of an SCR, current must flow in
the forward direction from cathode to anode. However, the Triac is designed to conduct both forward and reverse
currents through its main terminals.

The schematic symbol that is commonly used to represent the Triac is shown in Figure 12. Notice that the symbol
consists of two parallel diodes connected in opposite directions with a single gate lead attached. The device is
usually placed within a circle as shown and its main terminals are sometimes identified as MT 1 and MT 2 as
indicated.
The voltage-current (V-I) characteristic curve for a typical Triac is shown in Figure 13. This curve shows the
relationship between the current flowing through its main terminals in each direction (designated as + I T and - IT )
and the voltage applied across its main terminals in each direction (identified as + V and -V). Furthermore, this
curve was plotted with no gate current flowing through the Triac and main terminal 1 was used as the reference
point for all voltage and current values.

Figure 13 shows that when main terminal 2 (MT2) is positive with respect to MT 1 (or when the applied voltage is
equal to + V), the current through the device (+ IT) remains at a low leakage value until + V rises above the
breakover voltage (+ VBO) of the device. At this time the Triac switches from the off state to the on state and + I T is
essentially limited by the external resistance of the circuit. The Triac must remain in the on state until + I T drops
below a specified holding current (IH) as shown. This is exactly what happens when an SCR is subjected to a
forward voltage that exceeds its respective forward breakover voltage.

When MT 2 is negative with respect to MT1, the Triac exhibits the same basic V-I characteristics since the current
through the device (- IT ) remains at a low leakage value until -V rises above the breakover voltage (- VBO ) of the
device. At this time the Triac switches from the off state to the on state and remains on until -I T drops below IH.
The V-I curve in Figure 13 therefore shows that the Triac exhibits the characteristics of an SCR in either direction.
However, this curve does not show how the Triac's gate is used to control its operation. Like the SCR previously
described, the Triac's breakover voltage (in either direction) can be varied by controlling the amount of gate current
flowing through the device. When the gate current is increased, the breakover voltage is lowered. However, there is
still one very important difference between the SCR's gating characteristics and those of a Triac. The SCR always
requires a positive gate voltage, but the Triac will respond to either a positive or negative gate voltage. In other
words the Triac's breakover voltage (in either direction) can be lowered by making its gate more positive or more
negative with respect to MT 1 which is used as the reference terminal. This positive or negative gate voltage
correspondingly produces a gate current that flows out of or into the gate lead and these currents in turn regulate the
point at which the device turns on.

Like the SCR, the Triac is normally subjected to operating voltages that are below its breakover voltage (in either
direction). The device is turned on by subjecting it to a sufficiently high gate current which flows into or out of its
gate lead. The device is turned off by simply reducing its operating current (+ IT or - IT ) below its respective IH
value. The Triac is most sensitive when it is subjected to + V and + IT values along with a positive gate voltage.
Under these conditions the device requires the least gate current to turn on for any given + V value. Other
combinations of operating voltages and current result in somewhat less sensitivity. To help the circuit designer
determine the conditions necessary to turn on a specific Triac, manufacturers of these components usually specify
minimum or typical values of gate current (in each direction) required to turn on the device. These values are given
for a specified operating voltage which is applied in first one direction and then the other (+ V and -V). With this
information the circuit designer can insure that sufficient gate current is used to turn on the Triac at the proper time.
As with the SCR circuits previously described, this gate current need only be applied momentarily to cause the Triac
to change states.

Since the Triac conducts in either direction it is ideally suited for applications where ac power must be controlled.
The device can be used as an ac switch or it can be used to actually control the amount of ac power applied to a load.
A typical example of its use as an ac switch is shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14

This circuit will apply the full ac input voltage across load resistor RL or completely remove it when switch S is
closed or opened respectively. When switch S is open the Triac cannot conduct on either the positive or the negative
alternations of each ac input cycle since the input voltage does not exceed the Triac's breakover voltage in either
direction. However, when switch S is closed, resistor Rl allows enough gate current to flow through the Triac on
each alternation to insure that the device turns on. The Triac therefore applies all of the available input power to the
load while a comparable SCR circuit (refer to Figure 7) is capable of supplying only half of the input power to the
load. The advantage of this circuit is that the small gate current can control a high load current.
Figure 15

A typical Triac circuit which can be used to vary the amount of ac power applied to a load is shown in Figure 15.
This circuit is generally referred to as a full wave phase control circuit and it operates in a manner similar to the
SCR circuit shown in Figure 8. The primary difference is that the Triac is triggered into conduction on both the
positive and negative alternations of each ac input cycle, while the SCR in Figure 8 conducts only on positive
alternations. Also, a special triggering device is generally used to insure that the Triac turns on at the proper time.

Capacitor C charges through Rl in first one direction and then the other as the positive and negative alternations of
the ac input signal occur. During each alternation, the Triac is turned on when the voltage across capacitor C rises to
the required level. However, this voltage is not applied directly to the Triac's gate and MT 1 leads. Instead, it is
applied through a special triggering device which has bidirectional switching characteristics. The triggering device
could be any component which would turn on or conduct when subjected to a specific voltage level and turn off
when the voltage is reduced to a lower level. One of the most widely used triggering devices will be described in
detail later in this unit. However, at the present time we will just assume that the device is a solid-state component
that has the switching characteristics just described.

During each alternation, the voltage across capacitor C rises to a level which turns on the triggering device. This
causes current to momentarily flow through the Triac's gate lead and switch it to the on state. The gate current only
flows for a moment since the capacitor discharges through the Triac and loses its accumulated voltage which in turn
causes the triggering device to turn off. How soon the Triac turns on during each alternation is determined by the
value of R1 When the resistance of R1 is reduced to zero, the Triac is triggered immediately at the beginning of each
alternation and full ac power is applied to load resistor RL. As the resistance of R1 is increased, triggering occurs
later during each alternation and the average power applied to the load is reduced. The voltage waveforms shown in
Figure 9 can also represent the voltage across RL in the Triac circuit if the negative alternations (which are identical
but complementary to the positive alternations) are inserted.

A triggering device is required because the Triac is not equally sensitive to gate currents flowing in opposite
directions as explained earlier. The triggering device helps to compensate for the Triac's non-symmetrical or non-
uniform triggering characteristics. The voltage required to turn on the triggering device is identical in either
direction and the device is designed to be as insensitive to temperature changes as possible. The triggering device
works in conjuction with resistor Rl and capacitor C to produce consistently accurate gate current pulses that are
high enough to turn on the Triac at the proper time in either direction. These gate current pulses can be very short in
duration (several microseconds is generally sufficient) and still trigger the Triac.

Although the Triac has the ability to control current in either direction and respond to gate currents flowing in either
direction, the device does have certain disadvantages when compared to an SCR. In general, Triacs have lower
current ratings than SCR's and cannot compete with SCR's in applications where extremely large currents must be
controlled. Triacs are available that can handle currents (usually measured in rms values) as high as 25 amperes. By
comparison, SCRs can be readily obtained with current ratings (usually expressed as average values for a half cycle)
as high as 700 or 800 amperes, and some are rated even higher. Also, both devices can have peak or surge current
ratings that are much higher than their respective rms or average ratings.

Triacs often have difficulty in switching the power applied to inductive loads. This problem also occurs with SCRs
but to a lesser degree. When Triacs are used to control the power applied to inductive loads such as motor windings
or heater coils, it is always necessary to use additional components to improve their operation. Also, Triacs are
designed for low frequency (50 to 400 Hz) applications while SCRs can be used at frequencies up to 30 kHz.
Therefore, in certain applications where full control of an ac signal is required, SCRs may operate more efficiently
than Triacs while in other applications the exact opposite may be true.

As explained earlier, a triggering device is used in conjunction with the Triac because the Triac does not have
symmetrical triggering characteristics. Various types of triggering devices can be used with the Triac, but one of the
most popular devices is known as a Bidirectional Trigger Diode, commonly referred to as a DIAC.

We will now briefly examine the construction and operation of this important triggering device. Then we will see
how it is used in conjunction with the Triac.

The Diac is constructed in much the same way as a bipolar transistor. The device has three alternately doped
semiconductor layers as shown in Figure 16. However, it differs from the BJT because the doping concentrations
around both junctions are equal and leads are attached only to the outer layers. No electrical connections are made to
its middle region. Since the Diac has only two leads, it is often packaged in a metal or plastic case which has axial
leads. Therefore the device often resembles an ordinary PN Junction diode in appearance. However, the device is
sometimes packaged like a conventional BJT but with only two leads.

Since both of its junctions are equally doped, the Diac has the same affect on currents flowing in either direction
through its leads. In either direction, one junction will always be forward-biased while the other is reverse-biased. In
each case the reverse-biased junction primarily controls the current flowing through the Diac and the device operates
as if it contains two PN junction diodes that are in series but are connected back-to-back. See Figure 16C.

The Diac remains in an off state (conducts only a small leakage current) in either direction until the applied voltage
in either direction is high enough to cause its respective reverse-biased junction to break down. When this happens,
the device turns on and current suddenly rises to a value which is essentially limited by the resistance in series with
the device. The Diac therefore functions as a bidirectional switch which will turn on whenever its breakdown
voltage (in either direction) is exceeded.

A schematic symbol that is commonly used to represent the Diac is shown in Figure 16B. Notice that it is similar to
the Triac symbol previously described, however no gate lead is required.

The voltage-current (V-I) characteristic curve for a typical Diac is shown in Figure 17. This curve shows the
relationship between the current flowing through the device in either direction ( + I and -I) and the corresponding
voltage across the device in each direction (+ V and -V).

Figure 17 shows that the current through the Diac remains at a low value until the voltage across the device
increases to a point where the device breaks down in either direction. These voltages required to breakdown in the
Diac are generally referred to as the Diac's breakover voltages and are designated as + VBO and - VBO as shown in
Figure 17. The + VBO and - VBO values for a typical device will usually be between 28 and 36 volts. Notice that once
the + VBO and - VBO values are reached, the current through the Diac increases rapidly but the voltage across the
device decreases. In other words when breakover occurs, the resistance of the Diac decreases rapidly as current
increases and the net result is a decrease in voltage across the device. Therefore, once the breakover point is reached
the Diac exhibits a negative resistance characteristic.

The Diac is considered to be in the off state until the breakover voltage + VBO or - VBO is reached. When + VBO or -
VBO is reached, the device switches to the on state and is capable of conducting relatively high currents.

The Diac is most commonly used as a triggering device for a Triac which is, in turn, used to control the amount of
ac power applied to a load. This application is shown in Figure 18. The circuit shown in this figure is basically
identical to the full-wave phase control circuit shown in Figure 15. The only difference is that a Diac is specifically
used as a triggering device. As explained earlier, the triggering device turns on when the voltage across C1 rises to
the required value. In this case the voltage across C1 must rise to either + VBO or - VBO before the Diac can switch
from the off state to the on state. Each time the Diac turns on, it allows current to momentarily flow through the
Triac's gate and turn it on. The gate current flows only momentarily because it is provided by capacitor C) which
quickly discharges through the Triac's MT1 and gate terminals and the Diac. The peak value and duration of the
current pulse applied to the gate are determined by the value of C1, the resistance of the Diac (which changes with
current), and the resistance between the Triac's gate and MT1 terminals. To help designers relate these various
factors so that proper gate triggering will be obtained, manufacturers of Diacs and Triacs generally provide
applicable charts or curves. The relationship between triggering capacitance (the value of C1) and peak current for
the Diac is usually shown in this manner and various curves are used to show the minimum and maximum limits on
the peak amplitude and duration of the gate current pulses which can be applied to a Triac.

The Diac is used in conjunction with the Triac to provide full-wave control of ac signals. These devices are
commonly used together to control the speed and direction of electric motors or control the temperature of heating
elements. They are used in air conditioning, heating, and ventilation systems and they can even be used in electronic
garage-door
systems. They may also be used to simply switch or control the amount of power applied to individual lamps or
complete lighting systems. For example, they can be used to flash a lamp on and off as a warning signal, to control
traffic-signal lights which are placed at roadway intersections to regulate traffic flow or provide light dimming in
theaters. Diac-Triac circuits can also be used to control power in three-phase systems by using multiple Triac circuit
arrangements.

The above mentioned applications are only a few of the many ways in which Diac-Triac circuits can be used to
control power. A complete list of applications would not be practical or even possible at this time since new
applications are constantly being found for these relatively versatile solid-state devices. Recent improvements in
their design and construc- tion have greatly extended their power handling abilities and increased their potential
applications.

Although the Diac is widely used to trigger the Triac in power control applications, it is important to realize that
other triggering devices are also available. Most of these triggering devices have bidirectional switching
characteristics that are closely related to those of a Diac although each device is constructed differently and each is
represented by a different schematic symbol. The Diac just described serves as a typical example of a modern solid-
state triggering device.