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INSIGHTS INTO SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING AND

LEARNING Paradigms in the Teaching and Learning of
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 First Edition 2008
© YUSOF BOON, HADINA HABIL & FAIZAH MOHD NOR 2008
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopy,
recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission
in writing from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, 81310 Johor Darul
Tak'zim, Malaysia.

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Insight into second language teaching and learning / editor

Yusof Boon, Hadina Habil, Faizah Mohd Nor.
Includes index
ISBN 978-983-52-0516-3
1. English language--study and teaching--Malaysia. 2. Language and
languages--study and teaching. 3. Language and education—Malaysia.
I. Yusof Boon. II. Hadina Habil. III. Faizah Mohd. Nor. IV. Title.
428.00710595

Pereka Kulit: MOHD ASMAWIDIN BIDIN

Diatur huruf oleh / Typeset by

YUSOF BOON & RAKAN-RAKAN
Fakulti Pendidikan
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81310 Skudai
Johor Darul Ta'zim, MALAYSIA

Diterbitkan di Malaysia oleh / Published in Malaysia by

PENERBIT
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
34 – 38, Jalan Kebudayaan 1, Taman Universiti,
81300 Skudai,
Johor Darul Ta'zim, MALAYSIA.
(PENERBIT UTM anggota PERSATUAN PENERBIT BUKU MALAYSIA/
MALAYSIAN BOOK PUBLISHERS ASSOCIATION dengan no. keahlian 9101)

Dicetak di Malaysia oleh / Printed in Malaysia by

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Jln. Serdang Raya, Tmn Serdang Raya
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
MALAYSIA
 CONTENTS

Preface vii

Chapter 1 Public Speaking And Speech Anxiety In 1

L1 And L2
Rachel Tan Chin Keok

Chapter 2 Teaching Discussion Skills For Muet 25

Speaking Examination: A Comparison Of
Two Approaches
Hafiza Aini Hj Hassan & Hadina Habil

Chapter 3 Using Triangulation In Research On Oral 35

Instructional Language Of Teacher
Trainees In Teaching Science In English
Azian Abd Aziz @ Ahmad & Abdul Halim
Abdul Raof

Chapter 4 Multiple Data-Collection Methods As A 47

Source Of Insights Into Grammar
Teaching
 Contents vi

Fauziah Ismail & Zubaidah Awang

Chapter 5 Communication Skills Development (Csd) 58

In The Engineering Curriculum: A Review
Of Literature
Rohani Othman & Zubaidah Awang

Chapter 6 Learning Contracts For Language 75

Learning: An Exploration
Normah Ismail & Masdinah Alauyah Md
Yusuf

Chapter 7 The Effects Of Extensive Reading On 98

Language Proficiency And Motivation To
Read
Navinder Kaur, Zubaidah Awang & Khairi
Izwan Abdullah

Chapter 8 Second Language Learning And 111

Motivation: An Overview
Yvonne Choong Foong Hiam, Azizah Rajab
& Hadina Habil

Chapter 9 Paradigms In The Teaching And Learning 119

Of Literature
Tina Abdullah & Zaidah Zainal

Indexes 135
 PREFACE

English language teaching and learning is an important area in

education. It is because English, which is long regarded as the
second language to Malaysians, might be a foreign language to
some learners. Ironically, English is also the language used as the
medium of instruction for the teaching of Science and Mathematics
in school. Thus, there are many issues on teaching and learning
English in the Malaysian education system. Hence, research in
second language teaching and learning is vital to help address the
said issues.

This book compiles research findings and research proposals

on second language teaching and learning carried out by
researchers. Chapter 1 looks at the causes of anxiety of public
speaking on L1 and L2. It is a case study and findings from this
case study suggest that students should be given training of both
linguistic and para linguistic aspects of public speaking to help
them overcome their anxiety.

Chapter 2 compares the teaching of discussion skills in the

context of MUET speaking examination between the genre
analysis approach and the audio lingual method. The comparison
in the teaching is proposed in order to find a better way to teach
discussion skills to upper secondary students to prepare them for
MUET examination.

Investigating the oral instruction language of teacher trainees

in teaching Science and Mathematics in English is the focus of
 Preface viii

Chapter 3. The researcher proposed that triangulation is used to

enhance the quality of a qualitative research in the above research.
It is because triangulation allows research findings to be checked
against other data and perspectives.

Teacher trainee is an important group of people in the

education system because these trainees are future teachers who
will be responsible teaching the students. Thus, Chapter 4 probes
into teacher trainees’ grammar teaching through a qualitative
study. Specifically, the research examines the influence of
language courses in language teacher education (LTE) by tracking
the experience of teacher trainees during their practicum. It was
also carried out to evaluate how prior grammar courses influenced
teacher trainees’ teaching of grammar in the classrooms.

Chapter 5 reviews the literature on Communication Skills

Development (CSD) in the engineering curriculum. The research
is timely because engineering education has expanded to include
emphasis on the development of non-technical skills or soft skills
in engineering curriculum. The chapter recommends mapping of
the criteria and students to develop a combined curriculum skills
development attributes that can be used in an engineering
curriculum.

Chapter 6 explores the use of learning contracts for language

learning - an old concept that is only recently recognized as having
potential at the tertiary level education. Learning contract can be
used as a way to encourage learners to be more involved in their
learning. The writers reported findings from a pilot study which
suggested that the learning contract has potential use in language
classrooms to develop language learners who are resourceful and
independent.

Reading is a very important receptive skills in learning any

language. Chapter 7 examines the effects of extensive reading on
language proficiency and motivation to read. The research found
 Preface ix

that extensive reading by the participants resulted in a higher score

in comprehension, cloze and vocabulary tests administered after
nine months of study. Therefore, it was suggested that proper
management of extensive reading should be part of the curriculum
to improve students’ language proficiency.

Motivation is crucial in second language learning. Thus, quite

a number of researchers have investigated the relationship between
language learning and motivation. Is there any difference in
motivation to learn a second language? Chapter 8 provides an
overview of second language learning and motivation. This
chapter reviews the literature available on the subject and outlines
a research to investigate the issue.

Chapter 9 examines paradigms in the teaching and learning of

literature. The writers reviewed the relationship between modern
literary theories and literature, the influence of educational theory,
the marriage between language and literature instruction and
finally put forward a model for literature in language teaching and
learning.

We hope the chapters in this book would provide some

insights on issues in second language learning and teaching.

Yusof Boon
Hadina Habil
Faizah Mohd Nor
Faculty of Education
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
2008
KEPIMPINAN SEKOLAH HBEM2103
 1
PUBLIC SPEAKING AND SPEECH
ANXIETY IN L1 AND L2
Rachel Tan Chin Keok

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Research has confirmed that speaking in class creates the most

anxiety in second and foreign language learning. This paper
investigates the causes of anxiety of public speaking in L1 and L2
and hopes to bring some suggestions to the teaching and training of
speech delivery. Two questionnaires are given. An interview is
conducted.
In this paper, I will use the term “speech anxiety” instead of
stage fright, shyness or communication apprehension. As a
speaker, I have met different kinds of “anxious speakers”. I agree
that speech anxiety is “the unpleasant thoughts and feelings
aroused by the anticipation of a real or imagined speech in public.”
(P.52). Anxious speakers may “tremble, blush and perspire”
(Brydon and Scott, 2006). Young and inexperienced speakers may
withdraw from speaking activities (Beatty, 1988).

2.0 CAUSES OF SPEECH ANXIETY

Fear of public speaking has been considered normal for every

speaker even in their native language. It is a characteristic which
2 Insights Into Second Language

many people have. In America, the Bruskin Associates conducted

a nationwide survey in 1971 and revealed that the number one fear
of Americans is the fear of giving a public speech. Even the fear
of death came in third. Many researchers have found the reasons
for this, which I list below.

2.1 AUDIENCE EXPECTATIONS

Ayres, J. (1986)
“the fear of public speaking emerges from a
personal assessment that one’s speaking
abilities fall short of audience expectations.”
(p.276)

In this paper, Ayres explains why speakers get their anxiety. He

says, “as people’s perceptions of their abilities exceeds audience
expectations, the likelihood they will experience some degree of
stage fright decreases, and conversely, as their view of their
abilities fall below their perceptions of audience expectations, the
likelihood they will experience some degree of stage fright
increases.” (p.277)

2.2 SOLE ATTENTION

Devito (2006)
“Being fearful of giving a public speech is
perfectly normal. Everyone experiences some
degree of fear in the relatively formal public
speaking situation. After all, in public speaking
you’re the sole focus of attention and are
usually being evaluated for your performance.
So experiencing fear or anxiety isn’t strange or
unique.” (p.269)
 Public Speaking And Speech Anxiety 3

2.3 SOCIAL ANXIETY

Dale & Wolf (2006)

“Feeling nervous at the thought of public
speaking is perfectly normal. You respond the
same way you would to any stressful situation.
Your body produces extra adrenaline. This is
what makes your heart pound faster and your
hands shake.” (p.1)

Due to the fact that many L2 learners have lower competence in

English than in their native language, anxiety level of public
speaking in the second language is expected to be higher than in
the first language.
Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986) reported that students are
very self-conscious when they are required to engage in speaking
activities that expose their inadequacies, and these feelings often
lead to "fear, or even panic" (p. 128)

Krashen (2003)
“Ten “anxious” foreign language students
interviewed by Price (1991) stated that their
greatest source of anxiety “was having to speak
the target language in front of their peers”
(p.313).

“Of great interest here is the finding that

another source of stress “was the frustration of
not being able to communicate effectively.”
(p.105)
4 Insights Into Second Language

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 PARTICIPANT OF THE RESEARCH

The participant is 14 years old and in Form Two. He started

learning English when he was 3 years old. The family is very
supportive. They sent him to a public speaking class for 6 months
(September 2007 to March 2008). The class took place once a
week and every class lasted for 2 hours.
The participant scored A in his UPSR English exam. He is
studying in a private secondary school in Johor Bahru. This is a
decision of the family due to the importance of English. He has to
converse in English at school. If not, he will be punished.
However, he does not use English outside of school. He knows
many English words and can write quite good English
compositions with some avoidable grammar mistakes.
The participant took an English course which needed him to
present speeches. He is opinionated. He likes to debate, in his
mother tongue. However, when he started his speech in English,
he did not look at his audience which had about 15 students.
Besides, his voice trembled and his palms wetted. He blushed. The
worst part is only he himself could hear what he was talking.
He can be considered as an “anxious” speaker in English.
When the participant was asked to give a speech in his mother
tongue, he seemed more confident. He seemed to have a lot to tell.
When he presented his speech, he felt more comfortable. He was
still nervous but he knew he could overcome his anxiety.
The participant can be considered as a “non-anxious” speaker in
his mother tongue.

3.2 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Three research instruments are used to determine the anxiety level

of the participants.
 Public Speaking And Speech Anxiety 5

3,2,1 PRCA-24 QUESTIONNAIRE

McCroskey (2006) has a famous questionnaire which is known as

the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24).
It is an instrument exploring L1 speaking anxiety. There are 24
statements. This questionnaire has been used by many researchers
for more than 30 years and proven to be useful.
The participant was given a short time of 5 minutes to finish 2
PRCA-24. The first one is to check his feelings on L1
communication. The second one is to check his feelings on L2
communication.

3.2.2 FLCAS QUESTIONNAIRE

Another questionnaire, Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety

Scale (FLCAS), was also conducted. Foreign Language
Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) was developed by Horwitz,
Horwitz, and Cope (1986). It has 33 items. The participant scores
on five-point Likert Scale items, ranging from strongly agree to
strongly disagree. It was developed to capture the specific essence
of foreign language anxiety in a classroom setting and to provide
researchers with a standard measure of the respondent’s anxiety
level. The FLCAS is based on an analysis of potential sources of
anxiety in a language classroom, integrating three related anxieties
(communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative
evaluation) as posited by Horwitz et al. (1986). This scale has been
used in many studies of anxiety in foreign language learning and
found to be a highly reliable measure (MacIntyre & Gardner,
1989).
6 Insights Into Second Language

3.2.3 INTERVIEW

The interview is designed on the basis of understanding the

participant’s experience, ability and confidence. Questions 2 and 3
examine the ability. Questions 4, 5 and 6 assess the confidence
level. Questions 1 and 7 reveal whether the participant benefits
from the class. Question 8 determines whether anxiety correlates
to negative experience.
1) Do you like your English presentation class?
Yes, I do.
2) Please tell me what you like best about your class. Why?
I like writing the most. I do not need to speak.
3) Please tell me what you hate the most in your class. Why?
Speaking. I cannot speak properly. I stutter. I feel cold,
from head to toes then I shake my body. I always feel that.
4) Do you think that your English is good? Are you
confident?
Yes, I think so but only in writing. When I speak, I am not
confident. I cannot think of the words that I want. Then I
make a lot of grammar mistakes. I feel stupid.
5) How do you think your classmates will react if you make
mistakes?
They laugh. I feel I lose face.
6) Do you try to help yourself when you are worried about
speaking in your class?
I usually talk to myself. I tell myself not to be nervous but
it does not help me too much. If I have a choice, I don’t
want to speak. I don’t like to be the attention.
7) Does this class help you to lessen your worry?
It does. The training helps me. Body gestures and vocal
variety help me the most. At least I know my classmates
are also not doing the best and I am not the worst.
8) Did you have any negative experience in speaking?
Not really. I usually won’t volunteer. I haven’t got any
other speaking experience in other places. This is my first
class.
 Public Speaking And Speech Anxiety 7

3.0 FINDINGS OF THE RESEARCH

The participant did PRCA-24 (Appendix 1) on February 20. He

was asked to record his feelings about his L1 and L2.
The computation for his L1 is as follows:
1. Group discussion: 10
2. Meetings: 8
3. Interpersonal conversations: 10
4. Public speaking: 10 Total score:
38

The computation for his L2 is as follows:

1. Group discussion: 25
2. Meetings: 27
3. Interpersonal conversations: 28
4. Public speaking: 27 Total score:
107

The participant’s score on public speaking is 27. It is considered

to be highly anxious. Right after the questionnaire, the interview
was conducted. The participant expressed his feelings on English
speaking. He enjoys the class. He thinks the class can help him.
But when a speech task is assigned, he shows the symptoms of an
anxious speaker. In the second questionnaire (FLCAS), the
participant also strongly agrees to have worries and anxiety when
he is called to speak in front of his class.

5.0 PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

Being able to speak good English and having an English-speaking

environment are the dreams of many students in this city. The
participant should be an example to admire. However, he is still
blocked by his problems of public speaking. This has given the
8 Insights Into Second Language

researcher an interest to explore some strategies for overcoming

public speaking anxiety.
The training of skills can be linguistic such as the preparation of
scripts, pronunciation, and grammar, and para-linguistic such as
breathing exercise, body language and confidence building. The
researcher focuses on types of speeches.
In Toastmasters International Youth Leadership Program, a set of
8 prepared speeches are as follows:
1. Introduction to chairmanship
2. Introduction to public speaking
3. Impromptu speech
4. Organizing your speech
5. Listening
6. Gestures in speaking
7. Voice and vocabulary
8. Show your skills

In the speech training, the students were given three speeches to

start.
1. Self-introduction
2. Show-and-tell
3. Story-telling

The three assignments are used because they are taken as easier
tasks. First, writing is not much involved compared to a persuasive
speech like “should handphones be allowed in schools?” Second,
these topics are familiar to them. Furthermore, the other speech
elements can be introduced to the students through these three. The
elements are body gestures, vocal variety and eye contact.
On the first day, the participant was given a game as an ice-
breaker. The class interviewed as many classmates as possible.
Then, they summarized the similarities and differences of their
friends and introduced some interesting facts about themselves.

“Good afternoon, everybody. This is my friend, Jack. He likes

orange juice. He does not like noodles. He is studying is SMK
 Public Speaking And Speech Anxiety 9

Pelangi Indah. He has two sister(s). His father is a boss (self-

employed) and his mother is a housewife.”

This is a common example used by the students. The speech is

very short. The sentences are also simple and short. They are
straight to the point. The pronoun ‘he’ is repeated many times.
This could be a symptom of anxiety.
However, the participant felt that the game is less threatening.
One important finding is he felt that the game implied that the
teacher is a friendly person who is also willing to help.
Then, the class was required to write down their introduction in
their exercise books. The teacher explained the importance of an
opening and an ending in speeches. The teacher marked the books
and corrected their mistakes. The class was required to do self-
introduction one more time the following week.
In the second assignment, the teacher started with a video clip on
how to make a salad. The class discussed the language used. Then,
they were asked to prepare a speech. They needed to use a visual
aid. Speech with visual aids is considered to be “friendly” to
inexperienced speakers who sometimes may wonder where to “put
their hands”. As Marrs (1992) suggests, “one way to reduce the
pressure of speech making is to provide something for the audience
to look at.” When the audience look at the visual aids, the speaker
usually feels easier to present the speech and anxiety can be
reduced.
The participant spent a week to prepare a show-and-tell speech.
He chose the topic - how to wrap a birthday present. Interestingly,
some of the other participants did it with a proper opening and
ending.

“Good morning (afternoon), Ms Tan and all my friends. Do you

know how to wrap a present? Today, I want to show you how to
wrap a present. First, you need some ‘ingredients’ (materials).
Then, put the present on the wrapper and fold.
………..(pausing)……(folding)……Put a cellophone tape here.
Then, it is done.”
10 Insights Into Second Language

The participant was required to talk for 3-4 minutes. However,

the pausing time was about 1 minute. He was required to try again.
When the participant tried the second time, he asked his friend to
help him.

“Good afternoon, Ms Tan and all my friends. Do you have a good

friend? This is my good friend, Jun Xuan. Last week was his
birthday. I gave him a present. Look at this. This is the present.
Do you want to know how to wrap a present like this? Let me
show you. First, you need some ‘ingredients’. A wrapper, a
cellophone tape, a scissor (a pair of scissors), a present. Then, put
the present on the wrapper and fold….. (pausing)…you must be
careful….(pausing)…when you use the scissors. Then, turn to this
side. Then, fold here. Put a cellophone tape here. Now, it is done.
Do you like the present? I hope so. Thank you.”

The participant felt that he could talk a bit more now. However,
he still felt very scared. His hands trembled. His palms wetted.
He found it exciting.
The teacher then asked the students to write down their speech
and marked it.
The third assignment is story-telling. Jones (2001) advised
second language teachers to devote part of their syllabus to the
teaching of story-telling skills. The participant was required to tell
a story for 3 to 5 minutes. He chose the topic of “The wolf in the
sheep skin” because it was short. He memorized it.
On the day, the teacher deliberately asked two experienced
female story-tellers to start. The two students won in the
storytelling competitions before. They were using the same stories
which they used in the competitions. They appeared to be more
comfortable and willing to be ‘starters’ when asked. They had
been trained to use their voices and gestures by their school
teachers. Every part of the story was done skillfully.
Then, the participant was called upon. He started by saying
“Good afternoon, Ms Tan and all my friends. Today, I am going to
 Public Speaking And Speech Anxiety 11

tell you a story. A wolf was hungry. Suddenly, it saw a flock of

sheep in a farm. (See Appendix 4)
Again, the participant did not put in any of his own words. He
just told all that he memorized. He did not do any gestures for he
found them very awkward. When interviewed later, he said that
the story was a little old-fashioned and only primary school
students did it. He could not change his voice as needed. The two
experienced storytellers looked ‘funny’ even though they were
good. He said only girls liked it. When asked about ideas, he said
he would rather tell a story of a great scientist like Thomas Edison.
He did not like storytelling.
This could be a result of his voice. His weakness was exposed.
He did not feel especially nervous but his resistance did not help
him to perform well. In other words, he told the story because he
was asked.
In this task, the researcher found that all the ‘ed’ sounds in the
stories done by every participant were not pronounced. “The wolf
continue (continued) to catch the sheep.”
“The shepherd did not know what had happen (happened) to his
sheep.” “The disguise (disguised) wolf came again.”
The teacher took this opportunity to teach the pronunciation
especially the linking of sounds. She told the class that words
work together with each other and the language will be natural.
They should learn how to put words together and sound natural.

“The wolf jumped at one of the sheep.”

“Before the disguised wolf could eat the sheep, the shepherd came
out.”
“So, it is you!”
“You have been eating my sheep.”

Then, the teacher also demonstrated how to use body gestures

and vary voices as needed. The assignment went on interestingly.
Most of the students felt relaxed because they could all stand up
and ‘play’. Then, the students were asked to reread some
12 Insights Into Second Language

sentences in the stories and demonstrated the linking of sounds to

the class the following week.
In all the three starter speeches, the teacher used a ‘sandwich’
evaluation strategy that she learned in the Toastmasters meetings.
That is after every speaker, the teacher always said two good
points that he/she had, then one suggestion for him/her to improve
on his/her next speech. This is to make sure that the speakers feel
comfortable being evaluated.
As Littlewood (1984) pointed out the importance of the
emotional climate of the learning situations.
“In the classroom, anxiety can hinder learning and
make learners reluctant to express themselves
through the second language. We should therefore
avoid becoming over-critical of their performance,
try to create space for each learner’s individuality
to express itself, and work to produce a relaxed
classroom atmosphere with co-operative
relationships” (p.97-98)

For example,
“Jimmy, you had a very thorough preparation on
your speech. Your eye contact was very good
today. You looked at your audience when you
spoke. If you can use some hand gestures, your
speech will be wonderful. I look forward to your
next speech.”

6.0 CONCLUSION

All in all, the research has benefited the participant and the
researcher. However, this is only a case study with its limitations.
 Public Speaking And Speech Anxiety 13

REFERENCES

Ayres, Joe (1986). Perceptions of Speaking Ability: An

Explanation for Stage Fright. Communication Education vol
35 no 3:275-87
Bryton, S. R. and Scott, M.D. (2006) The Art And Science Of
Public Speaking. (5th Ed) McGraw Hill
Beatty, Michael J. (1988). Situational and Predispositional
Correlates of Public Speaking Anxiety. Communication
Education 37:28-39
Dale, P., & Wolf, J. (2006). Speech Communication Made Simple
(3rd ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.
Devito, J. (2006). Human Communication The Basic Course (10th
ed.). Pearson Education
Horwitz, E.K., M.E. Hortwitz and J. Cope (1986) Foreign
Language Classroom Anxiety. Modern Language Journal
70:125-132
Jones, R. E. (2001) A Consciousness-raising Approaching To The
Teaching Of Conversational Storytelling Skills. ELT Journal
vol 55 no 2 p155-163
Krashen, S. D. (2003) Explorations in Language Acquisition and
Use. Heinemann
MacIntyre, P.D., and R.C. Gardner (1989) Anxiety and Language
Learning: Towards a Theoretical Clarification. Language
Learning 39:251-75
Marrs, C. (1992). The Complete Book Of Speech Communication:
A Workbook of Ideas and Activities for Students of Speech
and Theatre. Meriwether Publishing Ltd. Colorado.
McCroskey, J. C. (2006) An Introduction To Rhetorical
Communication: A Western Rhetorical Perspective (9th ed.)
Pearson Education.
14 Insights Into Second Language

Appendix 1

Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24)

Directions: This instrument is composed of twenty-four statements

concerning feelings about communication with other people.
Please indicate the degree to which each statement applies to you
by marking whether you (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) are
undecided, (4) disagree, or (5) strongly disagree. Work quickly;
record your first impression.

_____ 1. I dislike participating in group discussions.

_____ 2. Generally, I am comfortable while participating in group
discussions.
_____ 3. I am tense and nervous while participating in group
discussions.
_____ 4. I like to get involved in group discussions.
_____ 5. Engaging in a group discussion with new people makes
me tense and nervous.
_____ 6. I am calm and relaxed while participating in a group
discussion.
_____ 7. Generally, I am nervous when I have to participate in a
meeting.
_____ 8. Usually I am calm and relaxed while participating in a
meeting.
_____ 9. I am very calm and relaxed when I am called upon to
express an opinion at a meeting.
_____ 10. I am afraid to express myself at meetings.
_____ 11. Communicating at meetings usually makes me feel
uncomfortable.
_____ 12. I am very relaxed when answering questions at a
meeting.
_____ 13. While participating in a conversation with a new
acquaintance, I feel very nervous.
_____ 14. I have no fear of speaking up in conversations.
 Public Speaking And Speech Anxiety 15

_____ 15. Ordinarily I am very tense and nervous in conversations.

_____ 16. Ordinarily I am very calm and relaxed in conversations.
_____ 17. While conversing with a new acquaintance, I feel very
relaxed.
_____ 18. I’m afraid to speak up in conversations.
_____ 19. I have no fear of giving a speech.
_____ 20. Certain parts of my body feel very tense and rigid while
I am giving a speech.
_____ 21. I feel relaxed while giving a speech.
_____ 22. My thoughts become confused and jumbled when I am
giving a speech.
_____ 23. I face the prospect of giving a speech with confidence.
_____ 24. While giving a speech, I get so nervous I forget facts I
really know.

Scoring

The PRCA permits computation of one total score and four

subscores. The subscores are related to communication
apprehension in each of four common communication contexts:
group discussions, meetings, interpersonal conversations, and
public speaking. To compute your scores, merely add or subtract
your scores for each item as indicated below.

Subscores Scoring Formula

Group Discussion - 18, plus scores for items 2, 4, and 6 and minus
scores for items 1, 3, and 5.

Meetings - 18, plus scores for items 8, 9, and 12 and minus scores
for items 7, 10, and 11.
16 Insights Into Second Language

Interpersonal Conversation - 18, plus scores for items 14, 16, and
17 and minus scores for items 13, 15, and 18.
Public Speaking - 18, plus scores for items 19, 21, and 23 and
minus scores for items 20, 22, and 24.

To obtain your total score for the PRCA, simply add your four
subscores together. Your score should range between 24 and 120.
If your score is below 24 or above 120, you have made a mistake
in computing the score. Scores on the four contexts (groups,
meetings, interpersonal conversations, and public speaking) can
range from a low of 6 to a high of 30. Any score above 18
indicates some degree of apprehension. If your score is above 18
for the public speaking context, you are like the overwhelming
majority of Americans.
Norms for PRCA-24:

Scores Mean Standard

Deviation
Total Score 65.5 15.3
Group 15.4 4.8
Meetings 16.4 4.8
Interpersonal 14.5 4.2
Public Speaking 19.3 5.1

Source: James C. McCroskey (1993). An introduction to rhetorical

communication, 6th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc.,
p. 37. Used for Educational Purposes only.
 Public Speaking And Speech Anxiety 17

Appendix 2

FOREIGN (SECOND) LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

ANXIETY SCALE

Directions: Each of the following statements refers to how you

feel about your English language class. Please indicate whether

• Strongly agree = SA
you:

• Agree = A
• Neither agree nor disagree = N
• Disagree = D
• Strongly disagree = SD

Indicate your feelings by checking the appropriate box next to each

statement. Please give your first reaction to each statement. Please
mark an answer for EVERY statement.

SA A N D SD
1. I never feel quite sure of myself when I
am speaking in English.

2. I DON’T worry about making mistakes

in language class.

3. I tremble when I know that I’m going to

be called on in language class.

4. It frightens me when I don’t understand

what the teacher is saying in the English
language.

5. It wouldn’t bother me at all to take more

English language classes.
18 Insights Into Second Language

6. During language class, I find myself

thinking about things that have nothing
to do with the course.

7. I keep thinking that the other students

are better at language than I am.

8. I am usually at ease (comfortable)

during tests in my language class.

9. I start to panic when I have to speak

without preparation in language class.

10. I worry about the consequences of

failing my language class.
11. I don’t understand why some people get
so upset over language classe

12. In language class, I can get so nervous I

forget things I know.
SA A N D SD
13. It embarrasses me to volunteer answers
in my language class.

14. I would NOT be nervous speaking the

English language with native speakers.

15. I get upset when I don’t understand

what the teacher is correcting.

16. Even if I am well prepared for language

class, I feel anxious about it.

17. I often feel like not going to my

language class.
 Public Speaking And Speech Anxiety 19

18. I feel confident when I speak in English

in my language class.

19. I am afraid that my language teacher is

ready to correct every mistake I make.

20. I can feel my heart pounding when I’m

going to be called on in language class.

21. The more I study for a language test, the

more confused I get.

22. I DON’T feel pressure to prepare very

well for language class.

23. I always feel that the other students

speak the English language better than I
do.

24. I feel very self-conscious about

speaking English in front of the other
students.
25. Language class moves so quickly I
worry about getting left behind.

26. I feel more tense and nervous in my

language class than in my other classes.

27. I get nervous and confused when I am

speaking in my language class.

28. When I’m on my way to language class,

I feel very sure and relaxed.

29. I get nervous when I don’t understand

20 Insights Into Second Language

every word the language teacher says.

30. I feel overwhelmed by the number of

rules you have to learn to speak the
English language.

31. I am afraid that the other students in the

class will laugh at me when I speak in
English.

32. I would probably feel comfortable

around native speakers of the English
language.

33. I get nervous when the language teacher

asks questions which I haven’t prepared
in advance.
 Public Speaking And Speech Anxiety 21

Appendix 3

Assignment 2 (3-4 minutes)

Demonstration speech.

When we learn, we can learn better by seeing it than by telling it

only. Speech is also the same. Tell us how you do something.
Show us how you do it. We would love to learn from you.

Instructions:

1. Choose a topic.
2. List all essentials, ingredients or equipment needed.
3. Show the entire process, step by step.
4. Show the results.
5. Maintain eye contact with your audience.

The topics can be:

1. How to wash dishes

2. How to play a musical instrument
3. How to make a salad
4. How to wrap a birthday present
5. How to fold a paper star
6. How to play a game
22 Insights Into Second Language

Assignment 3: (3-5 minutes)

You have learned so many important lessons about life in stories.

Fairy tales and fables have been accompanying us to grow. Do
you know they can help us again? They are good choices for a
speaker to develop gestures, facial expressions, eye contact and
vocal variety.

In this assignment, you need to

1. Choose a fairy tale or fable.
2. Recite the story.
3. Play distinct roles (characters) through movements, facial
expressions and vocal changes.
4. Use eye contact.
5. Vary rate.
6. Practice aloud several times.

The topics can be:

1. The three little pigs
2. Lion and Mouse
3. The princess and the pea
4. Cinderella
5. The silly goats
6. Beauty and the beast
7. The tortoise and the hare
 Public Speaking And Speech Anxiety 23

Appendix 4

The Wolf in the Sheep Skin

A wolf was hungry. Suddenly, it saw a flock of sheep in a farm.

They were eating grass. It wanted to catch those sheep.

The wolf was unlucky. There was a shepherd looking after his
sheep. He had a rifle with him. “How am I going to catch those
sheep?” the wolf asked itself. “The shepherd will shoot me if I go
into his farm.”

The wolf looked around. Then it saw a sheep’s skin. It had an

idea. It stole the skin. The wolf covered itself with the skin. It
disguised itself as one of the sheep. “Now, I will get those sheep,”
it said happily. Then it walked slowly towards the other sheep.

The shepherd did not know that the wolf had disguised itself as a
sheep. The wolf quietly caught one of the sheep and ran away. It
ate the sheep. The wolf continued to catch the sheep and ate them
one by one. It was very happy. The shepherd did not know what
had happened to his sheep. After some time, the shepherd began to
see that his sheep were getting less. He wanted to find out what
had happened to them.

One day, the disguised wolf came again. It did not see the
shepherd. The wolf jumped at one of the sheep. The shepherd was
hiding behind a tree. He saw the disguised wolf. It was catching
one of his sheep. Before the disguised wolf could eat the sheep,
the shepherd came out. He pulled the sheep skin from the wolf.

“So, it is you! You have been eating my sheep!” the shepherd

shouted angrily. The wolf could not run away. The shepherd
caught the wolf. He was going to punish the bad wolf for eating
his sheep.
24 Insights Into Second Language

The moral of the story is: We may be clever but we may not
always be lucky. People who cheat will be caught.
 2
TEACHING DISCUSSION SKILLS FOR
MUET SPEAKING EXAMINATION: A
COMPARISON OF TWO APPROACHES
Hafiza Aini Hj Hassan
Hadina Habil

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Malaysian University English Test (MUET) was introduced in

1999, and with its introduction, learners who wish to further their
studies after their secondary education have to prepare themselves
to sit for four papers – speaking, listening, reading and writing.
Among all the papers, the learners are mostly intimidated by the
speaking test. This is the paper which tests their speaking skills
formally and the result will determine which courses they can
pursue in or whether they can carry on with the chosen course. This
is because the universities and colleges of higher education have
already set the minimal requirements of the bands for the MUET
result that the students should attain for them to be allowed to
register in the respective courses.
Although these students have been exposed to the formal
teaching of English Language since primary school up till form 5,
they have never been assessed formally in speaking the way they
are assessed in MUET examination. The nearest will be their oral
assessment in their secondary school which they either choose their
own topics, prepare beforehand or done informally during lessons.
26 Insights Into Second Learning

In MUET Speaking test, however the candidates are only given

the topic when they are seated in their group of four in the
examination room together with two examiners. The test will be in
two parts – Task A and Task B. The candidates are only given two
minutes to digest the given situation, understand the task that they
have to carry out and prepare their points to be presented after the
two minutes are up. Usually, the members in the same group are
given the same situation but with different points of view. Each
member does not know the points of view given to the other
members until the presentation of Task A. Each candidate is
allocated with two minutes to present their justifications to support
the point of view allocated for them pertaining the given situation.
During the presentation of Task A, the candidates are also required
to understand points of view presented by the other members and
make short notes as this will help them in the presentation of Task
B. Once Task A is performed, the candidates are given another two
minutes to prepare for Task B.
In this task, the candidates are required to have a discussion,
choosing the best point of view among the four given by comparing
an contrasting the points of view which they presented in Task A.
During this presentation, the candidates need to show their maturity
and ability to manage a discussion, performing the skills which are
essential in a discussion.
One of the challenging tasks that need to be carried out by the
MUET candidates is in the MUET Speaking test whereby they
should be able to discuss on the chosen topics given within the
limited time allocated among their four group members. The topic
of the discussion is only given to them when they are seated in the
examination room. The time given is only two minutes for them to
digest the situation and prepare their points and notes according to
the point of view prepared for them. They have to suit the point of
view to the situation given to them and give justification to it.
During this time, they do not know the points of view prepared for
the other members of the group.
 Teaching Discussion Skills 27

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

For a language to be understood, the community must have shared

knowledge and understanding towards its usage. Carter and
McCarthy (1997) explain that a language is in some way
preformulated. The idea is that the language forms must be
routinised and patterned. This highlights the importance of the
language community to have shared knowledge of the forms to
understand each other. With this idea in mind, two ways of
teaching speaking has been chosen for this study in preparing the
learners for their MUET Speaking test. The first is the Genre
Analysis Approach, and the second, the Audio-lingual Method.
Both ways highlight the form and structure of the language, only
the execution of the lessons will differentiate one from another.
Genre analysis at first was being applied in the field of
communicative, focusing on the structure and language features of
particular genres, guiding the students to have a control over the
specific genres that they have to produce in professional and
academic environment. For example, Swales (1981) being very
concerned in helping the students to improve their writing skills
came up with a model for writing article introductions. Bhatia
(1981) on the other hand looked into the legal materials.
From there, Genre Analysis evolved into having the analysis of
the genre as social action, looking into how genre works in the
different sociocultural settings, achieving various purposes, how
genres group together in differing or similar sets, forming systems
and networks (Miller 1984; Berkenkotter and Huckin 1995). The
relationship between the context and the linguistic features of the
genres was developed and highlighted in Halliday’s Systemic
Functional Linguistic (SFL).
Inspired by the systematic approach of the Genre Analysis and
the flexibility allowing the communication to take place, Hafiza
(2007) has developed 12 moves which are essential for the
candidates to perform well in responding to Task A MUET
Speaking test. From her study, she finds that the Genre Analysis
Approach which she adopted has helped her learners to respond to
28 Insights Into Second Learning

Task A MUET Speaking Test better. She sees that the learners are
more aware of the structure of the response that is required to be
accepted as a good response. The materials improvised and
recordings exposed to the students have helped them to be alert of
the steps that they have to follow and perform during their
response.

3.0 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Speaking is a complex and challenging activity, especially to those

whose English is their second language. This is because the
students do not have enough practice in using the language outside
their English Language class. The English Language teachers are
also faced with the challenge to teach the language to the learners
and make the learners practice the language while they are in the
classroom and even outside. Despite the phenomena above, MUET
expects the learners to be bale to speak in a formal way. However,
the informal manner of speaking is already intimidating to the
learners, what more the formal style of speaking.
Due to the complexity of the characteristics mentioned above,
only a small number of students is able to communicate effectively,
and the reason for their ability might due to their English speaking
family background.
With the lack of speaking skills in the candidates, the teaching
materials in the market, and the urge to assist the candidates in their
performance in the speaking test, the researcher decides to adapt
two approaches – Genre Analysis and Audio-lingual Method, and
compare the effectiveness of these methods to the candidates.

4.0 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

This study will be carried out to meet the following objectives:

 Teaching Discussion Skills 29

4.1 To tailor more effective lessons for oral communication by

applying the Genre Analysis Approach, and the Audio-
lingual Method in instilling the oral skills of managing a
discussion in the learners’ response to the tasks similar to
task B in the MUET Speaking Test.
4.2. To compare the effectiveness of the Genre Analysis
Approach in speaking lessons to the Audio-lingual Method.
4.3 To determine ways in which the use of the Genre Analysis
Approach and the Audio-lingual Method help learners to be
more aware of the skills of managing a discussion.

5.0 RESEARCH METHODS

This study will focus on two ways of teaching speaking skills – the
Genre Analysis Approach and the Audio-lingual Method. The
subjects will be form six students who are preparing to sit for the
MUET tests. The subjects will be in two different groups, each will
experience a different way of teaching – one via the Genre
Analysis Approach, while another the Audio-lingual Method. The
subjects’ responses will be analysed and compared. Finally in the
conclusion, the researcher will be able to make recommendations
of the strengths of the two ways and how the language teachers can
adapt and adopt them to be utilised in their English Language
classes, especially in teaching speaking.
In order to carry out the research, first of all, the samples will
be identified. By using stratified sampling, the students of lower six
will be chosen. Two groups of average achievers and another two
groups of low achievers will be identified. Questionnaires will be
given to them and they will also be interviewed to get their profile.
The students will have to sit for a speaking test, based on the
previous MUET Speaking test papers. The responses will be
recorded and transcribed. Then the lessons will be tailored to the
students’ needs.
30 Insights Into Second Learning

After sitting for the Speaking test, a pair of average and lower
achievers will be exposed to the speaking lessons based on the
Genre Analysis Approach while another pair will be taught using
the Audio-lingual Method.

5.1 THE GENRE ANALYSIS APPROACH

The Genre Analysis Approach will be adopted from Robert (1997)

framework, and it will be as follows:
1. Presentation (Observation and Hypothesis forming)
2. Presentation (Clarification)
3. Practice (Restricted Use)
4. Production (Authentic Use)
Before the lessons are carried out, the lesson will be identifying
the moves essential to be highlighted to the earners so that they will
be able to identify and pick them up during the observations. Once
the moves are identified, they will be used as samples of
discussion. These samples will be recorded as teaching materials,
and the transcriptions will also be prepared.

5.1.1. Presentation (Observation and Hypothesis forming)

The students will be exposed to recordings, and they will be guided

to identify the moves concerned. The researcher will take a role as
a facilitator and guide the students to identify the moves. This will
take a while and the teacher will need to repeat playing the
recordings to the students. Once the identification is done, the
teacher will distribute the transcriptions of the recordings.
 Teaching Discussion Skills 31

5.1.2. Presentation (Clarification)

Once the moves are established, the learners will be exposed to

more recordings of discussions. At this stage they practice
recognising the moves orally. This activity will also be followed
with the distribution of the transcriptions.

5.1.3. Practice ( Restricted Use)

This is the stage where the students are exposed to the transitional
verbs needed and other phrases which are essential to the functions
that they need to perform in their discussions. They will refer to the
transcriptions as they go through each function, e.g. to interrupt, to
disagree, etc.

5.1.4 Production (Authentic Use)

At this stage, the learners practice the skills that they have learned
in situation similar to the MUET Speaking test. This is important as
they need to be able to produce their responses within the limited
time, as allocated during the real MUET Speaking test.

5.2 THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD

The lessons on the speaking skills based on the Audio-lingual

Method will be focusing on the functions that the students will
have to carry out during the discussion in the MUET Speaking test.
Once the functions are identified, the researcher will categorise
them and provide phrases that the students have to produce.
32 Insights Into Second Learning

Once the phrases are prepared, the drilling and pattern practices
are prepared based on the Audio-lingual Method (Richards, J.C. et-
al. 1986) which are:
1. Repetition
2. Inflection
3. Replacement
4. Restatement

5.2.1 Repetition

At this stage, short utterances are prepared based on a situation

similar to the MUET Speaking test. The researcher will utter the
phrases aloud and the students will repeat the utterances as soon as
they hear it.

5.2.2 Inflection

The second stage, the researcher will prepare utterances and the
students will be asked to change them into another form. For
example, they will be asked to change the utterances into past tense
or future tense, or changing the subjects or objects into singular or
plural.

5.2.3 Replacement

The next stage, the students will be asked to change the objects
mentioned in the utterances by using pronouns. This will prevent
the students from repeating the name of the objects in their
responses.
 Teaching Discussion Skills 33

5.2.4 Restatement

The last stage here, the students will be required to rephrase

utterances that they hear produced by the researcher. Here, the
researcher will telling them the function that they have to produce
within the given situation, and the students will have to give their
responses right after that.
After the learners are exposed to the lessons, they will have to
sit for another Speaking test, situation taken from the previous
MUET Speaking test. Their responses will be recorded and
transcribed. The transcription will then be analysed to determine he
achievement of the objectives of the research.

6.0 EXPECTED FINDINGS

The researcher would expect to see that the learners who have a
better proficiency in the language will find the Genre Analysis
Approach really enlighten them to the form and structure of the
response that they need to produce. They would feel that the
approach really benefits them as they are engaged in exploring the
genre thoroughly.
However, learners with lower proficiency would feel that they
benefit from the Audio-lingual Method as the drilling helps them to
produce sentences as needed for them to participate in the
discussions better.

7.0 CONCLUSION

This research will basically expose the students with two ways of
learning the speaking skills that are the Genre Analysis Approach
and the Audio-lingual Method. The former are the recent teaching
34 Insights Into Second Learning

style which are gaining its popularity while the latter have been
practiced for 5 decades. Nevertheless, despite the vast difference in
the number of years they have been practiced, there are a lot of
advantages which can be gained as both have their strengths which
can be exploited in the education world.

REFERENCES

Bailey, K.M.Issues in Teaching Speaking Skills to Adult ESOL

Learners. National Centre for the Study of Adult Learning
and Literacy. 2005. Volume 6 – Chapter 5
Berkenkotter, C. and Huckin, T. Genre Knowkedge in Disciplinary
Communication: Cognition/Culture/Power. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 1995.
Canale, M and M. Swain. Theoretical bases of communicative
approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied
Linguistics 1:1980.1 – 47.
Derewianka, B. Trends and Issues in Genre-Based Approaches.
RELC Journal. 2003. 34:133 - 154
Fries, C.C. The Structure of English: An Introduction to the
Construction of English Sentences. New York: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich. 1957.
Hafiza Aini Bte Hassan. The Use of Genre Analysis in Developing
Speaking Skills in a MUET Classroom Context. Master
Dissertation. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; 2006.
Miller, C.R. Genre as social action. Quarterly Journal of Speech.
1984. 70: 151 – 67.
Swales J.M. Aspects of Article Introductions (Aston ESP Research
Reports, no 1), Language Studies Unit, University of Aston
in Birminghan; 1981.
 3
USING TRIANGULATION IN
RESEARCH ON ORAL
INSTRUCTIONAL LANGUAGE OF
TEACHER TRAINEES IN TEACHING
SCIENCE IN ENGLISH
Azian Abd Aziz @ Ahmad
Abdul Halim Abdul Raof

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Dornyei (2007) and Richards (2003) list the following as typical

characteristics of qualitative research. Firstly, it takes place in a
natural setting, devoid of any manipulation. It is also concerned
with gaining insights into the lived experiences of the participants
and usually focuses on a small number of participants. In addition,
it utilises an emergent research design which is flexible in nature
and can evolve in tandem with the development of the study.
Hence, it generates rather than tests hypotheses. Finally, it is
fundamentally interpretive as the data obtained would be
subjectively interpreted by the researcher.
It is these characteristics that have allowed qualitative research
to present a broader point of view through the inclusion of
unexpected findings as well as obtain more comprehensive
findings through the use of context (Ammenwerth et. al, 2003).
Nevertheless, despite the ability of qualitative research in
providing invaluable insights into human behaviour, it still has its
36 Insights Into Second Learning

critics. As pointed out by Decrop (1999), the main criticism against

qualitative research is not on the usefulness of qualitative data, but
rather, on the criteria by which the trustworthiness of qualitative
research is based. One way in which to counter such criticisms and
to strengthen the design of a qualitative study is through
triangulation.

1.1 TRIANGULATION

Denzin (1978) and Patton (1990) identify four basic types of

triangulation that contribute to enhancing the validity of qualitative
analysis:
1. Theoretical triangulation – using multiple theoretical
perspectives in interpreting a set of data
2. Data triangulation – using data from different sources in
investigating a particular phenomenon
3. Method triangulation – using more than one method of data
collection, which could either be ‘within-method triangulation’
such as using two different types of questionnaire, or ‘between-
method triangulation’ such as using observation and interviews
to assess a particular issue.
4. Investigator or analyst triangulation – using more than one
researcher either in collecting or analysing data.

Triangulation allows research findings to be checked against

other data and perspectives. This would ultimately reduce any bias
in the data. In view of the benefits offered through the use of
triangulation, this research, in investigating the oral instructional
language of teacher trainees in teaching science in English has
strived to incorporate all four types of triangulation. This paper
will illustrate how the four types of triangulation have been
incorporated into a qualitative study investigating the oral
instructional language of non-native speaker (NNS) teacher
trainees in teaching science in English.
 Using Triangulation In Research 37

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The Malaysian government, in 2002 announced that commencing

2003, English would be used as the medium of instruction in the
teaching and learning of Mathematics and Science subjects.
Studies on needs assessments of practising Mathematics and
Science teachers teaching in English, reveal that practising teachers
tend to rate oral instructional English language ability as the most
crucial in implementing the teaching and learning of Mathematics
and Science in English (Noraini Idris et al., 2007; Kamisah Osman,
et al., 2006). However, a significant percentage of Mathematics
and Science teachers surveyed revealed their reservations of their
English language spoken ability in the classroom (Hamidah Ab
Rahman et al., 2005) with a high percentage admitting to needing
help in spoken English (Noraini Idris et. al., 2007; Kamisah
Osman, et al., 2006).
To boost the confidence and morale of these teachers, the
Ministry of Education launched a large scale and concerted support
mechanism to help develop practising Mathematics and Science
teachers’ English language competence via the English for the
Teaching of Mathematics and Science (ETeMS) in-service training
programme. The programme provides opportunities to develop
language in three broad areas: i) for accessing information, ii) for
teaching Mathematics and Science, and iii) for professional
exchange (ETeMS Module, 2003).
With so much emphasis given to practising teachers, another
equally important group of teachers, namely those training to be
Mathematics and Science teachers, have largely been ignored. This
group of teachers are not receiving any formalised English
language training as enjoyed by their practising counterparts, nor
have their English language needs been analysed. Instead, it has
been largely up to the respective teacher education institutions
which train these teachers to decide and implement any English
language training as the institutions deem fit.
The current tend employed by teacher education institutions is to
focus on three main elements, namely, knowledge of content
38 Insights Into Second Learning

subject, pedagogical courses and practice and lastly general

education courses (Committee on Science and Mathematics
Teacher Education, 2000; Faculty of Education UTM Academic
Guidelines, 2006/07). However, as argued by Ozgun-Koca and Sen
(2006), being good at doing Mathematics or Science does not
equate to being good at teaching them. This is because thought
processes do not work in isolation as language is needed to
reformulate the process (Vygotsky, 1978). Thus, ignoring the
English language needs of Mathematics and Science teacher
trainees could prove detrimental to the teaching and learning of
Mathematics and Science in English because appropriate language
is needed to impart knowledge.
Thus, the purpose of this study is to determine the language
demands faced by non-native speaker (NNS) Science teacher
trainees in the second language (L2) Science classrooms. In order
to achieve this purpose, it intends to answer the following research
questions:
1. What are the characteristics of the oral input that learners
receive from their NNS Science teacher trainees in the L2
Science classroom?
2. Which oral instructional language techniques employed by the
NNS Science teacher trainees in the L2 Science classroom are
perceived by the learners to act as comprehensible input?
3. Which oral instructional language techniques employed by the
NNS Science teacher trainees in the L2 Science classroom
provide support or scaffolding to the learners?

2.0 DESIGN OF STUDY

In the efforts to obtain insights into the L2 Science classroom,

data will be collected as they occur in their natural setting, which
in this case, is the L2 Science classroom. This study is thus
concerned with conducting an empirical observation in an
authentic situation. Neuendorf (2002 : 14) defines empirical
 Using Triangulation In Research 39

observation as “…based on real, apprehendable phenomena.” As

language needs to be observed and understood in a natural setting,
the qualitative research design therefore offers the best source of
illumination (Rossman and Ralis, cited in Creswell, 2003).
This section describes the design of the study highlighting the
triangulation aspect.

2.1 THEORETICAL TRIANGULATION

The study has been framed against three theoretical perspectives,

namely, communicative competence theory, second language
acquisition (SLA) theories and sociocultural theory.
Communicative competence theory is very much relevant to this
study as a speaker needs to know what to say, how to say it and
when to say it. On the surface, communicative competence can be
perceived to be intrapersonal in nature. However, as noted by
Savignon (1983 : 8), “…communicative competence is relative,
not absolute, and depends on the cooperation of all the participants
involved.” In other words, it is a dynamic interpersonal construct
which is manifested during an interaction (Brown, 2000).
However, of the four communicative competence components:
grammatical, sociolinguistics, discourse and strategic competence
(Canale, 1983; Canale and Swain,1980), only discourse and strategic
competence will be addressed in the study. This stand is taken in view
of English as an International Language context. Thus, taking the
communicative competence framework in total would be, “…utopian,
unrealistic and constraining…”. (Alptekin, 2002 : 59).
In turning to second language acquisition (SLA) theories and
research, Krashen’s (1982, 1985) Input Hypothesis offers a
plausible explanation of the role of teachers’ oral instructional
language in the content classroom. The Input Hypothesis argues
that for learners to progress, they need to be provided with
comprehensible input which is slightly beyond the L2 learner’s
current competence level (i + 1). It is further suggested that
40 Insights Into Second Learning

language simplification together with contextual and

extralinguistic cues can help promote comprehensible input.
Krashen’s (1982, 1985) Input Hypothesis is not without its
detractors. For instance, although Long (1985, 1996)
acknowledges that simplified input and context promote
comprehensible input, he argues that interactive input is more
important than non-interactive input in facilitating comprehension.
This is because interactional adjustments made would allow the
learner or less proficient interlocutor to make the connection
between input, selective attention and output. Long’s (1985, 1996)
Interaction Hypothesis thus postulates that it is interactional
modifications such as comprehension checks, clarification requests
and paraphrase, which occur in meaning negotiation, that are
crucial in making the input comprehensible.
Finally, the sociocultural approach asserts that knowledge is
acquired first on the social level between people as an
interpsychological category and later, on the individual level inside
the individual as an intrapsychological category (Vygotsky, 1978).
According to the Vygotskian perspective, the teacher or some other
knowledgeable person plays a key role in mediating and
facilitating learners’ knowledge acquisition. He uses the ‘zone of
proximal development’ (ZPD) to conceptualise the developmental
potential of a learner where he defined the ZPD as “…the distance
between the actual developmental level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of potential
development as determined through problem solving under adult
guidance…” (Vygotsky, 1978: 86).
As argued by Denzin (1989) examining the same data against
several theoretical perspectives not only offers a more reliable
form of criticism, but also conforms to the scientific method.
 Using Triangulation In Research 41

2.2 DATA TRIANGULATION

Data triangulation in the study involves obtaining data from two

different sources. The first source of data would be obtained from
Science teacher trainees selected using the purposive sampling
method. The second source of data would be collected from
learners or pupils attending the L2 Science classrooms, selected
using the disproportional stratified random sampling method.
In order to make informed decisions pertaining to the oral
instructional language needs of Science teacher trainees in the L2
Science classrooms, the target speech community itself would be
investigated. This would involve obtaining data directly from the
Science teacher trainees themselves. Data would be collected via
classroom observation. This would entail a transcription of the
Science teacher trainees’ oral instructional language produced in
the L2 Science classroom, as well as the context in which the
language is produced. The Science teacher trainees would also be
interviewed using the stimulated recall technique.
Feedback from learners in the L2 Science classroom would also
be obtained. As Good and Brophy (1994) point out, learners are
not passive recipients in a classroom as they need to construct their
own meaning and must make an effort to understand the
information that has been imparted to them in order for the
knowledge to become useful and meaningful. Allwright (2005:16)
corroborated with this view when he argues that, “…teachers and
learners co-construct their lessons…in this sense, lessons were
jointly managed rather than managed by teacher in full control of
everything.” In other words, if the learners were to be left out,
there would be a misrepresentation between the relationship of
teaching and learning as it would imply that what is important in a
classroom is what gets ‘taught’ rather than what gets ‘learned’.
Obtaining data from two different sources could enhance the
understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.
42 Insights Into Second Learning

2.3 METHOD TRIANGULATION

Method triangulation in the study involves the use of ‘between-

method triangulation’ where two different methods of data
collection are applied to access information from the same group
of participants, namely the Science teacher trainees.
All oral instructional language produced by the Science teacher
trainees in the L2 Science classroom would be audiotaped and
transcribed. The data would then be analysed by the researcher
which entails coding and categorising before moving towards
interpretation (Miles and Huberman, 1994; Coffey and
Atkinson,1996). This is in fact a typical way in which verbal data
are analysed, with researchers providing their own interpretation
pertaining to what is going on and as to the value of the exchange
(see for example Viiri and Saari, 2006; Nassaji and Wells, 2000).
However, Hawkins (1985), in using a post-task commentary
technique to elicit comments from her respondents, found that
respondents were seen to produce correct responses during an
interaction, despite not understanding what was being said in the
communication. Evidence from Hawkin’s (1985) study suggests
that interpretations of verbal language, need to proceed with
caution.
In view of the shortcomings of merely relying on the researcher
to interpret the verbal data produced by the Science teacher
trainees, it would be prudent to use another method which could
compensate for such a weakness. Thus, the Science teacher
trainees would also be interviewed using the stimulated recall
method. This would involve the researcher and participant
(individual Science teacher trainee) listening to one complete
audiotaped lesson. As they listen to the audio recording, either the
researcher or participant, would be free to stop the tape and
comment on specific oral features. The participant would be
required to articulate what he or she was thinking at the particular
time when he or she was talking in class.
Examining the same thing from two different perspectives could
provide a more authentic portrayal of the issue being investigated.
 Using Triangulation In Research 43

3.0 INVESTIGATOR OR ANALYST TRIANGULATION

Having several researchers investigating the same issue could help

reduce potential bias which could occur as a result of having only
one researcher (Patton, 1990). However, this involves considerable
concerted team effort. In a situation such as a PhD research, which
involves only one researcher, it would be rather difficult to have
multiple investigators, unless it is something which is already built
in, such as a research evaluating the teaching practice of Science
teacher trainees. Here, it would be possible for the Science teacher
trainees or participants of the research to be evaluated not only by
the researcher, but also by their practicum supervisors appointed
by the respective educational institutions.
Nevertheless, in the event of it not being practical to have
multiple investigators, a possible alternative would be to have
more than one analyst independently examining the same data.
Any comments, additional information and disagreements could
then be taken into account. Having more than one analyst could
help enhance the reliability of the data.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This triangulation of data, which uses a variety of methods,

sources and perspectives, tends to balance out the strengths and
weaknesses of each method (Neuendorf, 2002). In addition, it
provides the framework for a thick description (Geertz, 1973)
which gives significance to what is being observed. As Denzin
(1994: 505) points out, “A thick description … gives the context
of an experience, states the intentions and meanings that
organised the experience and reveals the experience as a process.”
Thus, the complex facets of Science teacher trainees’ talk in the
L2 Science classroom could be better revealed through the varied
research instruments used. In short, triangulation allows a
comparison of multiple perceptions of the same phenomenon
44 Insights Into Second Learning

which contributes to the trustworthiness of the data (Glesne,

2006) and increases the validity of the qualitative research (Stake,
1994).

REFERENCES

Allwright, D. (2005). From Teaching Points to Learning

Opportunities and beyond. TESOL Quarterly. 39 (1). 9-31.
Alptekin, C. (2002). Towards Intercultural Communicative
Competence in ELT. ELT Journal. 56(1). 57-64.
Ammenwerth, E., Iller, C. and Mansmann, U. (2003). Can
Evaluation Studies Benefit From Triangulation? A Case
Study. International Journal of Medical Informatics. 70. 237-
248.
Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and
Teaching (Fourth Edition). New York. Addison-Wesley
Longman Inc.
Canale, M. (1983). From Communicative Competence to
Communicative Language Pedagogy. In J.C. Richards and
R.W. Schmidt (Eds). Language and Communication.
Singapore. Longman.
Canale, M. and Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical Bases of
Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching
and Testing. Applied Linguistics. 1(1). 1-47.
Coffey, A. and Atkinson, P. (1996). Making Sense of Qualitative
Data: Complementary Research Strategies. United States of
America. Sage Publications.
Committee on Science and Mathematics Teacher Education.
(2000). Educating Teachers of Science, Mathematics and
Technology: New Practices for the New Millennium.
Washington DC. National Academy Press.
 Using Triangulation In Research 45

Creswell, J.W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative,

Quantitative and Mixed Method Approaches. Thousand
Oaks. Sage.
Decrop, A.(1999). Triangulation in Qualitative Tourism Research.
Tourism Management. 20. 157-161.
Denzin, N.K. (1978). The Research Act: A Theoretical
Introduction to Sociological Methods. New York. McGraw
Hill.
Denzin, N.K. (1989). The Research Act: A Theoretical
Introduction to Sociological Methods (Third Edition).
Prentice Hall. Englewoods Cliffs.
Denzin, N.K. (1994). The Art and Politics of Interpretation. In
N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (Eds). Handbook of
Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks. Sage.
Dornyei, Z. (2007). Research Methods in Applied Linguistics:
Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methodologies. Oxford
University Press. China.
ETeMS Module. (2003 ). English for Teaching Mathematics and
Science (ETeMS) – Phase 1: The 5-Day Module. English
Language Teaching Centre, Malaysia. Teacher Education
Division. Ministry of Education, Malaysia.
Faculty of Education, UTM Academic Guidelines, 2006/2007
(2006). Jabatan Multimedia Pendidikan – Fakulti Pendidikan.
Skudai. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Geertz, C. (1973) . The Interpretation of Cultures. Thousand
Oaks. Sage.
Glesne, C. (2006). Becoming Qualitative Researchers – An
Introduction (Third Edition). United States of America.
Pearson Inc.
Good, T.L., Brophy, J.E. (1994). Looking in Classrooms. New
York. HarperCollins College Publishers.
Hamidah Ab Rahman, Aziz Nordin, Mukheta Isa, Fatimah Puteh,
Faruk Muhammad, Norazman Abd Majid, Aminah Ahmad
Khalid, Siti Fatimah Bahari, Hj Shufaat Tumin and
Zurihanmi Zakariya (2005). Teachers’ Competency in the
Teaching of mathematics in English in Malaysian secondary
46 Insights Into Second Learning

Schools. Paper Presented at the Reform, Revolution and

Paradigm Shifts in Mathematics
Hawkins, B. (1985). Is an “Appropriate Response” Always so
Appropriate? In S. Gass and C. Madden (Eds). Input in
Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, Massachusetts.
Newbury House.
 4
MULTIPLE DATA-COLLECTION
METHODS
AS A SOURCE OF INSIGHTS INTO
GRAMMAR TEACHING
Fauziah Ismail
Zubaidah Awang

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The issue of grammar teaching in Language Teacher Education

(LTE) needs to take into account the factors that can influence
teacher trainees’ pedagogical choices and decision-making when
teaching grammar in the classrooms. Language researchers (Ellis,
1998; Borg, 1998, 1999 & 2006; Burgess, 2002) have investigated
how language teachers’ cognition, education experience and
second language (L2) competence can influence their teaching of
grammar. These researchers explored how language teachers
approach the teaching of grammar in their classes and the reasons
affecting their decisions. However, few research have been carried
out on the factors that influence how teacher trainees approach the
teaching of grammar during their practicum. Exploring teacher
trainees’ pedagogical systems, grammar teaching and the reasons
that underpin their pedagogical choices and decision-making can
provide insights into the factors that underlie teacher trainees’
behavior. This kind of research can provide answers to what extent
pre-LTE, formal training in LTE and teacher trainees’ cognition,
48 Insights Into Second Language

beliefs and values shape their grammar teaching and classroom

practices.
This paper presents the qualitative approach of data collection on
the way teacher trainees conduct grammar teaching in their
classrooms and the reasons that underpin their pedagogical
choices and decisions in teaching grammar. It discusses how the
research is grounded in the realities of classroom practice and
highlights the strengths of adopting a qualitative approach in
exploring how teacher trainees approach the teaching of grammar
in their classrooms. This paper also presents the perspectives of the
teacher trainees on the factors affecting their instructional
decisions.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Grammar teaching in LTE has been and continues to be debated.

The literature on grammar teaching discusses crucial questions
such as whether teaching and learning grammar is necessary in
LTE, whether grammar must be explicitly or implicitly taught in
LTE and whether teacher trainees must be equipped with extensive
or intensive grammar knowledge through their LTE. Issues have
also been raised on whether grammar should be taught deductively
or inductively, and whether grammar teaching in LTE should focus
on meaning or form (Burgess, 2002, Ellis, 1998, Doughty &
Williams, 1998). The difficult decision that teacher educators face
is how grammar should be taught in LTE. Thus, both issues of the
place of grammar in LTE curriculum and the nature of grammar
teaching do not only raise many controversial questions but will
continue to be hotly debated in the future.
Language researchers (Ellis, 1998; Borg, 1998 & 2006); Burgess,
2002) have conducted research into grammar teaching among
teachers and teacher trainees. They believe that research on how
language teachers and teacher trainees teach grammar will provide
teacher educators with insights on whether prior grammar
 Multiple Data-Collection Methods 49

coursework on English grammar influences teacher trainees’

teaching of grammar in the classroom. The findings can also
indicate to teacher educators where to place grammar in LTE.
Besides that, findings from research on teacher trainees’ grammar
teaching and classroom practices can help teacher educators to
illustrate to teacher trainees, the pedagogical options in grammar
teaching. Issues like when, how and why teacher trainees draw
upon the options in real classrooms can increase their
understanding of the pedagogical choices and instructional
decisions that they make.

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the research are as follows:

a) To study how trainee teachers teach grammar in their
classrooms,
b) To examine the impact and influence of grammar courses
taught in LTE on teacher trainees’ grammar teaching,
c) To identify the factors that influence teacher trainees’
grammar teaching in the classrooms, and
d) To explore the challenges experienced by teacher trainees
in teaching grammar during their classroom practices.

3.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The research aims to answer the following research questions.

3.2.1 What actual grammar teaching practices do teacher trainees
implement in their classrooms?
3.2.2 Do grammar courses taught in LTE have an impact on
teacher trainees’ grammar teaching during their teaching
practice?
50 Insights Into Second Language

3.2.3 What factors influence teacher trainees’ grammar teaching

in the classrooms?
3.2.4 What challenges do teacher trainees face in teaching
grammar during their classroom practices?

3.3 QUALITATIVE APPROACH IN DATA COLLECTION

This research is qualitative in nature and adopts multiple

qualitative data collection methods. It is an interactive approach to
data collection process which involves discussions between the
researcher and teacher trainees, for example in the use of the semi-
structured interviews conducted in the data collection process. This
research also is rather humanistic in its data collection approach
because teacher trainees’ actual teaching behaviour in the
classrooms are studied and explored. The data collection
instruments involve classroom observations, semi-structured
interviews, teaching reflection using teaching journal and self-
report inventories as a checklist of teacher trainees’ grammar
teaching. Table 1 shows the research instruments employed in the
study.
Table 1 Research instruments

No. Research Instruments Sources/References

Self-Report Inventory On
1. Adopted from Nunan, 2005
Grammar Lesson (SRI)

Richards & Farrell, 2005

Teaching Journal/Reflection With Yu, 2000
2.
Guided Questions (TJ) Halbach, 1999
Woodfield & Lazarus, 1998
Nunan, 2005
3. Observation Checklist (OC) Benke & Medgyes, 2005
(cited in Borg, 2006)
 Multiple Data-Collection Methods 51

Benke & Medgyes, 2005

Semi-Structured Interview (cited in Borg, 2006)
4.
Questions (SSI) LLurda, 2005

Observation is the primary data collection method used in this

research. The classroom observations of the teacher trainees’
teaching are audio taped and the observatory notes are transcribed.
At the same time, observation checklists are also used when the
researcher is conducting observations. Observations are used as a
means of data collection because they can provide direct evidence
of teaching behaviours of teachers (Borg, 2006). In this research,
observations are considered a valuable strategy in a natural
environment because they provide evidence of what happens in the
classrooms and the grammar teaching practices that teacher
trainees implement in the classrooms. Nunan (1997) claims
observations allow researchers to experience direct contact with
classroom realities. He argues this data collection strategy can
serve as a bridge between the activity of research and the activity
of teaching. Richards (2005) and Glesne (2006) state that
observation is a data-collecting strategy that has ecological validity
because it involves a study of actual classroom practices; not
teachers’ perceptions of their classroom practices. Thus,
observation permits legitimate claims to be made about the
relationship between teacher trainees’ classroom practices and their
instructional decisions with reference to grammar teaching (Borg,
2003a).
Ellis (1998) has highlighted that observations on language
teachers’ grammar teaching will help teacher educators to
understand how language teachers transform their technical
knowledge about the teaching of grammar through their actions.
With a similar concern on the issue, the researcher believes that by
observing teacher trainees’ grammar teaching in the classrooms
and exploring the reasons that underpin their grammar teaching
will shed some light whether the choices made by teacher trainees
52 Insights Into Second Language

in their individual contexts play a large part in determining the

kind of teaching which takes place in their classrooms.
Observations and transcripts from the observations will provide
evidence on how teacher trainees approach grammar teaching in
their classrooms. The observations provide evidence on teacher
trainees’ teaching behaviour in terms of their actual approach to
grammar teaching and not as claimed or perceived by them. The
teacher trainees’ instructional strategies can be identified through
the classroom observations. Besides audio taping and transcribing
the teacher trainees’ grammar teaching, an observation checklist is
also used to identify the teacher trainees’ teaching behaviours. The
items in the checklist are used as a guide to identify teacher
trainees’ teaching behaviours related to certain aspects of grammar
teaching practices such as the methods adopted by teacher trainees
and grammar activities used in their lessons.
The other qualitative data-collection strategy employed in this
research is the semi-structured interview. It has been used in
educational research in qualitative studies of educational issues.
The interview is used as a data-collection tool in this research in
order to obtain the teacher trainees’ inner perspective about their
outward teaching behaviours. Patton (1987) argues interviews
enable researchers to “enter the other person’s perspective” .The
advantage of adopting the semi-structured interview as a means of
data collection is to gauge qualitative data that develops in the
course of the interviews. Borg (2006), Cohen, Manion & Morrison
(cited in Borg, 2006) argue that semi-structured interviews would
result in unexpected discoveries by the researcher. Through semi-
structured interviews, two-way conversations rather than
researcher-dominated activities can be established. This data-
collection strategy permits flexibility and a degree of freedom in
terms of the direction of the interviews but the main issues of
concern in the research are still addressed.
Questions in the semi-structured interviews are based on a list of
topics and issues from the observation transcripts which serve as a
checklist in order to ensure that all the interviews conducted seek
the same information from the teacher trainees. This type of
 Multiple Data-Collection Methods 53

interview “increases the comprehensiveness of the data and makes

the data collection technique more systematic as compared to the
informal conversational approach” (Puvenesvary et. al, 2008:19).
As a result, rich information on the factors that influence teacher
trainees’ grammar teaching and the extent grammar courses in their
LTE influence the way they teach grammar can be gathered. The
issues of whether teacher trainees’ pedagogical choices and
decisions shape the way they treat grammar teaching in their
classrooms can also be explored through the semi-structured
interviews.
To triangulate the findings from observations and views
expressed by teacher trainees on the way they approach grammar
teaching gathered from semi-structured interviews, teaching
journals are also utilised in the research. Rich literature on the use
of journals in educational research claims that teachers’ thoughts,
beliefs and attitudes that underpin their pedagogical choices can be
drawn from their written reflections. Borg writes “journals are
flexible research tools, enabling researchers to study respondents’
personal accounts of their thinking and practices over a period of
time” (2006:256). In this study, the teaching journal is used as a
data collection tool that enables teacher trainees to question,
explore and analyse how they teach. Besides that, written
reflections in teaching journals will help to sensitize teacher
trainees to the approach they adopt in their classroom practices and
bring to their attention the pedagogical decisions that they make in
their classrooms.
The teaching journals written by the teacher trainees can provide
insights into how teacher trainees teach grammar; document
teacher trainees’ classroom events, provide firsthand accounts of
teacher trainees’ teaching experience and act as a tool for reflection
on teacher trainees’ classroom practices ( Noor Fadhilah, 2008).
This method of using teaching journals to collect data is very
useful for a qualitative research because it provides a rich source of
information from the participants as well as encourages teacher
trainees to be actively involved in the data collection process.
54 Insights Into Second Language

Due to the nature of a qualitative research that employs multiple

data collection methods, this study also utilises a self-report
inventory on grammar teaching to complement observations, semi-
structured interviews and teaching journals which are used as data-
collection techniques. The self-report inventory is used as a data-
collection strategy in this research in order to identify teacher
trainees’ theoretical orientations and practices of grammar
teaching. It also acts as a checklist on the manner teacher trainees
conduct grammar teaching in their classrooms.
Nunan (2005) uses the self-report inventory to evaluate how
language teachers present grammar points and the frequency they
implement inductive and deductive or mixed approach in teaching
grammar. With a similar aim, this research adopts the self-report
inventory of grammar teaching by Nunan (2005) as a data-
collection tool. The inventory allows teacher trainees to identify
their grammar teaching practices based on concrete examples of
instructions in their classrooms. Even though the responses in self-
report instruments may not reflect what language teachers do in the
classrooms as noted by Borg (2006), the observations and
observation checklists used in this research can triangulate the data
gathered from the self-report inventory. However, Borg (2006)
also argues in favour of using self-report instruments like self-
report inventories in collecting data. He claims research
participants are provided with stimulus that draws their attention to
the aspects that are studied. In the context of this research, the
items in the self-report inventory draw teacher trainees’ attention to
the grammar practices that they adopt in their classrooms.

4.0 STRENGTHS OF THE RESEARCH

The qualitative nature of the research which employs multiple

data-collection methods can yield descriptive, exploratory and
explanatory data which can be used to generate theory on grammar
 Multiple Data-Collection Methods 55

teaching. The data gathered from observations, semi-structured

interviews, teaching journals and self-report inventories can
provide insights into the issues of how and why on the nature of
teacher trainees’ grammar teaching. The findings do not only
address the research questions of this research but they can also be
put to effective use in language teacher education and development
programmes. As suggested by literature in LTE, there is a lack of
information on teacher trainees’ practices and cognitions in second
language (L2) grammar teaching currently (Burgess, 2002).
Therefore, this qualitative study can fill in the gaps in investigating
the impact of pre-LTE, LTE and teacher cognitions such as beliefs,
attitudes, theories and assumptions on teacher trainees’ classroom
practices. The exploratory and interpretative nature of this study
focuses on interpreting teacher trainees’ actions in the classrooms
by understanding why teacher trainees behave the way they do.
This study explores how teacher trainees approach grammar
teaching and the data are drawn from actual classroom practices.
The data collection techniques used in this study will yield rich
descriptive data about what teacher trainees actually do when
teaching grammar and clarify the pedagogical choices and
decisions they make as well as the processes involved in their
grammar teaching.

5.0 CONCLUSION

Data gathered from observations and semi-structured interviews

are triangulated with the responses indicated in the teaching
journals and self-report inventories. Richards writes “it is common
for qualitative project design to include the use of multiple sources
of data or views, with aim of bringing many perspectives to bear
on the question” (2005:21). With this in mind, this research uses
different means of collecting data in order to maximise the
possibility of getting credible findings as well as ensuring the
issues addressed in the research are looked into from more than
56 Insights Into Second Language

one standpoint. Glesne points out “the use of multiple data

collection methods contributes to the trustworthiness of the data”
(2006: 36). She further argues research data drawn from multiple
data collection methods will indicate richer data and more
believable findings as more sources are sought to tap
understanding of the issues investigated. Therefore, the multiple
data collection methods of this study can help to increase
confidence in the research findings of this qualitative study.

REFERENCES

Borg, S. (1998). Teachers’ Pedagogical Systems and Grammar

Teaching: A Qualitative Study. TESOL Quarterly, Vol, 32(1):
9-37.
Borg, S. (1999). Studying teacher cognition in second language
grammar teaching. System, Vol. 27, Issue 1, pp: 19-31.
Borg, S. (2003a). “Knowing and Doing: Teaching Grammar in In-
Service Training”. In Liu, D. & Master, P. (eds.). Grammar
Teaching in Teacher Education. USA: TESOL Inc.
Borg, S. (2006). Teacher Cognition and Language Education.
London: Continuum
Burgess, J. (2002). Focus on grammatical form: explicit or
implicit? System, Vol. 30, Issue 4, pp 433-458.
Doughty, C. & Williams, J. (eds.). (1998). Focus on Form in
Classroom Second Language Acquisition. USA: Cambridge
University Press.
Ellis, R. (1998). Teaching and Research: Options in Grammar
Teaching. TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 32(1): 39-57.
Glesne, C. (2006). Becoming Qualitative Researchers. Boston:
Pearson .
Halbach, A. (1999). Using trainee diaries to evaluate a teacher
training course. ELT Journal,Vol. 53 (3), p 183-189.
 Multiple Data-Collection Methods 57

Llurda, E. (ed.). (2005). Non Native Language Teachers.

Perceptions, Challenges and Contributuions to the Profession.
U.S.A: Springer.
Noor Fadhilah Mat Nayan; Puvenesvary, P; Radziah Abdul Rahim;
Sivabala Naidu, R.; Mastura Badzis & Noor Hashima Abd
Aziz. (2008). Qualitative Research: Data Collection & Data
Analysis Techniques. Sintok: Universiti Utara Malaysia Press
Nunan, D. (1997). Research, the Teacher and Classrooms of
Tomorrow. In Jacobs, G. M. (ed.). Language Classrooms of
Tomorrow: Issues and Responses. Singapore: SEAMEO
RELC.
Nunan, D. (2005). Practical English Language Teaching:
Grammar. Singapore: McGraw Hill.
Patton, M.Q. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in education.
Newbury Park: Sage Publication.
Puvenesvary, P; Radziah Abdul Rahim; Sivabala Naidu, R.;
Mastura Badzis; Noor Fadhilah Mat Nayan & Noor Hashima
Abd Aziz. (2008). Qualitative Research: Data Collection &
Data Analysis Techniques. Sintok: Universiti Utara Malaysia
Press.
Richards, J.C. & Farrell, T.S.C. (2005). Professional Development
for Language Teachers. Strategies for Teacher Learning.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, L. (2005). Handling Qualitative Data. A practical Guide.
London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Woodfield, H. & Lazarus, E. (1998). Diaries: a reflective tool on
an INSET language course. ELT Journal, Vol. 52 (4), p 315-
321.
Yu Ren Dong (2000). “Learning to see Diverse students Through
Reflective Teaching Portfolios”. In Johnson, K.E. Teacher
Education. Illinois: Pantagraph Printing.
 5
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
DEVELOPMENT (CSD) IN THE
ENGINEERING CURRICULUM: A
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Rohani Othman
Zubaidah Awang

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Engineering education has expanded recently to include emphasis

on the development of some very specific non-technical attributes
that match a strong technical base to produce well-rounded
engineering graduates who are flexible and adaptable to suit the
constantly developing and changing requirements of the
workplace. These non technical skills include communication
skills, the ability to function in teams, knowledge of societal and
contemporary issues, development of global perspective, and ethics
awareness.
There may be variations in categorization of the professional
skills, but overall the main emphasis is on developing written and
verbal communication skills, interpersonal skills, problem-solving
skills, numeracy, information technology and in some models self-
management and foreign language ability. Many engineering
programs are now addressing the issue of communication and it is
one skill that can be taught and assessed. Nationwide, industry is
 Communication Skills Development 59

requiring a greater number of communication and interpersonal

skills for entry-level engineers. These facts signals a need to
change the way we teach engineering in order to respond to rapidly
escalating technology and its effects on the individual, family, and
society, and to be in accord with the increasingly complex nature
of life and work in the twenty-first century . Yet, there is ample
evidence that graduate engineers lack the required standard of
communication skills, particularly when compared to the needs of
industry internationally . Communication skills are a regular
feature of an engineer’s job in industry; some graduates employed
in industry have identified that education in communication skills
needs to be improved given the demands encountered in industry.
Communication is multifaceted and incorporates various elements,
such as oral, written, listening, visual, intercultural,
interdisciplinary, etc. and these things need to be considered when
examining communication in engineering education .
Geppert , contends that the ability of engineers to communicate
effectively has always been important to industry and academia but
it matters even more today because of the growing complexity of
systems and the cross-disciplinary –team approach to engineering.
Engineers may be technically competent; however, they often lack
good communication skills that are necessary in order to transfer
information and reasons. This situation makes excellent technical
skills redundant. It is obvious that communication skills are critical
tools for success .
Illing , in his report on Wanted: skills in communication, stated
that employers now seek graduates with skills beyond the standard
paper degree; this includes an excellent level of skills in
communication, decision making and teamwork.. Other areas
identified in the report included competencies in business acumen,
marketing and public relations. Having the most knowledge was
not as important as getting the work done in the most effective
manner. Employers gave considerable value on graduates acquiring
a diverse set of skills in differing work environment.
With an increasingly global economy, the Malaysian education
system must produce graduates who can communicate effectively
60 Insights Into Second Language

in English. Otherwise, it would lose one of its vital selling points

for foreign investors to ensure that skilled labor force are sufficient
to support internationally competitive commerce and industry and
to provide individuals with opportunities to optimize their
potentials
In reviewing CSD, the literature that follows will provide
examples of how CSD is categorized with great importance
alongside the other hard core skills. It cannot be implied that CSD
is secondary to or more easily developed than the other “hard”
technical expertise . On the contrary, a great importance of this
ability to engineering education has emerged over the last decade ,
and ABET Engineering Criteria has targeted many of these as
essential program outcomes in order for engineering programs to
be accredited. The National Advisory Council , in its report
“Engineering Education for a Changing World.” refer CSD as a
professional skill which is a combination of ‘contextual’ and
‘process’ skills, to describe the elements of traditional engineering
education, which is seen as critical for the success in the twenty
first century.

2.0 CSD IN ENGINEERING EDUCATION

ACCREDITATION CRITERIA

2.1 MALAYSIAN ACCREDITATION STANDARDS

CSD is one of the ten learning outcomes identified in the Board of

Engineers’ (BEM)
competency manual. It outlines details for an engineering program
to be accredited. The Engineering Accreditation Council (EAC) is a
delegated body by BEM as the only recognized accrediting body
for engineering degree programs offered in all Institution of Higher
Learning (IHL) in Malaysia. Members of EAC comprise of five (5)
stakeholders namely, the Board of Engineers (BEM) [6
 Communication Skills Development 61

representatives], the Institution of Engineers Malaysia (IEM) [6

representatives], Employers [3 representative], National
Accreditation Board (LAN) [1 representative] and the Public
Service Department (JPA) [1 representative]. EAC has provided
leadership and quality assurance in engineering higher education
since 2000. EAC accredits programs at 23 IHL .
Student achievements are measured by learning outcomes.
These learning outcomes distinguish the varying competencies as
to what a student will be able to do at the end of a period of study.
They are based on ten domains:

i. ability to acquire and apply knowledge of science and

engineering fundamentals;
ii. acquired in depth technical competence in a specific
engineering discipline;
iii. ability to undertake problem identification, formulation and
solution;
iv. ability to utilize systems approach to design and evaluate
operational performance;
v. understanding of the principles of design for sustainable
development;
vi. understanding of professional and ethical responsibilities
and commitment to them;
vii. ability to communicate effectively, not only with engineers
but also with the community at large;
viii. ability to function effectively as an individual and in a
group with the capacity to be a leader or manager ;
ix. understanding of the social, cultural, global and
environmental responsibilities of a professional engineer;
and
x. recognizing the need to undertake life long learning, and
possessing/acquiring the capacity to do so.
One of the institutions of higher learning (IHL) in Malaysia, the
Malaysia University of Technology or better known locally as
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), has even drawn up its own
set of seven graduate attributes in line with it vision and mission
62 Insights Into Second Language

statement. UTM is committed to graduating competent, creative

and versatile professionals, who are guided by high moral and
ethical values in the service of God and mankind. This will require
graduates with sound disciplinary and professional knowledge,
high self-esteem and effective skills in communication; teamwork;
critical thinking and problem solving; lifelong learning and
information management; ethics and integrity; entrepreneurship
skills; and finally leadership skills .
A great importance of these abilities to engineering education has
emerged over the last decade even within the international and
local scene. Within the Malaysian context, the Engineering
Accreditation Council’s (EAC) Engineering Program Accreditation
Manual , outlines ten learning outcomes that encompasses both the
technical and non technical skills which are considered essential for
graduating engineers.

2.2 INTERNATIONAL ACCREDITATION STANDARDS

One of the most established and recognized signatory accreditation

bodies of the Washington Accord representing the United States is
the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET).
It has developed its new Engineering Criteria which is included in
Criterion 3, a set of eleven outcomes that all engineering graduates
should have. ABET challenges colleges of engineering to produce
graduates with professional as well as technical skills. Specifically,
ABET Criterion 3 outlines the desired attributes for graduate
engineers. One of them is an ability to communicate effectively
(3g). The attributes are summarised below:
 Communication Skills Development 63

Table 1: ABET Criterion 3 Attributes

An ability to:
i Apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and
engineering (3a);
i design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and
i interpret data (3b);
i design a system, component, or process to meet desired
i needs (3c);
i
i function on multi-disciplinary teams (3d);
v
v identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems (3e);
v Show an understanding of professional and ethical
i responsibility (3f);
v communicate effectively (3g),
i
i
v understand the impact of engineering solutions in a global
i and societal context (3h);
i
i
i show a recognition of the need for, and an ability to
x engage in life-long learning (3i);
x demonstrate a knowledge of contemporary issues (3j);
x use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools
i necessary for engineering practice (3k).

3. DEFINING CSD PROGRAM OUTCOMES

The following are descriptions of CSD program outcomes

employed by three institutions:

3.1 The Institute for Electrical and Electronics

Engineers (IEEE)
64 Insights Into Second Language

Even though ABET and BEM do not elaborate specifically on the

sub components of CSD in its framework, nevertheless, the
Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the
Institution of Engineers Australia (IEA), and similarly UTM being
one of the established IHL in Malaysia have given a very detailed
definition of CSD in its expected program outcomes.
The Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
curriculum guideline for undergraduate degree programs in
engineering highlighted in Section 5.6, that engineers must be able
to communicate effectively with colleagues and clients. Because of
the importance of good communication skills in nearly all careers,
students must improve on their oral and written skills in a variety of
context – both inside and outside of engineering courses. One
particular aspect of the activity of an engineer is to pass project
requirements to a workshop or to technical support staff, which in
an industrial setting may be local or remote. Providing clear and
succinct instructions and having a proper regard for the role and
purpose of support staff affects the efficiency and the nature of the
working environment. This trait is a fundamental communication
skill. Considering these issues, students should learn to:
i. Communicate ideas effectively in written form; this should
include technical writing experiences (e.g. of specifications,
requirements, safety cases, documentation) as well as report
writing and this should address the use of figures, diagrams
and appropriate references;
ii. Make effective oral presentations, both formally and
informally;
iii. Understand and offer constructive critiques of the
presentations of others;
iv. Argue (politely yet effectively) in defense of a position;
v. Extract requirements from a customer by careful and
penetrating questions using a disciplined and structured
approach;
vi. Demonstrate the capabilities of a product.
 Communication Skills Development 65

To enhance or emphasize the requisite communication skills

needed by all students, an engineering curriculum at a minimum
should require:
i. Course work that emphasizes the mechanics and process of
writing;
ii. One or more formal written reports;
iii. Opportunities to critique a written report;
iv. One or more formal oral presentations to a group;
v. Opportunities to critique an oral presentation;

3.2 THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS AUSTRALIA

ACCREDITATION BOARD (IEA)

IEA is another strong international signatory accreditation body of

the Washington Accord which could be looked upon as a strong
representative of the Asia Pacific Region. IEA uses the term Stage
1 competency . Stage 1 competency corresponds to the completion
of a 4-year Bachelor of Engineering degree accredited by
Engineers Australia. It covers three levels of competencies,
knowledge (PE1), competencies (PE2) and attributes (PE3).
Graduates must demonstrate at least the substance of each element.
Assessment will be made in a holistic way. This is summarised in
Table 2.
Table 2: IEA 3-level Competency

Knowledg Competencies (PE2) Attributes(PE3)

e (PE1) PE2 Engineering PE3 Professional
PE1 Ability Attributes
Knowledge
Base

PE1.1 PE2.1 Ability to PE3.1 Ability to

Knowledge of undertake problem communicate
science and identification, effectively, with the
engineering formulation, and engineering team
66 Insights Into Second Language

fundamentals; solution; and with the

community at large;
PE1.2In-depth PE2.2
technical Understandi PE3.2 Ability to
competence in at ng of social, cultural, manage information
least one global, and and documentation;
engineering environmental
discipline; responsibilities and PE3.3 Capacity for
the need to employ creativity and
PE1.3 Techniques principles of innovation;
and resources; sustainable
development; PE3.4
PE1.4 General Understanding of
Knowledge. PE2.3 Ability to professional and
utilize a systems ethical
approach to complex responsibilities, and
problems and to commitment to
design and them;
operational
performance; PE3.5 Ability to
function effectively
PE2.4 Proficiency in as an individual and
engineering design; in multidisciplinary
and multicultural
PE2.5 Ability to teams, as a team
conduct an leader or manager as
engineering project; well as an effective
team member;
PE2.6 Understanding
of the business PE3.6 Capacity for
environment. lifelong learning and
professional
development;

PE3.7Professional
attitudes.
 Communication Skills Development 67

IEA went on to further define CSD in its Stage I competency

manual in Section 4.3 – PE 3.1: the ability to communicate
effectively, with the engineering team and with the community at
large as having:
i. high level of competence in written and spoken English;
iii. ability to make effective oral and written presentations to
technical and non-technical audience;
iv. capacity to hear and comprehend others’ viewpoints as well
as convey information;
v. effectiveness in discussion and negotiation and in
presenting arguments clearly and concisely;
vi. ability to represent engineering issues and the engineering
profession to the broader community.

3.3. UNIVERSITY TECHNOLOGY MALAYSIA (UTM)

The communicative skills development aspiration of a UTM

graduate is for the students to be able to incorporate the ability to
communicate effectively in Bahasa Melayu and English across a
range of contexts and audiences and have the:
i. ability to present information and express ideas clearly,
effectively and confidently through written and oral modes;
ii. ability to actively listen and respond to the ideas of other
people;
iii. ability to negotiate and reach agreement;
iv. ability to make clear and confident presentation appropriate
to audience; and the
v. ability to use technology in presentation.
68 Insights Into Second Language

4.0 MAPPING OF ACCREDITATION STANDARDS OF

CSD

Since it is not possible to study the full range of professional skills

as mentioned in ABET Criterion 3, it has been decided to
concentrate only on Communication skills development as
‘Communication is a very complex process and the focus of
this study is primarily on some tools of communication -
writing, oral presentations, electronics and graphical
communication and the process of group or team working .’
The communicative skills development criteria of the three
international standards identified earlier in IEEE, IEA as well as
the local standards to be achieved by UTM in its graduate attributes
are mapped along side each other to achieve congruency in the
skills so that they could be used as an assessment indicators for the
purpose of future research. Table 1 shows the result of the
mapping process and the final outcome of the combined attributes
is shown in the right hand column. The final comprehensive list is
as follows:
1. Present information and express ideas clearly, effectively
and confidently using technology through oral modes;
2. Present information and express ideas clearly, effectively
and confidently using technology through written modes;
3. Ability to actively listen and respond to the ideas of other
people and offer constructive critiques of the presentations
of others;
4. Ability to negotiate and reach agreement politely and
effectively;
5. Ability to work as a team and discuss multi disciplinary
issues collectively.
These attributes will form the basis of the questions used in the
closed-form questionnaire for students and faculty members as well
as used during the observation and documentation analysis process
throughout the investigation on CSD and its implementation in an
undergraduate engineering curriculum.
 Communication Skills Development 69

5.0 FINAL YEAR PROJECT DESIGN

Capstone design courses or locally known as the Final Year

Project design courses are one of the most effective ways for
engineering departments to facilitate the outcomes as prescribed
above. It is a major design experience, taken in the senior year of
an engineering degree program. Duff & Schildgen , compliments
the use of capstone design courses as:
‘The senior project is intended to be a culminating scholastic
effort or capstone experience. The objectives are to refine skills in
communication, research and information retrieval, critical analysis
and criticism, and to demonstrate technical competence in each
student’s area of study. The senior project is evidence of potential
for outstanding performance at the advanced level and is
characterized by experimental, theoretical, or developmental work
leading to meaningful results presented as a final paper and oral
report at the end of the semester.’
Scales et al. proposed the use of Capstone design courses as it
serves to integrate previous course work and it requires students to
perform at a professional level, demonstrating technical expertise
and communication skills. The capstone design course provides a
unique milestone where the combined skills and conceptual
attributes of the undergraduate engineering experience can be
measured. Numerous facets of the intellectual development of
program graduates can be assessed by measuring technical and
communication competencies. Here also, an assessment of student
confidence in their ability to solve design problems with realistic
constraints can be made. Typical quantitative tools for performance
assessment include project grades assigned by the course instructor,
peer evaluations of team member participation and report quality,
and faculty-colleague check sheet evaluations of project reports.
Qualitative assessment of capstone design work can be made
through reviews of student portfolios and course folders of project
work. The structure of capstone design courses can be used to
measure student technical performance, and communication and
teaming skills which they have developed.
70 Insights Into Second Language

6.0 CONCLUSION

Engineering curriculum should integrate writing and verbal

discussion consistently in substantive ways. Institutions should not
view communication skills as separate entities; instead, faculty
members should incorporate fully such skills into the engineering
curriculum and its requirements. They must prepare students for a
significant challenge they will face in adopting these significant
learning outcomes into their engineering curriculum. At the speed
at which technological advances are changing society and the
workplace requires students to possess a greater number of
personal skills with which they can effectively cope with the
increasing demands placed upon them in the workplace. Pappas &
Lesko stressed that changes in the nature of work, methods of
communication, lifestyle, and demands on time and commitment
force us to reconsider how we will live in an increasingly
technological society. Individuals need to grow in concert with
these technological changes in order to adjust to it, and have some
influence on this new social order. The society is at the threshold
of yet another period of unparalleled growth and change, and the
engineering curricula need to prepare students not simply for the
technical work they will do in the workplace, but for the
engineering lifestyle they will live.
 TABLE 1: Mapping of the criteria and standards to develop a combined CSD attributes to access FYP.

IEEE Standards Institution of Engineering UTM Graduate attributes SUMMARY OF

Australia(IEA) COMBINED
ARRIBUTES
Communicate ideas effectively Ability to communicate effectively, Ability to present information 1. Present
in written form; this should with the engineering team and with the and express ideas clearly, information and
include technical writing community at large; effectively and confidently express ideas clearly,
experiences (e.g. of - High level of competence in through written and oral modes effectively and
specifications, requirements, written and spoken English; confidently using
safety cases, documentation) as technology through
well as report writing and this oral modes
should address the use of
figures, diagrams and
appropriate references;
Make effective oral - Ability to make effective oral and Ability to make clear and 2. Present information
presentations, both formally and written presentations to technical confident presentation and express ideas
informally; and non-technical audience; appropriate to audience clearly, effectively and
Ability to use technology in confidently using
presentation technology through
written modes

Understand and offer - Capacity to hear and comprehend Ability to actively listen and 3. Ability to actively
constructive critiques of the others’ viewpoints as well as respond to the ideas of other listen and respond to
presentations of others; convey information; people the ideas of other
people and offer
constructive critiques
of the presentations of
others
Continued Table 1

IEEE Standards Institution of Engineering UTM Graduate attributes SUMMARY OF

Australia(IEA) COMBINED
ARRIBUTES
Argue (politely yet effectively) - Effectiveness in discussion and Ability to negotiate and reach 4. Ability to negotiate
in defense of a position; negotiation and in presenting agreement and reach agreement
arguments clearly and concisely; politely and effectively

Extract requirements from a - Ability to represent engineering Teamwork and 5. Ability to work as a
customer by careful and issues and the engineering Multidisciplinary Skills team and discuss multi
penetrating questions using a profession to the broader disciplinary issues
disciplined and structured community. collectively
approach; Demonstrate the
capabilities of a product.
 Communication Skills Development 73

References

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http://www.ele.uri.edu//daly/criteria.2000.html). Retrieved
21 April 2008, from Accreditation Board for Engineering
and Technology, Inc.:
ASEE, Project Board. (1994). Engineering Education for a
Changing World. ASEE Prism, 20-27.
Barrie, S. C. (2004). A research-based approach to generic
graduate attributes policy. Higher Education Research &
Development, 23(3), 261-275.
BEM, Board of Engineers Malaysia. (2007). Engineering
Programme Accreditation Manual. Retrieved. from.
Duff, J. M., & Schildgen, T. E. (2005). Establishing Outcomes for
Senior Capstone Projects In Industrial Technology. Paper
presented at the 2005 American Society for Engineering
Education Annual Conference & Exposition.
Dulevičius, J., & Naginevičienė, L. (2005). Engineering
Communication. Global Journal of Engineering Education,
9(1), 19-25.
Further Education Unit, Training Agency (1989). A Guide to
Work-based Learning Terms (London, FEU). . London:
Further Education Unit.
Geppert, L. (1995). Educating the Renaissance Engineer. IEEE
Spectrum, 39-43.
Grünwald, N. (1999). Engineers of Tomorrow, Quo vadis German
engineering education. . Paper presented at the 2nd Asia-
Pacific Forum on Engineering Technology Education,
Sydney, Australia.
IEA, The Institution of Engineering Australia. (2005). Engineers
Australia national Generic Competency Standards - Stage
1 Competency Standards for professional Engineers.
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April 2008, from IEEE-CS:

http://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_ieeecs/ieeecs/ed
ucation/cc2001/CCCE-FinalReport-2004Dec12-Final.pdf
Illing, D. (2001). Wanted: skills in communication. The Australian,
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Jensen, H. P. (2000). Strategic planning for the education process
in the next century. . Global Journal of Engineering
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Jessup, G. (1991). Outcomes: The emerging model of education
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Kemp, I. J., & Seagraves, L. (1995). Transferable skills--can higher
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Muhammad Rashid bin Rajuddin, Prof., Dr. . (2006). Keynote
Address. Paper presented at the Technical and Vocational
Education in Malaysia, Hotel Sofitel, Senai, Johor. .
Pappas, E. C., & Lesko, J. (2001). The communications-centered
senior design class at Virginia tech. Paper presented at the
2001 ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition.
Riemer, M. J. (2002). English and Communication Skills for the
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Education Annual Conference & Exposition.
 6
LEARNING CONTRACTS FOR
LANGUAGE LEARNING: AN
EXPLORATION
Normah Ismail
Masdinah Alauyah Md Yusof

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Although the concept of learning contracts is not new, it is only

recently that the potential of this strategy has been recognized at
the tertiary level education. It has gained some interest among
language educators as a way to encourage learners to be more
involved in their learning. What is a learning contract? It is a tool
to personalize any learning experience. It is a written agreement
between a learner and a teacher, lecturer or adviser that a particular
activity will carried out in order to achieve a specific learning goal
(Anderson, Boud & Sampson, 1996). The rationale for using
learning contracts in this study is based on the view that the
learning contract allows the student to structure their own learning
and become an active participant in the education process (Codde,
2006). Furthermore, positive outcomes from recent studies
reaffirmed that the learning contract was worth investigating as a
strategy for promoting autonomy in language learning (see Boyer,
2003; Williams & Williams, 1999; Chan et al, 2003; Sysoyev,
2000; Albon, 2003; Carter, 2005). The paper will examine the
relationship between learning contracts, attributes of
resourcefulness and independent learning in developing
autonomous language learners. Next, it describes the pilot study
76 Insights Into Second Language

undertaken at a City Campus and finally, discusses the

implications of implementing language learning contracts at
tertiary level.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

To better understand the situation, a description of the context is

first given. In the City Campus where the pilot study took place,
the medium of instruction is English. The students listen to lectures
and seminars, hold discussions and prepare presentations in
English. They are required to take Proficiency English for 6 hours
a week (for first and second year students). Apart from that, they
are strongly encouraged to continue mastering the language
through extensive reading, extra exercises and language arts
activities like public speaking or drama. However, despite fervent
encouragement from their lecturers to look for language learning
opportunities outside the classroom, students are not taking on a
more significant role in their learning. This is especially disturbing
in this university that provides a rich environment for learning
English. It seems that while a majority of the undergraduates at
this campus acknowledged the benefits of taking more
responsibility in their learning, most of them still relied heavily on
their lecturers for notes and language practices as they are unsure
how to handle learning English when left on their own. How can
students be guided to be more open and flexible in the way they
learn English? In what way can the students’ capacity to be more
resourceful in their learning be increased? To answer these
questions, this study will explore the method of using language
learning contracts as a way to guide learners to become
resourceful, independent learners. The contract emphasizes the
facilitating of learning autonomy through greater learner
involvement in self-monitoring and self-assessment. Because of
this, it offers language educators and learners an alternative
 Learning Contracts For Language 77

platform for teaching and learning in a learner-centered

environment.

2.0 REVIEW OF CURRENT LITERATURE

2.1 AUTONOMY IN LANGUAGE LEARNING

In this study, the learning contract is explored as a method which

learners use to facilitate the process of learner autonomy or
independent learning. Knowles (1986) defined independent
learning as a process in which individuals take the initiative, with
or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs,
formulating learning goals, identifying human and material
resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate
learning strategies and evaluating learning outcomes. In the context
of formal language learning, Little (2007) specifies independent
learning as a process of language learning involving deliberate
effort and conscious reflection because formal learning itself can
happen only on the basis of explicit plans and intentions.
Sliogerine (2006) further elaborates that it is a process of learning
which the learners have primary responsibility for planning,
implementing and even evaluating the effort they make in language
learning. In other words, language learners decide on their learning
goals, make plans of what to learn, decide on the learning
resources, assess their own learning, and plan what to learn next. In
summary, an important aim of independent language learning is to
give learners more control over the resources they have to learn
languages.
78 Insights Into Second Language

2.2 RESOURCEFULNESS IN AUTONOMOUS

LANGUAGE LEARNING

To operationalize the term “autonomous language learning”, this

study proposes to focus on resourcefulness, an attribute of learning
autonomy. Rosenbaum (1989) first used the term "resourceful" to
describe a person who is capable of dealing with problematic
situations in learning such as when the learner has to grasp what is
being learnt and make decisions concerning which activities to
pursue. In other words, a learner who is able to handle these
situations in his stride is described as resourceful. Confessore
(1992) gave a similar explanation. He says resourcefulness in
independent learning as assessing the ability to reason, read and
cipher, and assess the availability of human and material resources
that is useful to the effort of learning.
Carr (1999) described resourcefulness in independent learning
as gathering the internal and external resources required for
learning. He extended the concept of resourcefulness in
autonomous learning by proposing that learner resourcefulness
consists of four behaviours: anticipating the future rewards of
learning, prioritizing learning over other activities, delaying
immediate gratification, and solving problems in one’s learning.
The degree to which a learner is deemed resourceful in
autonomous learning is related to the degree to which these four
behaviors are significant in enabling the learner to actively pursue
his/her learning goals.
To explain further, the learner is said to be engaged in a
resourceful behaviour when he anticipates future rewards (of
learning). Because of this, the student will then prioritize learning
over other activities even if it involves delaying the immediate
gratification that may come from participating in non-learning
activities. In addition, the development of learning and planning
skills is essential if a student is expected to be actively involved in
his/her learning activities because such skills are needed for the
students to solve the problems they face when they try to complete
a learning activity. To extend this in the context of language
 Learning Contracts For Language 79

learning, it can be said that a resourceful language learner has the

ability to assess the availability of internal and external resources
necessary to accomplish language learning. This means that if
learners placed importance on increasing their English Language
proficiency, they would seek out for themselves more opportunities
to learn English and consciously make well-informed decisions
about their language learning. Therefore, resourcefulness would be
a critical factor that can lead to successful language learning.
Some of the attributes of resourcefulness are mentioned in
other studies relating to autonomy in language learning. The
process syllabus (Breen & Candlin, 1987) and the learner-centered
approach (Nunan, 1988) are some examples where the idea of
learner resourcefulness takes a central place in the language
learning. Some suggestions of resourcefulness are also found in
Holec’s theoretical framework on learner autonomy (Holec, 1981).
He defines learner autonomy as the ability to take charge of one’s
own learning, showing that learner autonomy is an ability, not an
action. This ability refers to the autonomous learner, after
assessing the resources available to him, would have capacity to
act in a given situation (learning). Little (2000) also mentions a
certain amount of awareness or critical reflection involved in the
learning. He goes on to say that autonomous learners, apart from
detachment and critical reflection, are resourceful through their
capacity for decision-making and independent action in their
learning. Nunan (2001) gives a similar description of a
autonomous language learner as having resourceful behaviours. He
said that these learners have reached a point where they are able to
define their own goals and create their own learning opportunities.
Finally, for Huttunen (1986), resourcefulness plays a role in the act
of learning. He explains that a fully autonomous learner, whether
he is working individually or in a group, takes responsibility for
the planning, monitoring and evaluating of his studies.
80 Insights Into Second Language

2.3 LEARNING CONTRACT AS A STRATEGY FOR

LEARNING AUTONOMY

A good language learner is aware of his learning and the resources

available to him. In being resourceful, he is ready to use his
capabilities to the fullest and learn language in the most efficient
way. One such strategy to help him exercise his potential to
become an independent learner is the learning contract
.
2.4 LEARNING CONTRACTS IN LANGUAGE
LEARNING

The use of learning contracts for language learning has gained

some ground during the past decade. Schwarzer, Kahn & Smart
(2000) used learning contracts as a way to encourage self-directed
learning and individual autonomy, while still balancing individual
and group learning styles in a university ESL class of grammar and
writing. They concluded that students saw their need for English
proficiency because they wanted to reach a specific goal outside of
the class itself, and English became the means to reach a desired
end, rather than the end in itself. Little (2000) in his studies found
that when carefully planned, the learning contract can have a
transformative effect on learners as it provides a firm framework
within which learners can plan, monitor and evaluate learning. In
addition, it provides teachers as well as learners with a
continuously moving reference point against which to plot the
progress of learning. Lewis (2004) used learning contracts to study
reading motivation among college students in a reading program.
He found that the reading scores of students using the independent
learning contracts were significantly higher than those of non
contracts students. There was also a significant improvement in
motivation level between the two groups. Among Asian learners,
Masdinah and Abdul Halim (2004a, 2004b) used contracts to
promote autonomous learning among undergraduates through self-
access language centers. They found that apart from an
 Learning Contracts For Language 81

improvement in the students’ overall language proficiency, the

students’ perceptions towards autonomous learning language also
improved. They concluded, given enough guidance and resources,
students can plan to learn on their own. In a four-year study using
learning contracts for an English for Special Purposes course, Lai
(2007) found that learners’ awareness of language strategies were
raised and their use of these strategies were improved. Apart from
that, learners are better able to set their own goals as well as
evaluate their progress. This in turn enabled them to experience
greater overall autonomy in their language learning.

2.5 LIMITATIONS OF LEARNING CONTRACTS

While the learning contracts have reported worthwhile results in

promoting learner autonomy, they are not without problems. First,
creating and executing the contract requires learner training. This,
some educators say, defeats the contract’s original purpose that is
to promote learner autonomy. Second, the contracts require long
term commitment from the learners. Some learners might find the
task tedious or uninteresting and thus, abandon it. Third, the
contracts require the learners to write explicit details of their plans
in English. For some learners, they may not have mastered the
language to express themselves clearly. Finally, the contracts
require learners to have some understanding of their own language
ability and capacity to learn. This may be difficult for some
learners who do not have enough knowledge to do self-evaluation
and may not be in the position to judge what they need to learn.
These limitations show that developing learner autonomy is not a
smooth process. It involves fundamental changes in the learner’s
role and learning process. Such development is unlikely to be
successful unless it is adequately and effectively supported
(Benson, 2006). Therefore, a way to overcome some of the
problems in implementing the learning contract is to ensure that it
is backed up by language counselling or student conferencing
82 Insights Into Second Language

where learners have the opportunity to discuss and refine their

goals and plans. The steps involved in student conferencing is
explained in greater detail later in this paper.

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The objective of the investigation is to explore the viability of

using the learning contracts to help learners become more
resourceful language learners. The pilot study serves to test the
design of investigation and provide proof of its potential to
succeed.
The study will be guided by the following questions:
1. What was the language learners’ experience in using
learning contracts?
2. Is there evidence of learners’ resourcefulness with the
use of learning contracts?

3.2 PARTICIPANTS OF THE STUDY

A total of 38 students participated in the pilot study. All were

enrolled in their first year at UiTM Johor Bahru City Campus. 20
out of the 38 students or 52.6 % were from the Faculty of
Accountancy. From this number 8 or 40% were males and 12 or
60% were females. The remaining 18 students or 47.3% of the total
number of participants were from the Faculty of Business and
Management. Out of the 18, 7 or 38.8% were males and 11 or 61.1
% were females. After obtaining score of 7 and below in the
UiTM Placement test, they were placed in the BEL 120, Language
Consolidation course which is designed to raise the level of
English proficiency of students at the lower intermediate level.
 Learning Contracts For Language 83

During the course of the study, the students participated in the

student conferences, completed the questionnaires and learning
contracts as fully informed, consenting volunteers.

3.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This was a preliminary study which investigated a small group of

students. Bearing in mind the size and the purposive, rather than
random, nature of the sample, the results of the study may not be
generalized to other situations. Thus, the findings here should be
treated with caution. For the purpose of this paper, only data from
the questionnaires and learning contracts were used and analyzed.

3.4 QUESTIONNAIRE

To answer the research questions, a three-part questionnaire was

developed for this study. The first part collected some background
information from the students concerning their gender, program of
study, frequency of learning contract use, as well as, to determine a
self-assessment of their English Language ability. The second part
of the questionnaire asked the students to indicate the degree to
which they agreed or disagreed with fourteen statements about
using the contracts for language learning. The statements were
adapted from Masdinah (2005). The third part intended to obtain
information concerning the students’ ability to be resourceful
language learners with the use of learning contracts. The
statements were based on Carr’s Inventory of Learner
Resourcefulness (1999). Students were asked to give their answers
based on a four-point scale ranging from 4 (strongly agree), 3
(agree), 2 (disagree) and 1 (strongly disagree). In order to assist the
students in answering the questions, all the instructions and
statements in the questionnaire were presented in both English and
Bahasa Melayu (BM). The BM translation was back translated to
 84 Insights Into Second Language

ensure consistency in meaning. The responses were tabulated and

analyzed using SPSS 14.0 and presented in descriptive statistics.

3.5 CONTRACTS

The class meetings during the first week were used to brief the
students on the course syllabus. They were asked to think about
their needs for learning English and their expectations from that
course. Then they were given an explanation on language learning
contracts and how these contracts can be used in conjunction with
their syllabus to fulfill their learning needs. The researchers
together with the students discussed the different resources
available for language learning like novels in the library, websites
on the Internet, newspapers in the reading room and even their
friends to engage in a simple conversation in English. To assist the
students in completing it, a form, based on Knowles’ contract
(1986), was used and given out to each student (Table 1).

Table 1 Components of the students’ learning contract

Specific language learning Resources and strategies Materials Comments

objectives How am I going to learn used
What am I going to learn? it?

To help the students write out their contracts, the researcher

drew guidance from Dam’s work on self-directed learning (Dam,
1995; 2004). The students were guided by the researcher in
creating one language learning objective of their own based on the
sample given. To start, the students were asked to complete the
first three sections of the contracts: learning objectives, learning
strategies and resources and materials used. Dam (1995) advocates
that learners set their own goals and choose their own activities.
Thus to assist the students in writing their learning goals, the
 Learning Contracts For Language 85

following questions were used to prompt them: “What am I going

to learn? How am I going to learn? What am I going to use?” The
contracts were written in English, following another principle
advocated by Dam (1995) that asked students and teachers to keep
communication in the target language. The contracts were
submitted during the second week of class meeting. The completed
contracts then were read thoroughly and analyzed.

3.6 STUDENT CONFERENCING

In this study, student conferencing is conducted in conjunction

with the use of the learning contracts. Student conferencing is
where the student meets the teacher to get language learning advice
or consultation. The rationale of having the student conference is to
build a rapport between the teacher and the learner so that they can
communicate better in discussing how learner can use the contracts
to improve language learning. Research into language advising
consistently showed that increasing the involvement of learners’
interactions with teachers when carrying out learning activities
enhanced not only student academic achievement, but also
developed better long-term learning attitudes towards language
learning (Mozzon-McPherson, 2007; Karlsson et al, 2007; Carter,
2005). These serve as powerful evidences for employing the idea
of student conferencing in language learning in this study.

3.7 PROCEDURE

Student conferences were conducted throughout the semester. Each

conference lasted between fifteen minutes to one hour. Each
student attended at least one conference. Notes were taken during
each conference. Students’ written objectives planned learning
strategies and resources from their learning contracts as well as a
transcription of the conferences would be scrutinized and analyzed
86 Insights Into Second Language

for recurring themes. The students were called for a conference

each time they submitted the contracts. The conferences were
conducted in an informal atmosphere, so students were
comfortable to talk about themselves. They were asked to bring
along with them evidence of their completed work based on what
they had planned in their contracts. During the conference, they
were asked to share what they had done, the problems they faced in
completing their work and their evaluation of their learning
progress. During the ninth week, the students completed the
questionnaires, administered during class time by the researcher.
38 questionnaires were given out. All 38 were returned to the
researcher.

4.0 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 SELF-RATE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE ABILITY

To learn about the learners’ self-perception of their language

ability, the students were asked what they thought about own their
English Language skills. Questions 4 to 7 in the questionnaire
asked them to self-rate their ability as excellent, good, average or
poor in the following language skills: reading, writing, listening
and speaking. Table 2 summarizes their responses.

Table 2 Self assessment of English Language proficiency

Language skills Self-rating N % Min* Max* Mean SD*

Reading Excellent 6 2.74 .554
Good 4 3.4 2
Average 3 4.0
Poor 0
Writing Excellent 0 2.11 .559
Good 1.1 1 3
Average 6 8.4
Poor 3.3
 Learning Contracts For Language 87

Listening Excellent 2 5.0 2.63 .589

Good 20 52.6 2 4
Average 16 42.1
Poor 0 0.0
Speaking Excellent 0 0.0 1.89 .606
Good 3 7.9 1 3
Average 27 71.0
Poor 8 21.1
Overall ability - 38 - 1.50 3.25 2.34 .391
*min – minimum * max – maximum * SD – standard deviation

From the results of the self-rate ability in English, many

students were confident about their abilities in reading and
listening skills but perceived that their weaknesses lay in the areas
of writing and speaking skills. This is not surprising because
writing and speaking require them to do constant practice.
Furthermore, these skills offer results which the students see as
tangible and measurable, unlike reading and listening, which
students perceive to be less attributable to their success in language
learning. The results of the self-rate ability will be referred to again
later in the paper when the discussion turns to what the students’
contracts reveal.

4.2 EXPERIENCE IN USING THE LANGUAGE

LEARNING CONTRACTS

To answer the research question: What was the learners’

experience in using the contracts for language learning; the
following questions were formulated and incorporated in the
survey. Question 8 asked the students how frequently they used the
learning contracts. The frequency ranged from one to two times,
three to four times, five to six times and more than six times. 71%
of the students answered “once to two times” and 29% answered
“three to four times”. 66.7% of males said they used it once or
twice while 91.4% of females said they used it once or twice.
 88 Insights Into Second Language

Questions 9 to 22 are statements referring to the students’

experience in using learning contracts for language learning. The
students’ responses are shown in Table 3. The results showed an
overall mean of 3.16. The students’ responses indicated that overall
they had a positive encounter using the contracts to learn English.
Many of them saw the contracts as a potentially useful tool for
organizing their learning as well as monitoring and measuring their
progress in language learning. Apart from that, their responses also
revealed that they felt the contracts helped them in getting
consistent feedback relating to their learning. On the other hand,
about a third of the students did not feel that the learning contracts
pressured them in achieving their learning goals. Neither do they
feel that the contracts helped them work better in groups.

Table 3 Responses to statements associated with the use of language

learning contracts (Statements 9 to 22)

Statements *SA *A *DA *SDA Mean **SD

Using the language learning % % % %
contract…
9 enables me to meet my 10.5 89.5 0 0
3.11 .311
individual language needs
10 makes me feel accepted 18.4 68.4 13.2 0 3.05 .567
11 makes me feel respected 18.4 71.1 7.9 0 3.11 .516
12 gives me consistent feedback 39.5 60.5 0 0 3.39 .495
13 makes my learning more 44.7 50 5.3 0
3.39 .595
organized
14 makes me more positive 23.7 71.1 5.3 0 3.18 .512
15 makes my lecturer interested 34.2 65.8 0 0
3.34 .481
to help me
16 lets me select appealing 47.4 50 2.6 0
3.45 .555
topics
17 makes me motivated to learn 39.5 52.6 7.9 0 3.32 .620
18 helps me learn in groups 21.1 63.2 15.8 0
3.05 .613
better
19 makes me feel successful 28.9 71.1 0 0 3.29 .460
20 helps me monitor and 42.1 57.9 0 0
3.42 .500
measure progress
 Learning Contracts For Language 89

21 gives me the chance for self- 31.6 63.2 5.3 0

3.26 .554
directed learning
22 makes me feel pressured to 2.6 10.5 63.2 23.7
1.92 .673
achieve goals
*(SA – strongly agree A- Agree DA – Disagree SDA
– Strongly disagree) ** Standard deviation

4.3 ABILITY TO BE RESOURCEFUL LANGUAGE

LEARNERS

To answer the research question, “Is there evidence of learner

resourcefulness with the use of learner contracts?”, the following
statements were formulated. Questions 23 to 56 are statements
concerning the students’ ability to be resourceful language learners
through the use of learning contracts. Based on Carr’s (1999)
description of resourcefulness behaviour, language learners who
are resourceful would give priority to independent language
learning, show preference to learn language over other activities,
look forward to benefits of learning language, prepare ahead when
they start language learning, have a set of alternatives for language
learning problems they face and set language learning goals.

Table 4 Responses to statements associated with students’ ability to

be resourceful

N Min* Max* Mean SD*

Priority 38 1.8 4.00 2.70 .464
Preference 38 2.20 3.80 2.93 .337
Planning 38 2.50 4.00 3.17 .476
Anticipating benefits 38 2.43 3.43 2.83 .303
Alternatives 38 2.67 4.00 3.29 .359
Goals 38 2.71 4.00 3.16 .335
*min – minimum * max – maximum * SD – standard
deviation
90 Insights Into Second Language

Table 4 summarizes the responses given by the students

regarding their ability to be resourceful in learning English.
Student responses to statements about priority yielded a mean of
2.70 (SD .464). For preference, the mean response was 2.93. (SD
.337). In response to statements that are associated with
anticipating the benefits the mean was 2.83. (SD .303). Next, the
mean for planning was 3.17 (SD .476) while the mean for goals
was 3.16 (SD .335). The highest mean of these categories was
alternatives, 3.29 (SD .359). Kennet (1994) has argued that high
achievers are very academically resourceful. The analysis of the
responses revealed a group of students with potential abilities to be
resourceful language learners but do not yet have the belief that
such learning endeavors would lead them to success in language
learning.

4.4 WHAT THE CONTENTS OF THE CONTRACTS

REVEALED

To examine evidence of resourcefulness, the contents of the

contracts were thoroughly read and compared to the attributes of
resourcefulness, as mentioned by Carr (1999). The following
summarizes the contents of the contracts: Many of the students
included plans to learn writing, vocabulary and speaking. These
were among the activities that were frequently mentioned in the
contracts. The students’ plans reflected their efforts to overcome
weaknesses in their language skills, which they had identified
earlier in the self-rated assessment. Therefore, in general, they
appeared to be able to plan and focus on priority areas in their
language learning. The most popular learning resources seemed to
be their text books or work books for learning grammar. In
addition newspaper and magazine articles were mentioned as
resources for learning vocabulary or reading. As for learning
strategies, many of the students wrote that reading and
understanding as the important methods to learn English. They
were especially concerned with vocabulary and thus, included
plans to check meanings of words to help them in their activities.
 Learning Contracts For Language 91

Other learning strategies included collaboration with friends. They

specified that they planned to work with their friends to complete
the activity together, to check answers or to understand the
meanings of words. A few mentioned they would refer to their
lecturers or family members for help in their activities. As for
learning materials, the students planned to use a range of things
from newspapers, song lyrics and text books. The learning material
that was mentioned in all the contracts was the dictionary. Many
also mentioned the use of the Malay-English Dictonary ‘Kamus
Dwibahasa’. Overall the entries in the contracts showed that the
students, given enough support and training, were able to plan
activities for themselves. However, the analysis also revealed some
shortcomings. Some contracts were incomplete or written with
contradictory objectives and resources. Some contracts were also
copied from another contract. Other contracts had many interesting
but ambitious activities which were not executed because of time
management. In many ways this proves what Little (2005) had
pointed out before, that learners do not become self-directed
learners by simply being told that they were now in charge of
learning.

5.0 IMPLICATIONS

This pilot study was conducted to find out more about the viability
of using learning contracts for language learning. It also aimed to
find out if the students’ ability to develop themselves as
resourceful learners is reflected through the use of the contracts.
Since the results of the study are based wholly on self-reports, the
findings and interpretations should be treated as suggestive rather
than conclusive. In comparing the student profiles in this study
with some studies mentioned earlier, there appeared to be some
similarities in the students’ responses regarding their experience in
carrying out learner-directed activities. Two similarities emerged
from the findings. First, the students in the present study felt
positive about carrying out more learner-directed activities with the
92 Insights Into Second Language

contracts. Similarly, other studies have shown that students

generally supported the idea of taking more responsibility in their
language learning (see Thang, 2004; Carter, 2005; Lai, 2007).
Another finding from this study is that the students did not appear
to be quite ready for autonomous learning. To put it simply, their
beliefs and resulting actions with the contracts do not generate
resourceful learning behaviours that are exhibited with learning
autonomy. While many of the students in the present study
acknowledged that learning English with the contracts benefited
them in some ways, they appeared to be less willing to make
learning decisions themselves. There were indications in the study
that the contract enabled the students to make certain language
task-related choices on their own but they generally held the
lecturer to be more responsible for most of their areas of learning.
This suggested a strong preference for a dominant lecturer role and
a less autonomous student role. The results of other studies echoed
this finding. (see Littlewood, 2001; Thang, 2001; Thang &
Azarina, 2006; Chan et al, 2002; Sert, 2006; Seung, 2007;
Junaidah, 2007). It appears that even though there was indication
of learners’ positive perceptions about the effectiveness of the
contracts for successful language learning, this did not translate
into the expected behaviour of resourceful language learners.
Therefore, no conclusive claims could be made about their
capability to accept full responsibility for their language learning.
There are some reasons for this behaviour. The first is that the
students seemed motivated to adopt the learning contract for the
ultimate purpose of passing their English course only. This may
explain why some of them appeared less interested to carry on with
the contracts to the next stage. Second, their heavy academic load
of 20 hours a week demanded much of their time. This precluded
any form of proactive language activities that the learning contract
planned for. Despite the complexity of the findings, learning
contracts remain as a useful method for language learning. In fact,
the results of the study serve to raise awareness of the myriad of
perceptions that learners bring to the classroom that could affect
the learners’ ability to develop their full potential as autonomous
 Learning Contracts For Language 93

language learners. In studies mentioned earlier, learning contracts

have been shown to increase students’ awareness about their
language learning while in the classroom or beyond the classroom.
This is part of the training that educators stressed as an important
step in preparing students to become independent learners.

6.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

The preliminary findings from the pilot study suggest that the
learning contract has potential use in the language classroom to
develop language learners who are resourceful and independent.
The outcomes were based on the responses of first year students.
More needs to be learnt about the effects of the contracts among
students in their later years of study. Equally important is that these
results cannot be attributed only to the learning contract alone. The
lecturers or teacher in charge had a role in how effective the
contract would be. It is worthy to find out how their motivation and
perseverance throughout the implementation influenced the
students towards the contracts and language learning. Lastly,
further research is needed to learn how learning contracts can be
integrated seamlessly in a university language learning programme
where its suitability to Asian language learners, who are used to
teacher-led activities, remains little known.

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 7
THE EFFECTS OF EXTENSIVE
READING ON LANGUAGE
PROFICIENCY AND MOTIVATION TO
READ
Navinder Kaur
Zubaidah Awang
Khairi Izwan Abdullah

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Extensive reading (ER) programmes involve students silently

reading large quantities of materials. These materials are usually at
a level that permits students to gain at least a fair understanding of
what they are reading without outside help (Jacobs and Gallo,
2002). The benefits of such programmes for first and second
language (L1 and L2) learners are well documented (Coady, 1997;
Day and Bamford, 2005; Elley, 1996; Krashen, 1993; McQuillan,
1994; Nagy, Anderson and Herman, 1987; Ng, 1988, 1994; Yu,
1993, 1999). There is overwhelming evidence that students
engaging in free reading progress in language and literacy
development. Studies thus far have shown that students involved in
in-class free reading where class-time is set aside for free reading
typically do well on tests of reading comprehension and
 The Effects Of Extensive Reading 99

vocabulary, a result that holds for first language acquisition and

foreign language development (Krashen, 2004).
This shows that an extensive reading programme must be a
student-centred activity and an integral part of reading instruction
in the second language classroom. The second language reading
lesson that incorporates extensive reading addresses two aims of
students reading a great deal and enjoying reading. It is simplistic
but nevertheless true that the more students read, the better they
become at it. “Reading… must be developed, and can only be
developed, by means of extensive and continual practice. People
learn to read, and to read better, by reading” (Eskey, 2002).

2.0 RESEARCH PROBLEM

Despite strong, widely disseminated evidence supporting ER,

implementation of some extensive reading programmes have been
less than a complete success. Greaney (1996) notes that in many
lower-income countries, ER programmes grapple with problems
such as lack of reading materials and inadequate preparation of
teachers. Additional constraints on the implementation of ER exist
even in countries with more favourable financial conditions. One of
these constraints flows from pressure brought by administrators,
students and parents to cover the entire syllabus and to complete
every page in the textbook and every exercise in the workbook.
Such pressure leaves little or no time for ER, which is relegated to
the status of "luxury" or "optional extra" (Yu, 1993).
There are many other challenges in encouraging students to read.
Table 1 shows the reasons reading among primary and secondary
students was still at a low level in Malaysia.
100 Insights Into Second Language

Table 1 Reasons for low reading levels (NILAM Programme,

1997)

N Reaso %
1 No 7
2 Readi 4
3 Prefer 3
4 Books 3
5 Not 3
6 Prefer 2
7 Tired 2
8 Unco 2
9 No 2
1 No 2

3.0 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theory which underpins the effectiveness of ER in terms of

enhancing comprehension is Krashen’s (2003) ‘Comprehension
Hypothesis’ which stresses that acquisition of a second language is
facilitated if students are given enough comprehensible input, and
when learning is conducted in a tension-free environment. The
Input Hypothesis states that “we acquire language in one way: by
understanding messages and we acquire language when we obtain
comprehensible input”. In extensive reading programmes, students
will be saturated or immersed with reading materials which
provide a great deal of comprehensible input.
Besides reading materials, the environment for reading is equally
important. Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis (1993) states that
in anxiety-producing situations, there is an affective filter which
acts as a mental block preventing acquirers from fully utilizing the
input they receive. But when the filter is low or down, the acquirer
can fully comprehend the message and use the input to enhance
their language competence. This hypothesis states that in a low-
 The Effects Of Extensive Reading 101

anxiety environment, that is, an environment where students feel

relaxed and at ease, students learn better. Extensive reading creates
this environment since students read books of their own choice i.e.
according to their interest and they read them at their own pace and
level. They do not make a conscious effort in reading since they are
not required to take tests. They only read for pleasure and for
enjoyment.
Day and Bamford (1998), two strong advocates of ER, suggested
that an extensive reading programme if set up and carried out
appropriately, not only helps students learn to read in the second
language, but also helps them to enjoy reading. This encourages
them to continue reading long after formal study of the second
language is over. ER, at the very least, consolidates students’
learning of the second language and at best, increases their
language proficiency.
The vicious and virtuous reading circles (Nuttall, 1996:127)
highlight the importance of reading for pleasure.
Vicious and virtuous circles (Nuttall, 1996:127)

Don’t Read Enjoys Reads

under slowly faster
stand readin

Vicious Virtuous
circle circle

Don’t Don’t Under

read enjoy stands Reads
much readin better more

4.0 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Based on the limitations in the implementation of the current

NILAM programme and successful ER programmes in other
102 Insights Into Second Language

countries, this research carried out an ER programme called

Pleasure Reading. The objectives will be to compare monitored and
unmonitored environments for ER and their effect on enhancing
students’ language proficiency and students’ motivation to read on
their own. This research will address having comprehensible and a
variety of reading materials in a tension-free environment. It would
highlight the role of teachers and compare the ER programme that
is monitored (scheduled into the school timetable) and
unmonitored.

5.0 METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH

This research investigated the effects of ER on students’ English

Language proficiency and motivation to read.

5.1 PARTICIPANTS OF RESEARCH

This research focused on 14 year old students in Sultan Ibrahim

Girls’ School, Johor Bahru. This is because these 14 year old
students have adjusted to a new environment after being in
secondary school for a year and they do not have any public
examinations in the year.
Before the research was conducted, the population was tested for
normality of distribution. 248 Form Two students sat for an exam
that comprised the comprehension, cloze and vocabulary sections.
A normal curve plotted on the students’ results showed that it is
reasonably symmetrical and bell-shaped. The participants involved
in this research were from a normal population as shown in Figure
1.
 The Effects Of Extensive Reading 103

Figure 4.1 Distribution of scores

50

40

Frequency
30

20

10 Std. Dev = 11.77

Mean = 70.1

0 N = 248.00
35.0 45.0 55.0 65.0 75.0 85.0 95.0
40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0

Scores

Figure 1 Distribution of scores

There were 248 fourteen year old students enrolled in this school
and they were divided into seven classes. These students were not
divided according to academic qualifications but were based on the
subjects that they were taking. 120 of them, who were from four
randomly selected classes, participated in this research. They
represent 48.39% of the total fourteen year old student population.
The two English Language teachers in charge of the four classes
were qualified and with minimum three years experience.
The groups were randomly selected. Group I, which was the
monitored group, had 59 students. Group II, with 61 students, is the
unmonitored group with no scheduled time for reading. The
104 Insights Into Second Language

treatment for Group I and Group II was carried out and monitored
by the researcher.

5.2 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

During the nine-month treatment period of this research, the

participants were required to complete pre and post tests.
Randomly selected students were also interviewed to elicit
feedback on the programme. Article Reports and Reaction reports
that were distributed were also collected and analysed.
Besides these, the following research instruments were also used:
a) Comprehension test
b) Cloze test
c) Vocabulary test
d) Affective questionnaire

5.3 RELIABILITY OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

The reliability and sources of the research instruments are

summarised in Table 2.
 The Effects Of Extensive Reading 105

Table 2 Reliability and Sources of Research Instruments

Research Alpha Source of Research Instruments

Instruments Reliability
Comprehension test 0.804 Australia International
Competitions for
Form 2 students in Malaysia,
University of New South Wales.
Cloze test 0.795 ‘Penilaian Menengah Rendah’
examinations
Vocabulary test 0.826 Revision books
Affective 0.813 Adapted from Hisougi and Day
questionnaire (2004) and Mori (2002) affective
questionnaire

5.4 METHODS FOR DATA ANALYSIS

The research hypothesis were analysed using the quantitative

approach. The t-test for paired and independent samples were
employed to examine the significant differences between the mean
scores of the pre and post-test results of the participants. However,
the interviews from the students were analysed using the qualitative
method through in-depth open ended interviews. The article
reports and reaction reports were analysed using descriptive
statistics.

6.0 RESEARCH FINDINGS

The quantitative results for the four instruments can be summarized

in Table 3.
106 Insights Into Second Language

Table 3 Quantitative results for language proficiency

Quantitative Test ER Non ER Independent

Programme Programme samples
t-test paired t-test paired Pre-test Post-
samples results test
Comprehension 0.024 0.356 0.197
test 0.000
Cloze test 0.000 0.546 0.220
0.000

Vocabulary test 0.002 0.691 0.215

0.000
Affective 0.371 0.398 0.228

α =0.05
questionnaire 0.323

The analysis above shows that students in the ER programme had a

significant difference in their comprehension, cloze and vocabulary
results. However, there was no significant difference for the
affective questionnaire. A further comparison was carried out to
examine the impact of ER on students with low English proficiency
(LEP) and high English proficiency (HEP) in the ER programme
group.
To analyse the students’ English language ability, the total marks
from the three tests were computed, which meant that the
comprehension, cloze and vocabulary results were totalled. LEP
students were identified as students who scored below 45% in their
pre-total scores. HEP students were students who scored above
80% in their pre-total marks. Table 4 lists the pre-total percentage
and the post-total percentage of LEP and HEP students from the
monitored group.
 The Effects Of Extensive Reading 107

Table 4 Low English proficiency and high English proficiency students’

pre and post-total percentage

Students Pre-total Post-total Percentage

percentage percentage Gain
Low English 34 59 25
Proficiency 41 55 14
(LEP) 42 78 36
(<45%) 44 72 28
40 59 19
41 72 31
High English 81 95 14
Proficiency 81 90 9
(HEP) 82 91 9
(>80%) 84 93 9
85 95 10
91 93 2

The results highlighted in Table 4 shows that the ER programme

has a positive impact on students, regardless of their proficiency
levels.
In the interviews carried out on the students, they all agreed that
they enjoyed reading the simple and interesting single page articles.
The ER group read a total of 3343 articles and the non ER group
only managed to read 29 articles.
7.0 DISCUSSIONS

The prominent roles that policy makers and school administrators,

teachers and students play in incorporating an ER programme in an
English Language classroom is important for ER to benefit
students.
108 Insights Into Second Language

7.1 POLICY MAKERS AND SCHOOL

ADMINISTRATIONS

They can provide moral support by providing insightful and careful

orientation to ER for both teachers and students. In addition,
administrators provide the different genres of comprehensible
single-page reading materials.

7.2 TEACHERS

Teachers are the facilitators and role models in the ER classroom.

The following are guidelines that teachers can give to students
when they engage in extensive reading.
a) Read, read, and read more
b) Read easy books
c) Read interesting materials
d) Reread books you found particularly interesting
e) Read for general understanding
f) Ignore unknown or difficult words. Skip them and continue
reading
g) Avoid using dictionaries
h) Expand your reading comfort zone
i) Set reading goals and keep a reading log
j) Enjoy! Enjoy! Enjoy!

7.3 STUDENTS

ER empowers students in the teaching-learning process. It

encourages them to explore, evaluate and make their own decisions
on what to read. This self-directed learning approach is student-
centred and provides greater autonomy to students.
 The Effects Of Extensive Reading 109

8.0 CONCLUSION

This research has shown the effects of extensive reading on

fourteen year old students in Malaysia after a 9-month experiment.
It suggests that extensive reading should be implemented carefully
in schools as a core part of the curriculum and be part of the
reading pedagogy in the classrooms. The results reinforce the same
conclusion of other researchers that extensive reading can
contribute positively to language proficiency.

REFERENCES

Coady, J. (1997). L2 vocabulary acquisition through extensive

reading. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language
vocabulary acquisition (pp. 225-237). Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Day, R. R., and Bamford, J., (2005). “Extensive Reading in the
Second Language Classroom”. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Elley, W. (1996). Using book floods to raise literacy levels in
developing countries. In V. Greaney (Ed.), Promoting
reading in developing countries: Views on making reading
materials accessible to increase literacy levels (pp. 148-
163). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Eskey, D.E. (2002). Reading and the teaching of L2 reading.
TESOL Journal, 11, 1, pp. 5-9.
Greaney, V., (Ed.) (1996). “Promoting Reading in Developing
Countries” : Views on making reading materials accessible
to increase literacy levels (pp 148-163). Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
Krashen, S. (1993). The power of reading. Englewood, CO:
Libraries Unlimited.
110 Insights Into Second Language

Krashen, S. (2004). The power of reading. Portsmouth,

NH:Heinemann and Westport, CONN: Libraries Unlimited.
McQuillan, J. (1994). Reading versus grammar: What students
think is pleasurable for language acquisition. Applied
Language Learning, 5(2), 95-100.
Nagy, W.E., Anderson, R.C., & Herman, P.A. (1987). Learning
word meanings from context during normal reading.
American Educational Research Journal, 24, 237-270.
Ng, S.M. (1988). Research into children’s language and reading
development. Singapore: Singapore Institute of Education.
Ng, S.M. (1994). Changing the English language curriculum in
Brunei Darussalam. International Journal of Educational
Development, 14(4), 361-370.
Nuttall, C., (1996). “Teaching Reading Skills In A Foreign
Language”. (2nd ed.). Oxford: Heinemann.
Program Nilam, (1997). “Konsep Dan Panduan Pelaksanaan di
Sekolah”. Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan, Kementerian
Pelajaran Malaysia.
Yu, V.W.S. (1993). Extensive reading programs -- How can they
best benefit the teaching and learning of English? TESL
Reporter, 26(1), 1-9.
Yu, V.W.S. (1999). Promoting second language
development and reading habits through an extensive
reading scheme. In Y.M. Cheah & S.M. Ng (Eds.),
Language instructional issues in Asian classrooms (pp.59-
74). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Jacobs, G., & Gallo, P. (2002, February). Reading alone together:
Enhancing extensive reading via student-student
cooperation in second-language instruction. Reading
Online, 5(6).
http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF
=jacobs/index.html
 8
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING AND
MOTIVATION: AN OVERVIEW
Yvonne Choong Foong Hiam
Azizah Rajab
Hadina Habil

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The growing importance of English in Malaysia has been shown

through the changes in its education policy since English plays a
vital role in realising Vision 2020, set by Tun Dr. Mahathir
Mohamad, the former Prime Minister of Malaysia, to help
transform our country into an Information Technology (IT)-based
scientific society where English is necessary for assimilating IT in
developing our country.
Due to the emphasis of the language usage itself, our
government has put in efforts to upgrade students’ English
proficiency level; yet students have not been performing well.
According to Lin and Warden’s research (1998), students’ shyness
as well as afraid of losing faces are the main hindrance that
influences their willingness to participate in any English activities
in the classroom. Besides, students also experience unpleasant
environment in terms of English learning where they will be
punished physically (like being canned) or mentally (such as being
given more homework). Gaudart (1997:34) in his study mentioned
that English to most students is a “necessary devil.”
112 Insights Into Second Language

Again in their research (1998), Lin and Warden pointed out

that in order to ease the learners in terms of their English learning
process, there is a need of understanding the learners’ weaknesses
and strengths. Hussin,et al. (2001) further supported it by
mentioning in their research that a conducive environment has to
be created in relation to successful language learning. Also, the
positive attitudes of both the teacher and learners are inter-relevant
in terms of cultivating motivation of language learning.
Thus, this study is to find out: the reasons and the hindrances of
learners’ language learning (as in Research Questions 1 & 2
below), that is, to find out the actual purposes why learners learn
the language, and why they cannot master this language even if the
importance of it has been so emphasized. Besides, the research is
also to investigate the motivational level in language classroom (as
in Research Question 3 below). From there, conclusions may be
drawn to decide how one learns better. Apart from that, teachers
or policy-makers can then help learners set appropriate targets in
order to command and master the language according to different
needs. Educators can therefore implement certain modifications or
remedies upon current teaching methodologies and motivational
strategies for English teaching and learning. Due to complicated
colonisation historical background of Malaysia, the findings of this
research which is related to language learning and motivation may
be varied from previous researches done abroad. However,
through further detailed study of motivation, it may help educators
in the implementations or modifications of certain education
policies within the Malaysian context in accordance with Vision
2020.

1.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study was directed by the following research questions:

1) What are the purposes of learning English?
 Second Language Learning and Motivation 113

2) What difficulties do learners face when learning a second

language?
3) How are learners motivated (in terms of enhancing their
language learning) in a classroom?
The answers to the questions would provide reasons and
hindrances of learning a second language as well as the ways that
motivate students to learn English as a second language.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Most researches that are relevant to language learning and

motivation are conducted in European countries where English has
been used mainly as a second language or a foreign language; yet,
not many studies have been conducted in Southeast Asia since the
geographical and historical factors are much more complicated.
Undoubtedly, English has been an international language used
world widely including in Malaysia; nevertheless, the role of
English in our country is so insignificant that on one hand, it can
be viewed as a ‘second language’ as in most big cities such as
Kuala Lumpur, Johor Bahru, Ipoh, George Town, etc. where
English has been used in most business sectors; on the other hand,
it serves as a ‘foreign language’ as in most rural areas where
English is not used at all in daily life (Davison, 2005).
Figure 1 shows the theoretical framework of this study which is
based on Gardner and Lambert’s (1982) theories on motivation of
language learning. In his socio-educational model, Gardner
identified a number of factors which are related closely to language
learning. Among, he highlighted the relationship between language
achievement and motivation. That is, if one has strong motivation
in learning, then his/her language achievement will be high. The
motivation here refers to that of intrinsic one, not of extrinsic.
According to Gardner, his prior concern is on integrative
motivation, only those who have greater desire to integrate
themselves into the community that speaks the target language and
114 Insights Into Second Language

maintain a positive attitude to possess strong motivation, will

enable them to enjoy higher language achievement.

Other factors
Integrativeness

Motivation

Attitudes toward Language

the learning Achievement
situation

Language Aptitude

Figure 1: The Basic Integrative Motivation Model in Second Language

Learning (Gardner and Lambert, 1982)

2.1 PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF

BEHAVIOURISM, COGNITIVISM AND
INTERACTIONISM IN SECOND LANGUAGE
LEARNING

Audiolingualism was the dominant language teaching method of

the fifties and sixties which is derived from the behaviorist theory
 Second Language Learning and Motivation 115

of learning. It was a method of teaching that derived from the

structural approach developed by a number of American linguists
such as Fries. The behaviorists do not see any differences in
learning language from other behavior as it is ‘learning’.
Therefore, it is said that learning could be affected by manipulating
the external environment such as giving positive or negative
reinforcement, a major focus of classroom activity, to provide the
required experiences. All learners should not engage in
meaningful communication before they are ready to do so.
Learners should therefore be provided with sufficient ‘learned’
language--awareness of language rules and principles-- before they
can apply appropriately (Brown, 2000; Chanstain, 1988).
Under this methodology, learners are required to act or follow
as they are told so as to minimize their errors while learning a
second or foreign language. The emphasis is on the accuracy.
Mistakes are immediately criticized and correct usages are
immediately praised. ‘Language habit’ is formed by constant
repetition and the reinforcement of the teachers. This objective is
to be achieved by conditioning students to give automatic, non-
thoughtful responses during mimicry-memorization of dialogues
and practices with pattern drills. Students memorize the pattern
prior to receiving an explanation of the grammatical structures
involved. It is a teacher-centered mode of learning where the
students’ role is to respond orally, or occasionally in writing, to
language stimuli.
Unlike behaviorists, the cognitivists allow errors during
learning process. Since learners acquire language, mistakes are
expected. But they do believe that with more practices, errors can
be reduced or minimized through comprehensible input. Here, the
cognitivists provide chances for learners to express themselves
with the competence they possess. What matters more is their
fluency in expressing ideas or opinions than accuracy. Cognitivists
also expect differences between competence and performance.
The language learners activate their competence to create the
language needed in particular communicative situations (Krashen,
1983). In language learning, the learners are the problem-solvers
116 Insights Into Second Language

who take part actively and highly during learning process. The
teachers are considered as helpers and assist only when necessary.
The learners can acquire not only at school, in the classroom, but
also everywhere as long as there is enough input provided.
The interactionist’s view of learning is on interaction, group-
work as well as information-exchange tasks which provide good
effects on language learning. (Stevick, 1982:104) has encountered
two quite different approaches to language learning that consisting
of the interactionist views: Community Language Learning (CLL)
and Silent Way. CLL provides a strong incentive for learners to
communicate in order to belong to the ‘community’ of the learners
in the same group (Robinett, 1978). It is a non-threatening
classroom situation so that students will drop their defenses and
enter freely into the second/foreign language learning situation;
Silent Way demanding at times quite complex uses of language
without the oral intervention of the teacher, who remains silent
except for the initial modeling of new words (Robinett, 1978).
Students are to use their own powers of mental perception and
understanding to formulate their own interpretations of how the
language functions and examine their own work instead of
expecting the teacher to make corrections for them.
 Second Language Learning and Motivation 117

Table 1: The Summary for the Three Schools and Pedagogical

Implications

School Behaviourism Cognitivism Interactionism

Theory Stimulus Language Interaction and
Response acquisition and communication
Reinforcement learning
hypotheses
Pedagogical Language habit is Learners are Language is
Implication formed by spontaneous to mainly for
constant acquire/learn a communication
repetition and language if therefore,
reinforcement comprehensible language
input is there functions have to
be emphasized

3.0 CONCLUSION

The ultimate goal for students in a learning environment is the

ability to gain knowledge and comprehend the knowledge
purposefully as well as meaningfully so that it would be useful to
them for the rest of their lives. In relevance to this, Behaviorist,
Cognitivist and Interactionist theories on motivation are believed
to have a great impact on students’ learning ability and process; as
learning would procure when the motivation is at its high; likewise
when the motivation is low, learning would deem ineffective. In
schools, in order for teachers and educators to maximize the
effectiveness of the teaching programs and techniques, it is vital
for them to consider the students’ needs, their strengths and
weaknesses. (Benson,N., Crosier,S., and Parker,L., 2004).
This research will help reshape some possible new insights
upon English language learning in the Malaysian context.
Furthermore, it aims to find out the reasons why learners learn a
language and what factors hinder learners’ language learning.
Besides, the impact of motivation takes place in a classroom upon
118 Insights Into Second Language

learners’ language learning will be discussed. The findings of this

study nevertheless may be different from previous or other
research conducted overseas due to its research setting and
limitations.

REFERENCES

Benson, N., Crosier, S., and Parker, L (2004). “Maslow's

Motivation Theory And It's Application to Education”, 12
February.
http://facultyweb.cortland.edu/andersmd/MASLOW/HOMEPAGE.HT
ML
Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of Language Teaching and
Learning. 4th ed. San Francisco: Longman.
Chastain, K. (1998). Developing Second Language Skills. 3rd ed.
Florida: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Gardner, R.C. and Lambert, W.E. (1982). “The Role of the
Integrative Motive on Students' Participation in the French
Classroom.” Canadian Modern Language Review, 38, 625-
647.
Gaudart, H. (1997). “Creative Ideas for Teaching English.”
Reaching Out to Learners. Shah Alam: Fajar Bakti.
Hussin, et al. (2001). “Sustaining an Interest in Learning English
and Increasing the Motivation to Learn English: An
Enrichment Program.” The Internet TESL Journal, 7, 5.
Krashen, S.D. (1983). The Natural Approach: Language
Acquisition in the Classroom. Oxford: Pergamon.
Lin, H.J. and Warden, C.A. (1998). “Different Attitudes Among
Non-English Major EFL Students.” The Internet TESL
Journal, 4,10.
Robinett, B.W. (1978). Teaching English to Speakers of Other
Languages. Minnesota: UMP.
Stevick, E.W. (1982). Teaching and Learning Languages.
Cambridge: CUP.
 9
PARADIGMS IN THE TEACHING AND
LEARNING OF LITERATURE
Tina Abdullah
Zaidah Zainal

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Rosenblatt (1938: 24) claimed that when it comes to reading a

literary text “there is no such thing as a generic reader or a generic
literary work.” She argued that “no one can read a poem for us. If
there is indeed to be a poem and not simply a literal statement, the
reader must have the experience, must ‘live through’ what is being
created during the reading.” (1938: 33)
She asserted that when a reader reads a literary text in search
for factual information than he would adopt the ‘efferent stance.’
This stance which originates from a Latin word ‘effere’ means ‘to
carry away.’ It is ‘predominantly nonliterary’ and is also used to
assist a reader in making sense of a literary text based on its ‘public
meaning’ (Rosenblatt, 1938: 292). Apart from that, it would
normally be adopted when a reader chooses to read a literary text
“primarily for the information provided” (Beach, 1993: 163).
On the other hand, when reading a literary text, the reader may
also choose to adopt the ‘aesthetic stance’ that would enable him to
engage himself in a more personal meaning making level.
120 Insights Into Second Language

Meanwhile, the aesthetic stance would permit focus on ‘private

meaning making’ of the text. This is when the reader would be able
to live through the meaning making process by relating it to
personal associations, feelings and ideas.
To her it is possible for a reader to choose the efferent or
aesthetic stance or to employ both interchangeably as one reads a
literary text. However, she believed that it would be possible to ask
anyone to read the newspaper or any academic text and to
summarize or rephrase the original text into something more
comprehensible for the layman to understand. In fact, she asserted
that if the same text is summarised by different readers, then all the
summaries would generally contain similar information that has
been lifted or taken from the original text read. To extend this
concept of information transfer into literary text, she believed that
when a reader decides to adopt the efferent stance in reading a
literary text, he would be reading in search for the overall idea of
what the text is all about or in search for specific information
which he may be able to use in describing his understanding of the
plot, for example, in a summary. The situation is however different
when the reader chooses to adopt the aesthetic stance in reading a
literary text. Every transaction that takes place between the reader
and the literary text will be unique. In other words, the same reader
may enter a lived through experience differently each time he reads
the text and this may be due to the state of mind that he is in,
purpose of reading or even the time of the day that the reading
activity is done.
The circumstance described so far is one of the factors that
have instigated complex issues that surround the literature
instruction and how it is generally viewed and taught across
different curricula. For that matter, the following section will
elaborate on three fundamental factors that have influenced the
shaping of paradigms within the teaching and learning of literature
for a very long time. The exploration and discovery of these
fundamental factors would generate a deeper understanding of
challenges that have become apparent as a consequence.
 Paradigms In The Teaching 121

2.0 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SHAPING OF

PARADIGMS IN LITERATURE INSTRUCTION

The choice of stance that has been introduced by Rosenblatt (1938)

may be one of the contributing factors that have influenced how
literary texts are explicated which may also lead to how literature
instruction is shaped. However, there are other powerful factors
that have influenced the general pedagogical development as well
as the meaning making process of literary texts. Among them,
three major factors that have played a profound role in the way
literature is understood and interpreted are the development in
modern literary theories, the marriage between literature and
language teaching and learning and how the evolution in
educational theories and practices have influenced the pedagogical
development in the general literature instruction.
In her final publication, Rosenblatt (2005: 68) stated that
It is much easier in the classroom to deal with ideas
and information about literature than it is with
literature itself, as it resides in the myriad
transactions between individuals and books. To help
a young reader to reflect critically on his own
response is indeed challenging to him and to the
teacher. Naturally, the tendency is to concentrate on
the easily checked “facts” of the story or play, or to
present information about literary history, or to
discuss the often entertaining items about the life of
the author. Hence it is that in many classrooms
pupils learn to ignore or even distrust their own
responses to literature. They may therefore reject
literature altogether as irrelevant to themselves. Or
they may divert their original interest in literature to
studies around and about literature. The student
comes to substitute these for the kind of reflection on
his response that would enable him to approach the
text work in a sounder way.
122 Insights Into Second Language

Generally what has been described here is a common

occurrence in classrooms that attempt to study or read a piece of
literary work whether a short story, novel, play or even a poem. In
fact, Langer (1990: 812) believed that, “The teaching of literature
is often misunderstood.”
Most of the time lessons will focus on information gathered
about the text to enable them to discover the ‘correct answer’
rather than their own perception or personal response to the text.
For example, lessons in literature would most likely evolve around
matters that require students to recall or state information read, to
give a general précis of the student’s understanding of the text or to
identify and discuss literary devices or elements used. The most
that would be expected of the student is his ability to argue or
criticise about the text or its relationship to its author or other
works based on various theories of modern literary criticisms.
These activities demand students to read the text in search for
information rather than to enjoy or savour the reading experience
or the transaction that should naturally take place between the
reader and the text. The free association into the aesthetics will be
overshadowed by an in depth explication analysis of literature
either using literary criticisms or by analysing the stylistic features
of the texts.
The situation described may very much be the repercussion of
different contributing factors. Among them, three compelling
factors mentioned earlier namely the development in modern
literary theories (Probst, 1992; Seldon, 1989; Beach, 1993), the
evolving relationship between literature and language teaching and
learning and the advancement of theories and practices in the
educational area have certainly influenced the way literature is
explicated and taught which ultimately have an effect on the
meaning making process.

3.0 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MODERN

LITERARY THEORIES AND LITERATURE
 Paradigms In The Teaching 123

Figure 1 below shows the well-known ‘triangle’ of author, work

and reader introduced by M.H. Abrams. It illustrates the
characterization of the development in modern literary theories that
has transpired in three distinct stages namely the Romantics, The
New Critics and the Reader Response (Beach, 1993).
Traditionally, during the Romantics period, when reading a
literary text, it was customary for readers to be expected to focus
on the writer and to find the meaning of the text based on the
message that the writer desires to convey. Seldon (1989: 4)
explained that the “romantic theories emphasise the writer’s mind
and life.” In other words, the focus of meaning lies in the hands of
the writer of the text.

TEXT
The New Critics

WRITER READER
The Romantics The Reader

Figure 1: “Triangle” of Author, Work and Reader

Readers are supposed to read and speculate the intentions that

the writer tries to communicate through the text written. Readers
are not supposed to rely on their own thoughts, feelings or personal
experience when making sense or responding to the text read.
Understanding, meaning making as well as critical analysis of the
literary work would normally centre on who the writer was, what
sort of educational training and background experiences did he
124 Insights Into Second Language

have and the particular issues, themes or style of writing that the
writer would usually employ in his work. The practice would be
expanded to include a comparison or/and contrast of other literary
works written by the same author or an exploration of other kinds
of meaning that was common to literary works of the certain
period, genre or tradition.
In comparison to the Romantics, the New Critics have a
different set of views about how literary texts should be understood
and valued. Instead of searching for the true meaning or message
that the writer wishes to express, they believe that meaning and
message are subjected to be based on the text itself and is
influenced by different modern literary theories such as the
Marxists, the Formalists and the Structuralists. According to
Seldon (1989: 4), “Formalist theories concentrate on the nature of
writing itself in isolation; Marxist criticism regards the social and
historical context as fundamental…and the Structuralist poetics
draws attention to the codes we used to construct meaning.” As
claimed by Beach (1993: 1), “While literary criticism is equally
concerned with making meaning, the focus is generally more on
extracting meaning from the text rather than making explicit the
processes by which readers, or the critic, make meaning.” In other
words, the New Critics suggest an extension to the way readers
should make meaning by not only focusing on the writer’s message
but also using theories in criticism to explain or make meaning out
of the text read. Both the Romantics and the New Critics prioritise
tangible evidence that is either based on the writer’s intensions and
lives or information presented in the literary text when explicating
or analysing the meaning rather then allowing the reader to express
and rely on his or her own personal reasoning or presuppositions
about the text.
For that matter when the reader oriented or phenomenological
criticism that emerged when the Reader Response Theory
(Rosenblatt, 1938) was popularised, readers’ viewpoint has since
become a significant part of the meaning making process (Beach,
1993). This has further been reinforced when the Transactional
Theory (Rosenblatt, 1978) was later established. Based on these
 Paradigms In The Teaching 125

reader oriented theories, meaning resides within the transaction

between the reader and the literary work. The reader plays a vital
role in shaping meaning where background knowledge and
experiences are central in making sense of the text.
Chitravellu (2005) described the transaction as a process that is
illustrated in Figure 2. Like Rosenblatt (1938, 1978), she believed
that meaning making will take place while the reader is engaged in
reading a literary text. The transactional process that engages the
reader in meaning making will lure the reader into an imaginary
world that would depend on various factors such as the state of
mind or the mood that the reader is in, his or her background
knowledge and previous experiences and his or her familiarity with
the culture of the text, the purpose of reading the literary text, time
and interest in reading. In other words, in reading literary texts,
meaning would reside on many factors that would originate from
who the reader is and when he is reading the literary text. Each
time a reader engages in reading a literary text, the creation of
meaning will be unique to that particular situation in time.

Literary
Text

IMAGINARY
WORLD
The Reader

Figure 2: The Transactional Process in Reading Literary Texts

Based on the discussion presented so far, literature has indeed

been read and explicated differently according to the different
focus disclosed. At the beginning, emphasis was given to the role
126 Insights Into Second Language

of the writer by the Romantics. Later, the development in modern

literary criticism has influenced the way people read, judge or
analyse any literary text. The focus on meaning making which
once resided on the writer and the message that he wishes to
convey through his work of art, has been shifted by the New
Critics to the meaning that is readily presented in the literary text.
This has been done with the help of different modern literary
theories that have emerged after the 1920’s. However, the later
period has been slowly influenced by the significant role of the
reader to project meaning in the imagined world through the
transactional process that takes place when the reader is engaged
with the text.
Obviously based on the evidence presented literature has
indeed been read and viewed differently across time and this is
very much the outcome of the general development of the modern
literary theories. Meanwhile, the strong influence in the
development of modern literary movements could also be observed
in the relationship that has been established between literature and
language teaching and learning.
The situation described earlier by Rosenblatt (2005) about how
learners and instructors thought literature should be taught and
learned may have also been as a consequence of the
transformations in the relationship betweenlanguage and literature.

4.0 THE MARRIAGE BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND

LITERATURE INSTRUCTION

Figure 3 discloses the overall evolution in the relationship between

literature and language teaching and learning. Evidently, the
relationship between the two related but distinct areas have gone
through considerable transformations (Delanoy, 1997). At the
beginning, under the influence of the Formalists and the
Structuralists, much attention was given to the use of literature in
language teaching. According to Thakur (2003), before the world
war, the teaching of the English language was synonymous with
 Paradigms In The Teaching 127

the teaching of literature. It was treated as a source of high moral

value and a model of excellent language use that emphasized on
the study of literary canon of the target language. In this situation,
literature was taught as the body of knowledge or the subject
matter that dominated the language syllabus (Carroli, 2002).
The situation however, changed after the British colonization
period ended (Thakur, 2003). This was due the fact that the status
of the English language in many of the colonized countries
changed to become a second or a foreign language. As a result of
the change of the English language status, literature which was
once treated as a source of high moral value no longer held its
special status.
Meanwhile, literature became more divorced from language
teaching when advocators of the Functional Approach argued to
eliminate literature from language teaching (Delanoy, 1997). They
disputed that the use of literature in language teaching was a long
way from meeting the needs of the language learners. The trend to
disengage and at the same time to unite literature with language
teaching and learning continued when the Communicative
Approach to language teaching was established in the 1970s.
Although initially through the Communicative language teaching
method, authentic literary texts were regarded to supply learners
with ‘representational uses of the language’ (Carter, 2007: 6),
many materials and textbooks that are designed using the method
focused on specific language features and functions minimally
make use of the authenticity of literary language in the teaching
and learning of a language (Liddicoat & Crozet, 2000; Newman &
Pujol, 1996).
128 Insights Into Second Language

Formalist/ Functional Communicative Applied Linguistics &

Structuralists Approach Approach Literary Theory
-in the area of Applied
-much attention on -trend changed to -Liddicoat & Linguistics, through
literature in language eliminate Crozet (2000) experts in stylistics and
teaching literature from claimed that discourse analysis, a new
-in the case of teaching language literature became move has been identified
English language, instruction more divorced that emphasizes on the
English synonymous (Delanoy,1997) from language need to use learning
with literature teaching and materials that can present
(Thakur,2003) -they dispute that learning when the emotionally engaging and
-special status the study of Communicative intellectually stimulating
-source of high moral literature in Approach to experience for the
value language learning language teaching language learners
-model of excellent is a long way was established (Delanoy, 1997)
language usage from meeting the
-taught as body of need of the -the literary critics also
knowledge or a subject learners contributed to the
matter and dominated reawakening of interest in
the language the use of literature in
instruction language instruction by
(Delanoy,1997; focusing on the reader
Carroli,2002) and the interaction
between the reader and
the text (Rosenblatt, 21978)

Figure 3: Transformation in the Relationship between Literature and

Language Learning

Nevertheless, starting in the 1980s, literature has slowly

reestablished its grounds in the language teaching and learning
environment (Carter, 2007) through the new evolution of Applied
Linguistics and Literary Theory (Thakur, 2003). From then on,
literature has once again made its way into the language
instruction. This time however, it does not dominate the language
instruction, instead its function has changed to become a resource
for language teaching and learning.
Thus far, the progress in the marriage between literature and
language instruction has indeed played its unique role within the
 Paradigms In The Teaching 129

actual teaching and learning processes of literature. Since literature

has once again become a significant resource for language teaching
and learning, the meaning making process of literary texts has been
extended not only to include focus on either the writer or the reader
but detailed stylistics analysis of the text structures, style of writing
and choice of words that are employed to bring meaning to literary
texts. The current development in the relationship between
literature and language instruction has resulted in the formation of
three teaching models designed especially when using literature
within any general language instruction. The models will be
described and discussed in detail in the section on the effects of the
factors discussed on the overall pedagogical practices in the
literature instruction.

5.0 THE INFLUENCE OF EDUCATIONAL THEORY

The discussion on paradigms in literature instruction started with

how developments in the modern literary theories and the progress
in the relationship between literature and language instruction have
affected the way meaning is explicated in literary texts. Following
that, it should also be noted that theories within the area of
education such as constructivism and active learning have also lent
their hand in varying the paradigms of the overall literature
instruction.
For example, in 1990, a revolution in literature instruction was
established in American educational institutions. The revolt was as
a consequence of the influence of the constructivism theory in
education. In the meantime, ample empirical evidence has also
shown that many literature lessons have often been taught and
tested in a nonliterary manner. Learners are normally expected to
arrive at the correct interpretation or adopt a particular right answer
(Langer, 1992; Rosenblatt, 1938, 1978 & 2005) especially for
assessment purposes. Apart from that, researchers in the area of
education, discourse analysis and literature instruction such as
130 Insights Into Second Language

Tharp & Gallimore (1988) ), Cazden(2000) and Nystrand(1997)

found that highly scripted lessons of recitation, where teacher
controls the discourse and there is minimal interaction in the class
is the predominant mode in many literature classrooms.
In other words, the growing concern about the pedagogical
tradition within the literature instruction together with the growing
influence of theories that support learner centered learning
environment have facilitated the establishment of learning through
where According to Langer(1992: 35),
The need to reexamine the role of literature in the
educational experience of young people is
particularly acute at this time, when the nation as a
whole is attempting to redefine its educational goals
and objectives…educators have turned to generic
problem-solving approaches as the focus of reform,
with identified “critical thinking” strategies applied
in similar ways across the different academic
subjects.
For that matter, Applebee (1992) mentioned that the language
arts has adopted the constructivism theory for the teaching and
learning of literature where emphasis has shifted from content
knowledge to process of understanding. In other words, if the focus
of literature instruction has been on dealing with ideas and
information about literature (Rosenblatt, 2005), the revolution is
suppose to alter literature instruction to centre on the process of
understanding literature itself. Through constructivism, learners are
given the opportunity to become active participants in the learning
process where they are encouraged to use prior knowledge,
personal and cultural experiences in their attempt to make meaning
of the literary texts read together through group work.
Generally, the factors described have indeed greatly influenced
the overall literature pedagogical trends. As a consequence, a
couple of examples of how these factors have contributed to the
different faces of the literature instruction are discussed in the
following section.
 Paradigms In The Teaching 131

6.0 THE EFFECTS ON PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES

The influence of the theory of constructivism together with

evidence from empirical findings have pointed to the need to
replace the traditional recitation patterns of discourse in most
literature classrooms with those that actively engage students in
meaning making processes. As a consequence, some educationists
such as Daniels (2004) through his Literature Circles Model have
developed frameworks for promising instructional ideas that would
enhance the use of literature using theories within the educational
area.
With regards to the evolutions in the literary movements,
obviously the current perception of the role of literature in
language teaching and learning has also been influenced by the
evolution of the movement. For example, Applebee (1992)
discussed how the movements in literary theories have affected the
teaching of the English language arts in the United States in the
1970s. As a result of the movement, a report which was published
by the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE)
Commission, presented three teaching models (Mandel, 1980) that
could be applied for the teaching of literature in the English
language arts curriculum.
According to Applebee (1992: 10)
The three models represent long-standing traditions
in the English language arts: one was student
centered, emphasizing ‘personal growth’; one was
content centered, emphasizing the preservation of a
cultural heritage; and one was skill centered,
emphasizing the development of language
competencies.
The same model has been used as a basis for a book entitled
Literature and Language Teaching: A Guide for Teachers and
Trainers written by Lazar (1993 & 2005). Taking a closer look at
the three models, it can be seen that they are directly influenced by
the literary criticism movement discussed earlier.
132 Insights Into Second Language

LANGUAGE BASED
MODEL

PERSONAL
CULTURAL
ENRICHMENT
MODEL
MODEL

Figure 4: Models for Literature in Language Teaching and

Learning

7.0 CONCLUSION

In short, development in modern literary theories, the relationship

between literature and language teaching and learning, and also the
evolution of literature instruction within the area of education in
general have indeed affected the way literature is explicated and
also taught. Since the present scenario has shown favorable
attention in the incorporation of literature across curricula, more
research efforts that lead to the discoveries and understanding of
practices as well as real challenges in the teaching of literature
would enhance future pedagogical development within the
literature instruction.
 Paradigms In The Teaching 133

REFERENCES

Alexander, K.J., Miller, P.J., & Sapient. (2002). Young Children’s

Emotional Attachments to Stories. Social Development. 10,
3, 174-398.
Applebee, A.N. (1992). The Background for Reform. Literature
Instruction: A Focus on Student Response. Albany: National
Council of Teachers of English.
Beach, R. (1993). A teacher’s introduction to reader-response
theories. Urabana, IL: NTCE.
Carroli, Piera. (2002). Perceptions of Literature: A Comparison of
Students’ and Educators’ Views. ELT Journal. 37,1, 30-35.
Carter. R. (2007). Literature and Language Teaching 1986-2006: A
Review. International Journal of Applied Linguistics.17, 1,
3-13.
Cazden, C. (2001). Classroom Discourse: The Language of
Teaching and Learning (2nd.Ed.) Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Chitravelu, N., Sithamparan, S. Teh Soo Choon (2005) ELT
Methodology Principles and Practice (2nd Ed) Shah Alam :
Fajar Bakti
Daniels, H. (2004). Literature Circles: Getting Them Started and
Keeping Them Going. In Nancy Steineke (Ed.) Reading &
Writing Together: Collaborative Literacy in Action.
Portsmouth: Heinemann. 130-190.
Delanoy, Werner. (1997). Teacher Mediation and Literature
Learning in the Language Classroom. LCS. 14, {Online}
Available:http://www.wilstapley.com/LCS/articles/wd.htm
Langer, J. (1990). The process of understanding: Reading for
literary and informative purposes. Research in the Teaching
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Lazar, G. (1993 & 2005). Literature and Language Teaching: A

Guide for Teachers and Trainers. Cambridge: CUP
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 INDEXES

Achievements,52 Motivation, 84, 94

Antonomous, 65
Anxiety, 1, 4, 5 Observation, 44, 45
Audio-Lingua Method, 26, 27
Paradigms, 100
Behaviour, 44 Pedagogical, 110
Behavioursim, 96 Proficiency, 84
Candidates, 25
Cognitivsm, 96 Qualitative, 30
Communication, 50
Contracts, 63 Reading, 84
Curriculum, 50 Requirements, 23
Resource fulness, 65
Development, 50
Samples, 26
Effects, 84 Skills, 50
Exploration, 63 Sociocultural
Extensive, 84
Teaching, 23
Grammar, 40 Triangulation, 30, 31, 35, 36, 37
Interactionism, 96
Written, 45
Learners, 25
Learning, 94, 100
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