Module 2 Mathematical Language and Symbols

Module 2: Mathematical Language and Symbols

The language of mathematics is the system used by mathematicians to communicate mathematical ideas among themselves. This language consists of a substance of some
natural language (for example English) using technical terms and grammatical conventions that are peculiar to mathematical discourse, supplemented by a highly specialized
symbolic notation for mathematical formulas.
Mathematics as a language has symbols to express formula or to represent a constant. It has syntax to make the expression well-formed to make the characters and symbols
clear and valid that do not violate the rules. Mathematical symbols can designate numbers (constants), variables operations, functions, brackets, punctuation, and grouping to help
determine order of operations, and other aspects of logical syntax.
Mathematics uses symbols instead of words. There are the 10 digits: 0, 1, 2, ...,9. There are symbols for operations: +, −, ×, ÷, that “stand in” for values and many special
symbols: ≤, ≥, ±, 𝜋, etc. Mathematical expressions use mathematical symbols instead of words. For example, “the sum of five and a number 𝑥”, “a number 𝑦 decreased by two”
and “twice a number 𝑥 increased by six”.

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Module 2 Mathematical Language and Symbols

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. discuss the language, symbols and conventions of mathematics
2. explain the nature of mathematics as a language
3. perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly
4. acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language
5. compare and contrast expressions and sentences
6. identify and discuss the four basic concepts of mathematical language
7. list and discuss some basic operations on logic and logical formalities

Lesson 1: Characteristics of Mathematical Language, Expressions, Sentences, and Conventions in the Mathematical Language

Engage: Let’s Try This!

Make a short response or an essay for each of the following questions. After that, create a small group of four members and share your answer or thoughts about the question. Then
synthesizing the answers of your group, choose one representative to present the answer to the class.

1. Why is Mathematics called a universal language?

2. Why is mathematical language important in learning mathematics?
Explore: Discover This!
A. Translate the following mathematical expressions into verbal phrases.
a) 3𝑥 – 4
b) 𝑛 + 8
2
c) x + 𝑦

B. Translate the following verbal phrases into algebraic symbols.

a) five times the sum of 𝑚 and 𝑛
b) the sum of five times 𝑚 and 𝑛
c) eight times a number 𝑥 increased by three
d) five times a number 𝑛 added to six
e) fifteen added to the quotient of a number 𝑦 and two

C. Identify (as many as you can) the common words and phrases that correspond to the four basic operations and other mathematical term/s.

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Module 2 Mathematical Language and Symbols

Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division Equal/s

Explain: Clarify Your Lesson!

Characteristics of Mathematical language: Precise, Concise, Powerful

The mathematical language is the system used to communicate mathematical ideas. This language consists of some natural language using technical terms (mathematical
terms) and grammatical conventions that are uncommon to mathematical discourse, supplemented by a highly specialized symbolic notation for mathematical formulas. The
mathematical notation used for formulas has its own grammar and shared by mathematicians anywhere in the globe.
The characteristic of mathematical language is being precise, concise, and powerful. One thing that stands out in mathematical language over other languages is its precision.
Precision in mathematics is like a culture being correct all the time. Definition and limits should be distinction. For instance, the Englich language sentence “The cat is in the mat.”
may or may not be true. It depends on the speaker’s perspective, feelings, or whether the speaker is telling the truth or not. Now, consider the mathematical sentence “3 × 6 = 21”.
In one glance and every perspective, one can tell that the sentence is false. Precision is able to make very fine distinctions. For example, the use of mathematical symbol is only done
based on its meaning and purpose. Like + means add, − means subtract, × means multiply and ÷ means divide.
Mathematical language must be concise or shows simplicity. Being concise is a strong part of the culture in mathematical language. The mathematician desires the simplest
possible single exposition at the price of additional terminology and machinery to allow all of the various particularities to be subsumed into the exposition at the highest possible
level. For example, the sentence “product of two numbers is equal to 51” can be written as 𝑥𝑦 = 51, where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are properly defined. Concise is able to say things briefly. For
example, the long English sentence can be shortened using mathematical symbols. Eight plus two equal ten which means 8 + 2 = 10. Another example, consider the sentence “the
sum of any two real numbers is also a real number.” In mathematical notation, this declarative sentence can be written as: ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅.
It is also powerful since it can express complex ideas with ease. Mathematical language must also be powerful. It is a way of expressing complex thoughts with relative ease.
The abstraction in mathematics is the desire to unify diverse instances under a single conceptual framework and allows easier penetration of the subject and the development of more
powerful methods. Mathematical language is powerful because it enables to express complex thoughts with relative ease. For example, the application of critical thinking and
problem-solving skill requires the comprehension, analysis and reasoning to obtain the correct solution.
To improve grammar and syntax in English language, it is must to improve the vocabulary. The main reason is to make use of this vast range of vocabularies to take the most
appropriate word to precisely express the idea. Mathematics is no exception. The table below shows some commonly used mathematical symbol. Some of these symbols sounds
familiar while some will be encountered along the journey of discovering the world of mathematics.

Carlos Hilado Memorial State College Module GECMAT

College of Arts and Sciences, Mathematics Department Revision 01
Module 2 Mathematical Language and Symbols

Carlos Hilado Memorial State College Module GECMAT

College of Arts and Sciences, Mathematics Department Revision 01
Module 2 Mathematical Language and Symbols

The use of language in mathematics differs from the language of ordinary speech in three important ways. First, it is nontemporal, which means there is no past, present, or
future in mathematics. Everything just “is”. This presents difficulties in forming convincing examples of, say, logical principles using ordinary subjects, but it is not a major difficulty
for the student. Also, mathematical language is devoid of emotional content, although informally mathematicians tend to enliven their speech with phrases. Again, the absence of
emotion from formal mathematical discourse or its introduction in informal discourse presents no difficulty for students. The third feature that distinguishes mathematical from
ordinary language, one which causes enormous difficulties for students, it is precision.
Since mathematics is usually communicated in the definition-theorem-proof format, the first step in learning the formal communication of mathematics is in learning
definitions. Let us begin with a definition of definitions ad some examples of good and bad definitions. A definition is a concise statement of the basic properties of an object or
concept with unambiguously identify the object or concept. The italicized words give the essential characteristics of a good definition. It should be concise and not ramble on with
extraneous or unnecessary information. It should involve basic properties, ideally those that are simply stated and have immediate intuitive appeal. It should not involve properties
that required extensive derivation or are hard to work with. In order to be complete, a definition must describe exactly the thing being defined – nothing more, nothing less.

Examples
Good definition: A rectangle is a quadrilateral all four of whose angles are right angles.
Poor definition: A rectangle is a parallelogram in which the diagonals have the same length and all the angles are right angles. It can be inscribed in a circle and its area is given by
the product of two adjacent sides.
This is not concise. It contains too much information, all of which is correct but most of which is unnecessary.
Poor definition: A rectangle is a parallelogram whose diagonals have equal lengths.
This statement is true and concise, but the defining property is not basic. This would work better as a theorem to be proved than as a definition. In mathematics, assertions of this
kind are regarded as characterizations rather than as definitions.
Bad definition: A rectangle is a quadrilateral with right angles.
This is ambiguous. With some right angles? With all right angles? There are lots of quadrilaterals that have some right angles but are not rectangles.
Unacceptable definition: rectangle: has right angles
This is unacceptable because mathematics is written as English is written – in complete, grammatical sentences. Such abbreviations frequently hide major misunderstandings as will
be pointed out below.

Expressions and Sentences

These symbols are combined to form expressions and sentences.
In mathematics, an expression or mathematical expression is a finite combination of symbols that is well-formed according to rules that depend on the context. It is a correct arrangement of
mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of interest. An expression does not state a complete thought; it does not make sense to ask if an expression is true or false.
10
The most common expression types are numbers, sets, and functions. Numbers have lots of different names: for example, the expressions: 5, 2 + 3, 2 , (6 − 2) + 1, 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1,
all look different, but are all just different names for the same number. This simple idea – that numbers have lots of different names – is extremely important in mathematics.
On the other hand, a sentence (or mathematical sentence) makes a statement about two expressions, either using numbers, variables, or a combination of both. It is the analogue of an English
sentence; it is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought. Sentences have verbs. In mathematical sentence “3 + 4 = 7”, the verb is “=”. If you read the sentence as
‘three plus four is equal to seven’, then it’s easy to ‘hear’ the verb. Indeed, the equal sign ‘=’ is one of the most popular mathematical verbs.
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A sentence can be (always) true, (always) false, or sometimes true / sometimes false. For example, the sentence “1 + 2 = 3” is true. The sentence “1 + 2 = 4” is false. The sentence “𝑥 = 2” is
sometimes true / sometimes false: it is true when 𝑥 is 2, and false otherwise. The sentence “𝑥 + 3 = 3 + 𝑥” is (always) true, no matter what number is chosen for 𝑥.

Here are examples, to help explore the difference between sentences and expressions how to read them, and their truth values.

How to read English noun, mathematical Truth value

expression, English sentence or
mathematical sentence
cat ‘cat’ English noun
2 ‘two’ Mathematical expression
The word ‘cat’ begins ‘the word ‘cat’ begins with English sentence FALSE
with letter ‘k’. letter ‘k’
1+2=4 ‘one plus two equals four’ or Mathematical sentence FALSE
‘one plus two is equal to four’
5– 3 ‘five minus three’ Mathematical expression: Note
that when you say ‘five minus
three’, you have not stated a
complete thought.
5– 3 = 2 ‘five minus three equals two’ Mathematical sentence TRUE
or ‘five minus three is equal
to two’
The cat is black. ‘the cat is black’ English sentence The truth of this sentence cannot be determined out of
context. If the cat being referred to is indeed black,
then the sentence is true. Otherwise, it is false.
𝑥 ‘ex’ Mathematical expression: The
letter 𝑥 (‘ex’) is commonly
used in mathematics to
represent a number.
𝑥=1 ‘ex equals one’ or ‘ex is equal Mathematical sentence The letter 𝑥 represents a number. The truth of this
to one’ sentence depends upon the number that is chosen for
𝑥. If 𝑥 is replaced by ‘1’, then the sentence becomes
true sentence ‘1=1’. If 𝑥 is replaced by ‘2’, then the
sentence becomes the false sentence ‘2=1’. Thus, the
sentence ‘𝑥 = 1’ is SOMETIMES TRUE /
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SOMETIMES FALSE, depending upon the number

that is chosen for 𝑥.
𝑥−1=0 ‘ex minus one equals zero’ or Mathematical sentence SOMETIMES TRUE / SOMETIMES FALSE. If 𝑥 is
‘ex minus one is equal to ‘1’, then the sentence is true. Otherwise, it is false.
zero’
𝑡+3 ‘tee plus three’ Mathematical expression
𝑡+3= 3+𝑡 ‘tee plus three equals three Mathematical sentence The letter 𝑡 represents a number. This sentence is
plus tee’ or ‘tee plus three is TRUE, no matter what number is chosen for 𝑡. The
equal to three plus tee’ order that you list the numbers in an addition problem
does not affect the result. In other words, commuting
the numbers in an addition problem does not affect the
result.
This sentence is false. ‘this sentence is false’ English sentence IF this sentence is true, then it would be false. IF this
sentence is false, then it would have to be true. So, this
sentence is not true, not false, not sometimes true, not
sometimes false.
𝑥+0=𝑥 ‘ex plus zero equal ex’ or ‘ex Mathematical sentence This sentence is always TRUE, no matter what number
plus zero is equal to ex’ is substituted for 𝑥. Adding zero to a number does not
change the identity of the number.
1∙𝑥 =𝑥 ‘one times ex equals ex’ or Mathematical sentence: The Recall that the centered dot denotes multiplication.
‘one times ex is equal to ex’ centered dot ‘∙’ denotes This sentence is always TRUE, no matter what number
multiplication. is substituted for 𝑥, since multiplying a number by 1
preserves the identity of the original number.

Conventions in the Mathematical Language

Mathematica languages have conventions and it helps individual distinguish between different types of mathematical expressions. A mathematical convention is a fact,
name, notation, or usage which is generally agreed upon by mathematicians. Let say for example, one evaluates multiplication before addition following the principle of PEMDAS
(Parenthesis, Exponent, Multiplication, Division, Addition and Subtraction). Another example of convention is when introducing a new variable, “let 𝑥 be the sum of 𝑚 and 𝑛”, it
is convenient to put 𝑥 on the left of the equation. So instead writing 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 𝑥, write 𝑥 = 𝑚 + 𝑛.

Mathematicians abide by conventions to be able to understand what they write without constantly having to redefine basic terms. Almost all mathematical names and
symbols are conventional. Mathematical notation includes letters from various alphabets, as well as special mathematical symbols. Letters in various fonts often have specific,
fixed meanings in particular areas of mathematics. In general, anything that represents a variable should be set in italic and this applies to characters from Latin / English alphabet
(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, … ; 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, …) as to letters from any other alphabet, most notably Greek (𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾, … ; Α, Β, Γ, …). Usage of superscripts (e.g. 𝑥 𝑛 ) and subscripts (e.g. 𝑥𝑛 ) is also an important

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convention. Thus, 𝑥1 would be suitable for the initial value, while 𝑥𝑖 would represent one instance from a set of 𝑥′𝑠 (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , …), also note that numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.) are not
variables. Likewise, in some special cases symbol are used to represent general constants, such as 𝜋 used to represent the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter.
Conventions, in other words, are used to make things “convenient” to all people who practices mathematics.

Elaborate: Challenge Yourself!

A. For problems 1-5, complete the table by providing the first column by the correct way to read, the second column by whether a mathematical expression or mathematical
sentence, and the third column by whether always true, always false, or sometimes true/sometime false for each item.
How to read mathematical expression or Truth value
mathematical sentence
1) 1 + 2
2) 1 + 2 = 3
1
3) 2
4) 𝑥 − 1
5) 𝑥 − 1 = 3

6) Use your first name as an English noun in three sentences: one is true, one that is false, and one whose truth cannot be determined without additional information.
7) Use the mathematical expression ‘3’ in three sentences: one that is true, one that is false, and one whose truth cannot be determined without additional information.
8) Use the mathematical expression ‘𝑛’ in three sentences: one that is always true, one that is always false, and one whose truth cannot be determined without additional
information.

B. Enumerate the three characteristics of mathematical language, discuss each characteristic in your own understanding and give example for each.
C. The following definitions below contains too much information, all of which are correct but unnecessary, that made them a bad definition. Provide a concise definition for
each of the following.
9) An equilateral triangle is a triangle with three acute angles. Those angles are all equal to 60°. All sides are also equal. It can be inscribed and circumscribed in a circle and
𝑠2 √3
whose area can be solved using the formula 𝐴 = 8 , where 𝑠 is the length of the side.
10) Pythagorean theorem is a theorem that is used in computing sides of a triangles. It can only be applied in right triangles. The formula is 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 , where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are the
shorter sides and 𝑐 is the longer side.
D. Give specific example/s that shows mathematics is a powerful language.
E. What do you think is the reason why in writing algebraic expression, the multiplication sign × is not used?

Generalization
The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of thoughts that mathematicians like to express. It is precise (able to make very fine distinctions), concise
(able to say things briefly) and powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative case). An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun; a correct arrangement
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Module 2 Mathematical Language and Symbols

of mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of interest. An expression does not state a complete thought; it does not make sense to ask if an expression is true
or false. Most common expressions types are numbers, sets and functions. A sentence is a mathematical analogue of an English sentence; a correct arrangement of mathematical
symbols that states a compete thought. It makes sense to ask if a sentence is true, false, sometimes true / sometimes false.

Evaluate: Gauge Your Learning!

A. When can you say that mathematical language is precise, concise and powerful? Cite some examples.

B. For problems 1-5, complete the table by providing the first column by the correct way to read, the second column by whether a mathematical expression or mathematical
sentence, and the third column by whether always true, always false, or sometimes true/sometime false for each item.
How to read mathematical expression or Truth value
mathematical sentence
𝑛
1) 2
2) 1 + 2 + 𝑥
3) 𝑥 ÷ 3
4) 𝑥 ÷ 3 = 2
5) 1 + 2 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 + 2

C. Explain the mathematical convention applied in the following steps in each item. Suggest a precise way to present the steps.

1. Cancellation
2
𝑥 + 𝑥 − 6 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)
= =𝑥+3
𝑥−2 𝑥−2

2. Transposition
2𝑦 − 3 = 5
2𝑦 = 5 + 3
2𝑦 = 8
𝑦=4
3. Have you noticed that superscript (– 1) is used to indicate reciprocals (5−1 ) and inverse functions (𝑓 −1 (𝑥))? Why do you think this is the case? Offer an explanation for
establishing this convention.

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Module 2 Mathematical Language and Symbols

Lesson 2: Four Basic Concepts in Mathematical Language, Elementary Logic and Formality
Language serves as a tool for teaching mathematical concepts. It can show how to make syntax and structure of mathematical language clear and explicit to understand the
fundamental mathematical concepts. Language serves as a major pedagogical tool to understand how, what, and why things are said. The mathematical language is full of
terminologies and mathematical notations and have very precise and powerful meaning. Notations are very important in understanding the mathematical language which may include
the use of sets, functions, relations and binary operations. We need to familiarized with the four basic concepts on mathematics before moving to more complicated mathematical
structures.

Engage: Let’s Try This!

Rewrite each of the following phrases into a mathematical expression. Use as few variables as possible.
1. Twenty-four multiplied by the sum of 𝑥 and 𝑦
2. The product of two and a number 𝑛 increased seven
3. Five times the difference of 𝑦 and 7
4. Twice the quotient of 𝑥 and 3
5. The sum of the squares of two numbers
6. The square of the sum of 5 and a number
7. A man’s age 10 years ago
8. Three less than twice a number
9. One-half times the sum of two numbers
10. There are twice as many boys as there are girls.

Explore: Discover This!

Choose a quantity to be represented by a variable, then write a mathematical symbol for each.

1) John’s age in 5 years

2) The distance travelled by a man driving at the rate of 60 kilometers per hour
3) The fraction of work done by a man who can finish a job in 2 hours
4) The age of a woman 15 years ago
5) The perimeter of a rectangle whose length is twice the width
6) The sum of three consecutive even integers
7) The total distance traveled by a boat 1 hour upstream and 30 minutes
downstream in which the rate of current is 3 kph.

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Module 2 Mathematical Language and Symbols

Explain: Clarify Your Lesson!

A. Language of Sets

A set is a well-defined collection of unique elements. Elements in a set do not "repeat". The objects are called the elements and are usually denoted by lowercase letters a,
b, c, …; the sets themselves are usually denoted by uppercase letters A, B, C, ….

Methods of Describing Sets

a) By roster: A roster lists down all the elements separated by a comma.
Example 1: the set of counting numbers less than 6.
Set notation: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
This is a finite set with cardinality of 5.

Example 2: the set of positive even integers greater than 8.

Set Notation: B = {10, 12, 14, …)
B is an infinite set which uses ellipsis to denote infinite sequence.

b) Set-builder notation (or rule method) presents elements by stating their common properties. It is written as {𝑥/ 𝑃(𝑥)}. It is also useful when
describing infinite sets.

Example 3: Describing the set of all the natural numbers.

Set Builder Notation: {𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑁}

Example 4: Describing the set of multiples of 5.

Set Builder Notation: {𝑚𝑚 is a multiple of 5}

The contents of a set are called its elements or members. For example: {1, 2, 3, Ø, {3}} is a set containing 5 elements. The cardinality of a set is the number of elements
in the set. The cardinality of set A is denoted by 𝑛(𝐴). For example: Given 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5}, 𝐵 = {1, 5}, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = { 5 }
Then, 𝑛(𝐴) = 3, 𝑛(𝐵) = 2, 𝑛(𝐶) = 1
A finite set is a set whose elements are limited or countable, and the last element can be identified while an infinite set is a set whose elements are unlimited or uncountable,
and the last element cannot be specified. A unit set is a set with only one element, it is also called singleton. The set that contains no elements is called the empty set and is
denoted by .

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If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets, 𝐴 is called subset of 𝐵, written 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, if and only if, every element of 𝐴 is also an element of 𝐵. 𝐴 is a proper subset of 𝐵, written 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵, if and only if,
every element of 𝐴 is in 𝐵 but there is at least one element of 𝐵 that is not in 𝐴. On contrary, the symbol ⊄ denotes that it is not a proper subset. 𝐴 equals 𝐵, written, 𝐴 = 𝐵, if and
only if, every element of 𝐴 is in 𝐵 and every element of 𝐵 is in 𝐴.
Examples
a) Suppose 𝐴 = {𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, and 𝑈 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔}, then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, since all elements of 𝐴 is in 𝐵.
b) Suppose 𝐴 = [𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, 𝐶 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑏, 𝑑}, and 𝑈 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔}, then 𝐴 and 𝐶 are both subsets of 𝐵; but 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵, whereas 𝐶 ⊄ 𝐵. It can be observed
that only 𝐴 is a proper subset of 𝐵 and not 𝐶 because 𝐵 and 𝐶 are with the same elements (notice that set 𝐴 is inside sets 𝐵 and 𝐶).
c) Suppose 𝐴 = [𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑐}, and 𝑈 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔}, then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴, therefore 𝐴 = 𝐵. It can be noted that all elements of 𝐴 are also elements
of 𝐵 (notice that set 𝐴 is also set 𝐵).

The universal set 𝑈 is the set of all elements of interest under investigation. It is the largest in the sense that all sets considered in the discussion of the problem are subsets of the
universal set.

The union of sets A and B (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) is the set of all elements that belong to either A or B or both.
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 or both}
For example, given that 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5}, 𝐵 = {1, 5}, and 𝐶 = {5}
Therefore, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1, 3, 5}, 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 = {1, 5}, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5}

The intersection of sets A and B (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) is the set of all elements in common with the sets A and B.
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
For example, given that 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5}, 𝐵 = {1, 5}, and 𝐶 = {6}
Therefore, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {1, 5}, 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = {}, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 = {}

The complement of a set, denoted A', is the set of all elements in the given universal set U that are not in A.
For example, given that 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5}, 𝐵 = {1, 5}, and 𝐶 = {}
Hence, 𝐴′ = {2, 4}, 𝐵 ′ = {2, 3, 4}, 𝐶′ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

The relative complement or set difference of sets A and B, denoted 𝐴– 𝐵, is the set of all elements in A that are not in B.
For example, given that 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5}, 𝐵 = {1, 5}, and 𝐶 = {}
Then, 𝐴 − 𝐵 = {3}, 𝐵 − 𝐴 = { }, 𝐴 − 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5}

Venn diagrams are used as a visual representation of sets. The universal set U is represented by a rectangle, and subsets of U are represented by regions lying inside the rectangle.
For example

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Module 2 Mathematical Language and Symbols

a) The shaded part of the Venn diagram below illustrates 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵

b) The shaded region of the Venn diagram below corresponds to 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵

c) The shaded region of the Venn diagram below corresponds to 𝐴 − 𝐵

d) The shaded region of the Venn diagram below corresponds to 𝐴′ or complement of 𝐴

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B. Language of Relations and Functions

A relation is any set of ordered pairs or the rule that associates the elements of one set to the elements of another set. The set of first members, the 𝑥 values of the ordered pairs, is
called the domain of the relation. The set of second members, the 𝑦 values of the ordered pairs, is called the range of the relation. A function is a relation in which each element of
the domain is paired with exactly one element in the range.
Examples
a) Determine whether a given set of ordered pairs is a function or a mere relation.
1) {(10, 180), (11, 198), (12, 216)}
Solution: It is a function since each element of the domain corresponds to a unique element in a range. It is a one-to-one function.
2) {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5)}
Solution: It is a mere relation since there is an element of the domain that corresponds to multiple elements in a range. It shows that there are ordered pairs that shared the
same element in the domain.
3) {(5, ¼), (10, ½), (15, ¾), (20, 1)}
Solution: It is a function since each element of the domain corresponds to a unique element in a range. It is a one-to-one function.
4) {(3.5, 4), (3.6, 4), (3.7, 4), (3.8, 4), (3.9, 4)}
Solution: It is a function since each element of the domain corresponds to a unique element in a range. It is a one-to-many function.
5) {(0, 0), (−1, 1), (−2, 2), (−3, 3)}
Solution: It is a function since each element of the domain corresponds to a unique element in a range. It is a one-to-one function.
b) Determine whether a given relationships is a function or a mere relation. Relate…
➢ your friends and his/her birthday
Solution: It is a function since each of your friend has a unique birthday. (Note in this example, the list of your friends is the domain while the list of birthdays is the range).
It is many-to-one function because your two or more friends can share the same birthday.
➢ the birthday and your friends

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Solution: It is mere relation since each birthday can be shared by your two or more friends. (Note in this example, the list of birthdays is the domain while the list of your
friends is the range).
➢ counting numbers from 1 to 10 and their corresponding reciprocals
Solution: It is a function since a counting number from 1 to 10 has a unique reciprocal. It is a one-to-one function.
➢ number 20 and all its factors
Solution: It is mere relation since a number 20 can have more than one factors.
➢ School ID number to its corresponding fourth year students
Solution: It is a function since a school ID number is unique for every fourth-year student. It is a one-to-one function.

c) Determine whether each graph represents a function or a mere relation.

Use the vertical line test to determine whether a given graph represents a function or a mere relation. (Note: The vertical line test can be used to determine whether a graph
represents a function. If we can draw any vertical line that intersects a graph more than once, then the graph does not define a function because a function has only one output value
for each input value.)
y


c.1) 
Solution: It is a function since if you draw a vertical line in any part of the graph, it will intersect the graph at one point. It is a graph of a



quadratic function.
x

− − − −     

−

−

−

−

c.2) 
y

Solution: It is a mere relation since we can draw a vertical line that intersects a graph more than once.


− − − − −     

−

−

−

−
y

−


c.3) 


x
Solution: It is a function since if you draw a vertical line in any part of the graph, it will intersect the graph at one point. It is a graph of a
− −
−

−
               
trigonometric function.
−

−

−

−

−

−

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d) Identify whether the following equations represent functions or a mere relation.

d.1) 𝑦 = −2
Solution: It is a function because every element in the domain has a unique element in the range. And also, the graph of this equation is a horizontal line which
satisfies the vertical line test for a function.
d.2) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 1
Solution: It is a function because every element in the domain has a unique element in the range. For example, if 𝑥 = 3, then it has a unique value of 𝑦 which is 17.
And also, the graph of this equation is a parabola which satisfies the vertical line test for a function. The equation is a quadratic function.
1
d.3) 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 + 3
Solution: It is a function because every element in the domain has a unique element in the range. For example, if 𝑥 = −4, then it has a unique value of 𝑦 which is 2.
And also, the graph of this equation is a slanting straight line which satisfies the vertical line test for a function. The equation is a linear function.
d.4) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2
Solution: It is a function because every element in the domain has a unique element in the range. For example, if 𝑥 = −1, then it has a unique value of 𝑦 which is 1.
And also, the graph of this equation satisfies the vertical line test for a function. The equation is a cubic function.
4
d.5) 𝑦 = √𝑥
Solution: It is a mere relation because every element in the domain does not have a unique element in the range. For example, if 𝑥 = 16, it has two values of 𝑦, since
4
√16 is equal to 2 or −2. And also, the graph of this equation is a parabola that faces to the right which does not satisfy the vertical line test for a function. Points (16, 2)
and (16, −2) both lie in this graph, hence there are ordered pairs that shared the same element in the domain.
d.6) 𝑦 = |𝑥|
Solution: It is a function because every element in the domain has a unique element in the range. For example, if 𝑥 = −2, then it has a unique value of 𝑦 which is 2.
And also, the graph of this equation satisfies the vertical line test for a function.

C. Language of Binary Operations

A binary operation is an operation that takes two inputs. An operation is binary if it takes two real numbers as arguments to produce another real number. If we let multiplication,
denoted by the symbol ×, be a binary operation, then 4 × 6 yields the real number 24 or 4 × 6 = 24.

The following are the properties of binary operations.

1. Closure property of Binary Operations: If any two elements are combined using the operation, the result must be an element of the set.
Let 𝑆 be a set, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑐, for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆

2. Commutative property of Binary Operations

Let 𝑆 be a set, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆
For example, addition and multiplication in the set of real numbers are commutative because the sum or product of two real numbers is a real number.
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3. Associative property of Binary Operations

Let 𝑆 be a set, (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐), for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆
For example, addition and multiplication in the set of integers are associative.
For instance, (5 + 11) + 7 = 5 + (11 + 7) and (−2 ∙ 3) ∙ 13 = −2 ∙ (3 ∙ 13).
4. Identity property of Binary Operations
There exists an element 𝑒 in 𝑆, such that for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎.
For example, 0 is an additive identity element in the set of real numbers because any real number added to 0, the result is the real number. 1 is a multiplicative identity
element in the set of real numbers because any real number multiplied to 1, the result is the real number.

5. Inverses of Binary Operations

For each 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, there is an element 𝑎−1 of 𝑆, such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒 where 𝑎−1 is the inverse of 𝑎 and 𝑒 is the identity element in set 𝑆.
1
For example, −2 is an additive inverse of 2 in the set of real numbers because 2 + (−2) = (−2) + 2 = 0. 7 is a multiplicative inverse of 7 in the set of real numbers
1
because 7 ∙ (7) = 1.

The following are the two conditions to satisfy to be a binary operation ∗ on 𝑆.

a) 𝑆 is a well-defined set. 𝑆 is a well-defined set if 𝑆 is a set and 𝑎 is some object, then either 𝑎 is definitely in 𝑆, denoted by 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, or 𝑎 is definitely not in 𝑆, denoted by
𝑎 ∉ 𝑆.
b) 𝑆 is closed under ∗. Recall that the closure property of binary operations states that if 𝑆 is a set, then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑐, for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆.

Examples
1) Is addition a binary operation on the set of all rational numbers?
Solution: We will apply the two conditions to test whether addition is a binary operation on the set of all rational numbers. First, is the set of rational numbers a well-
defined set? The answer is yes because any number can be classified either a rational number or not. Second, is the sum of two rational numbers rational? The answer is
yes because if you add two rational numbers, their sum is always a rational number.

2) Is subtraction a binary operation on the set of positive integers?

Solution: We will apply the two conditions to test whether subtraction is a binary operation on the set of positive integers. First, is the set of positive integers a well-
defined set? The answer is yes because any number can be classified either a positive integer or not. Second, is the difference of two positive integers a positive integer?
The answer is no because there are some positive integers whose difference is not a positive integer, let say, 3 − 7 = −4, −4 is not a positive integer.

3) Is multiplication a binary operation on the set of natural numbers?

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Solution: We will apply the two conditions to test whether multiplication is a binary operation on the set of natural numbers. First, is the set of natural numbers a well-
defined set? The answer is yes because any number can be classified either a natural number or not. Second, is the product of two natural numbers a natural number?
The answer is yes because if you multiply any two natural numbers, their product is always a natural number.

4) Is division a binary operation on the set of whole numbers?

Solution: We will apply the two conditions to test whether division is a binary operation on the set of whole numbers. First, is the set of whole numbers a well-defined
set? The answer is yes because any number can be classified either a whole number or not. Second, is the quotient of two whole numbers a whole number? The answer
is no because there are some whole numbers whose quotient is not a whole number, let say, 1 ÷ 2 = 0.5, 0.5 is not a whole number.
𝑎
5) Let 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℚ, is ∗ a binary operation on ℚ? (Note that ℚ is a set of rational numbers.)
Solution: We will apply the two conditions to test whether ∗ is a binary operation on ℚ.
First, is ℚ a well-defined set? The answer is yes because a set of rational numbers is a well-defined set. Second, is ℚ closed under ∗? The answer is not because if 𝑎 =
𝑎 1
1 and 𝑏 = 0, then 𝑏 = 0 is not an element of ℚ. Therefore, ∗ is not a binary operation on ℚ.
6) Let 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ+ , is ∗ a binary operation on ℤ+ ? (Note that ℤ+ is a set of positive integers.)
Solution: We will apply the two conditions to test whether ∗ is a binary operation on ℤ+ .
First, is ℤ+ a well-defined set? The answer is yes because a set of positive integers is a well-defined set. Second, is ℤ+ closed under ∗? The answer is not because if 𝑎 =
1 and 𝑏 = 2, then 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 1 − 2 = −1, which is not an element of ℤ+ . Therefore, ∗ is not a binary operation on ℤ+ .
7) Let 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, is ∗ a binary operation on ℝ? (Note that ℝ is a set of real numbers.)
Solution: We will apply the two conditions to test whether ∗ is a binary operation on ℝ.
First, is ℝ a well-defined set? The answer is yes because a set of real numbers is a well-defined set. Second, is ℝ closed under ∗? The answer is yes because for any real
numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏 is an element of ℝ. Therefore, ∗ is a binary operation on ℝ. This example is a proof that multiplication is closed under multiplication on the set of
real numbers.
8) Let 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 3𝑎 + 𝑏, where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.
a) Is the operation ∗ commutative?
Solution: Using the commutative property of binary operation, verify that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.
𝑎∗𝑏 =𝑏∗𝑎
3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 3𝑏 + 𝑎
3𝑎 − 𝑎 = 3𝑏 − 𝑏
2𝑎 = 2𝑏
𝑎=𝑏
Since the operation ∗ is commutative only if 𝑎 = 𝑏, hence the operation ∗ is not commutative.
b) Is the operation ∗ associative?
Solution: Using the associative property of binary operation, verify that(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐), for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ.
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)
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(3𝑎 + 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (3𝑏 + 𝑐)
(3𝑎 + 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (3𝑏 + 𝑐)
3(3𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 3𝑎 + (3𝑏 + 𝑐)
9𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 𝑐 = 3𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 𝑐
9𝑎 = 3𝑎
Since 9𝑎 ≠ 3𝑎, thus the operation ∗ is not associative.

9) Let 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 + 1, where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℚ.
c) Is the operation ∗ commutative?
Solution: Using the commutative property of binary operation, verify that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℚ.
𝑎∗𝑏 =𝑏∗𝑎
𝑎𝑏 + 1 = 𝑏𝑎 + 1 Since 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎, by commutative property of multiplication
𝑎𝑏 + 1 = 𝑎𝑏 + 1
Hence the operation ∗ is commutative.
d) Is the operation ∗ associative?
Solution: Using the associative property of binary operation, verify that(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐), for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℚ.
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)
(𝑎𝑏 + 1) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏𝑐 + 1)
(𝑎𝑏 + 1)𝑐 + 1 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐 + 1) + 1
𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐 + 1 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎 + 1
𝑐+1=𝑎+1
But 𝑐 + 1 ≠ 𝑎 + 1, unless 𝑐 = 𝑎, therefore, the operation ∗ is not associative.

Elementary Logic
Logic is the study of reasoning between objects and forms the basis of all mathematical reasoning and all automated reasoning. It is applied to prove things, whether
mathematical, philosophical, or scientific. Basically, logic is a systematic method for clearly expressing and demonstrating truths. It is technically defined as the science or study of
how to evaluate arguments and reasoning. Logical reasoning is used on mathematics to prove theorems, in computer science – to verify the correctness of programs and to prove
theorems.

Propositional Logic is concerned with statements to which the truth values, “true” and “false”, can be assigned. The purpose is to analyze these statements either individually
or in a composite manner.

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A proposition (or statement) is a declarative sentence which is either "true” or "false", but not both. The truth value of the propositions is the truth and falsity of the
proposition. For example, “The number 6 is even and less than 12.” Is a proposition while “How old are you?” and “Open your eyes.” are not propositions. A simple statement is
a statement that conveys a single idea. For example, “I will attend the meeting.” and “I will go to school.” A compound statement is a statement that conveys two or more ideas.
For example, “I will attend the meeting or I will go to school.”
A propositional variable is a variable which is used to represent a proposition. A formal propositional variable written using propositional logic notation, 𝑝, 𝑞, and 𝑟 are used
to represent propositions. Logical connectives are used to combine simple propositions which are referred as compound propositions. A compound proposition is a proposition
composed of two or more simple propositions connected by logical connectives “and”, “or”, “if-then”, “not”, and “if and only if”.

1.The conjunction of the proposition 𝑝 and 𝑞 is the compound proposition “𝑝 and 𝑞”. Symbolically, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, where ∧ is the symbol for “and”.
Example: 𝑝: This book is interesting.
𝑞: I am staying at home.
𝑝 ∧ 𝑞: This book is interesting and I am staying at home.
2.The disjunction of the proposition 𝑝, 𝑞 is the compound proposition “𝑝 or 𝑞”. Symbolically, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, where ∨ is the symbol for “or”.
Example: 𝑝: This book is interesting.
𝑞: I am staying at home.
𝑝 ∨ 𝑞: This book is interesting or I am staying at home.
3.The negation of the proposition 𝑝 is denoted by ~𝑝, where ~ is the symbol for “not”.
Example: 𝑝: This book is interesting.
~𝑝 can be read as: “This book is not interesting.” or “This book is uninteresting.” or “It is not the case that this book is interesting.”

4.The conditional (or implication) of the proposition 𝑝 and 𝑞 is the compound proposition “if 𝑝 then 𝑞.” Symbolically, 𝑝 → 𝑞, where → is the symbol for “if then.” 𝑝 is the
hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and 𝑞 is called conclusion (or consequent or consequence).
Example: 𝑝: This book is interesting.
𝑞: I am staying at home.
𝑝 → 𝑞: If this book is interesting, then I am staying at home.

5.The biconditional of the proposition 𝑝 and 𝑞 is the compound proposition “𝑝 if and only if 𝑞.” Symbolically, 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞, where ↔ is the symbol for “if and only if.”
Example: 𝑝: This book is interesting.
𝑞: I am staying at home.
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞: This book is interesting if and only if I am staying at home.

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Truth table shows the truth or falsity of a compound statement. It depends on the truth or falsity of the simple statements from which it is constructed. Note that T refers to
true proposition and F refers to false proposition.

1. The conjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 (denoted by 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) is true when, and only when, both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true. If either 𝑝 or 𝑞 is false, or if both are false, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is false. In ordinary
language the sentence “It is hot and it is sunny” is understood to be true when both conditions—being hot and being sunny—are satisfied. If it is hot but not sunny, or sunny
but not hot, or neither hot nor sunny, the sentence is understood to be false.
2. The disjunction of 𝑝, 𝑞 (denoted by 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is true when either 𝑝 is true, or 𝑞 is true, or both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true; it is only false if each proposition is false.
3. In negation of the proposition 𝑝, if 𝑝 is true, ~𝑝 is false; if 𝑝 is false, ~𝑝 is true.
4. In the conditional of the proposition 𝑝 and 𝑞 (denoted by 𝑝 → 𝑞), it is false when 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false; otherwise, it is true. Meaning 𝑝 → 𝑞 states that a true proposition
cannot imply a false proposition.
5. In the biconditional of the proposition 𝑝 and 𝑞 (denoted by 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞), it is true if both 𝑝 and 𝑞 have the same truth values and is false if 𝑝 and 𝑞 have opposite truth values. “if
and only if” are sometimes abbreviated as 𝑖𝑓𝑓.

Example: Construct the truth table of (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ ~𝑞

Solution:

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 ~𝑞 (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ ~𝑞
T T T F T
T F F T T
F T F F F
F F F T T

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Formality
A predicate (or open statement) is a statement whose truth depends on the value of one or more variables. Predicates become propositions once every variable is bound by
assigning a universe of discourse. Most of the propositions are defined in terms of predicates. For example, "𝑥 is an even number” is a predicate whose truth depends on the value
of 𝑥. The predicate is true for 𝑥 = 2 since 2 is an even number, but false for 𝑥 = 3 since 3 is an odd number.
The same with other statements, predicates are often represented by a letter. Moreover, a predicate can also be denoted by a function-like notation. We can denote the given
predicate as: 𝑃(𝑥) = "𝑥 is an even number". Now 𝑃(2) is true, and 𝑃(3) is false. If 𝑃 is a predicate, then 𝑃(𝑥) is either true or false, depending on the value of 𝑥.
A propositional function is a sentence 𝑃(𝑥); it becomes a statement only when variable 𝑥 is given particular value. Propositional functions are denoted as 𝑃(𝑥), 𝑄(𝑥), 𝑅(𝑥),
and so on. The independent variable of propositional function must have a universe of discourse, which is a set from which the variable can take values.
Consider the sentence, “If 𝑥 is an odd number, then 𝑥 is not a multiple of 2.” The given sentence has the logical form 𝑃(𝑥) → 𝑄(𝑥) and its truth value can be determined for
a specific value of 𝑥.
1 1
Example: Let 𝑃(𝑥) = “𝑥 2 > 𝑥” with the universe of discourse be the set ℝ of all real numbers. Determine 𝑃(2), 𝑃 (2), 𝑃(− 2), and indicate which of these statements are true and
which are false.

Solution:
𝑃(2) = 22 > 2 = 4 > 2, hence, 𝑃(2) is true.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑃 (2) = (2)2 > 2 = 4 > 2, but 4 ≯ 2, hence, 𝑃 (2) is false.
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑃(− 2) = (− 2)2 > − 2 = > − 2, hence 𝑃(− 2) is true.
4

The set of all such elements that make the predicate true is called the truth set of the predicate.
If 𝑃(𝑥) is a predicate and 𝑥 has a universe of discourse (domain) 𝐷, the truth set of 𝑃(𝑥) is the set of all elements of 𝐷 that make 𝑃(𝑥) true when they are substituted for 𝑥.
Example: Finding the truth set of a predicate
Let 𝑄(𝑛) = “𝑛 is a factor of 8.” Find the truth set of 𝑄(𝑛) if
a) the domain of 𝑛 is ℤ+ (the set of all positive integers)
Solution: the truth set of 𝑄(𝑛) is {1, 2, 4, 8}

b) the domain of 𝑛 is ℤ (the set of all integers)

Solution: the truth set of 𝑄(𝑛) is {−8, −4, −2, −1, 1, 2, 4, 8}

Quantifiers are phrases that refer to given quantities, such as "for some" or "for all" or "for every", indicating how many objects have a certain property.
A) The symbol ∀ is called the universal quantifier. It is read as “for every”, “for each”, “for any” “given any” or “for all”
Example:
a) “Every human being is mortal.” or “All human beings are mortal.” It is written as, “∀ human beings 𝑥, 𝑥 is mortal.”
b) “For every human being 𝑥, 𝑥 is mortal.” If you let 𝐻 be the set of all human beings, then you can symbolize the statement more formally by writing “∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑥 is mortal.”
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c) “For all real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑥.” It can be written as “∀ real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑥.”

Note: When the symbol 𝑥 is introduced into the phrase “∀ human beings 𝑥”, you are supposed to think of 𝑥 as an individual, but generic, object-with all properties shared
by every human being but no other properties. Thus, you should say “𝑥 is mortal” rather than “𝑥 are mortal.” In other words, use the singular “is” rather than the plural verb “are”
when describing the property satisfied by 𝑥.

In a universally quantified sentence, the domain of the predicate variable is generally indicated either between the ∀ symbol and the variable name (as in ∀ human being 𝑥)
or immediately following the variable name (as in ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐻).

Let 𝑄(𝑥) be a predicate and 𝐷 the domain of 𝑥. A universal statement is a statement of the form “∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑄(𝑥).” It is defined to be true if, and only if, 𝑄(𝑥) is true for
every 𝑥 in 𝐷. It is defined to be false if, and only if, 𝑄(𝑥) is false for at least one 𝑥 in 𝐷. A value for 𝑥 for which 𝑄(𝑥) is false is called a counterexample to the universal statement.
Example:
a) Let 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and consider the statement, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑥 2 ≥ 𝑥. Show that this statement is true.
Solution: 12 ≥ 1 = 1 ≥ 1 is true
22 ≥ 2 = 4 ≥ 2 is true
32 ≥ 3 = 9 ≥ 3 is true
42 ≥ 4 = 16 ≥ 4 is true
52 ≥ 5 = 25 ≥ 5 is true
Since every element in the domain 𝐷 is true, hence, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑥 2 ≥ 𝑥 is true.
b) Consider the statement, ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 ≥ 𝑥.
Find a counterexample to show that this statement is false.
Solution: If 𝑥 = 0.5, then
𝑥2 ≥ 𝑥
0.52 ≥ 0.5
0.25 ≥ 0.5 is false. Hence, 0.5 is a counterexample.

B) The symbol ∃ denotes “there exists” and is called the existential quantifier. It also reads as “for some” or “there is at least one”.
Example:
a) “There is a student in Math 140” can be written as, “∃ a person 𝑝 such that 𝑝 is a student in Math 140” or “∃𝑝 ∈ 𝑃 such that 𝑝 is a student in Math 140” where 𝑃 is the set
of all people. The domain of the predicate variable is generally indicated either between the ∃ symbol and the variable name or immediately following the variable name,
and the words such that are inserted just before the predicate.
Let 𝑄(𝑥) be a predicate and 𝐷 the domain of 𝑥. An existential statement is a statement of the form “∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐷, such that 𝑄(𝑥).” It is defined to be true if, and only if, 𝑄(𝑥) is
true for at least one 𝑥 in 𝐷. It is false if, and only if, 𝑄(𝑥) is false for all 𝑥 in 𝐷.
Example:
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a) Consider the statement ∃𝑚 ∈ ℤ+ such that 𝑚2 = 𝑚. Show that this statement is true.
Solution: Observe that 12 = 1, thus 𝑚2 = 𝑚 is true for at least one integer m. Hence, ∃𝑚 ∈ ℤ+ such that 𝑚2 = 𝑚 is true.
b) Let 𝐸 = {5, 6, 7, 8} and consider the statement ∃𝑚 ∈ 𝐸 such that 𝑚2 = 𝑚. Show that this statement is false.
Solution: Note that 𝑚2 = 𝑚 is not true for any integer m (5, 6, 7, 8), thus, ∃𝑚 ∈ ℤ+ such that 𝑚2 = 𝑚 is false.

Example: Let 𝑈 = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8}. Determine if each universal or existential statement is true or false.
a) ∀𝑥 (1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 9) Solution: It is true since every element in 𝑈 is true in 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 9.
b) ∀𝑥 (𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛) Solution: It is false since 1 is a counterexample.
c) ∃𝑥 (𝑥 + 1 = 4) Solution: It is false since there is no element in 𝑈 that will satisfy the statement, 𝑥 + 1 = 4.
d) ∃𝑥 (𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛) Solution: It is true since 2 is both prime and even.
e) ∀𝑥 (𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 = 2) Solution: It is true since every element in 𝑈 satisfies the statement, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 = 2

Example: Translating from formal to informal language. Rewrite the following formal statements in a variety of equivalent but more informal ways. Do not use the symbol ∀ or ∃.
a) ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 Solution: “The square of any real number is positive.”
b) ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 ≠ −1 Solution: “Every square of a real number is not equal to −1” or “No real numbers have squares equal to −1.”
+ 2
c) ∃𝑚 ∈ ℤ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚 = 𝑚 Solution: “There is a positive integer whose square is equal to itself” or “Some positive integer equals its own square.”

Elaborate: Challenge Yourself!

A. Write each given set in set-builder form.
1. {2, 3, 5, 7, 11}
2. {a, e, i, o, u}
3. {Tuesday, Thursday}
4. {1, 4, 9, 16, 25}
5. {January, March, May, July, August, October, December}

B. Given the following information:

𝐴 = {𝑥/𝑥 is a set of even numbers}
𝐵 = {𝑥/𝑥 is a set of odd numbers}
𝐶 = {𝑥/𝑥 is a set of integers}
𝐷 = {𝑥/𝑥 is a set of whole numbers}
𝐸 = {𝑥/𝑥 is a set of rational numbers}
𝐹 = {𝑥/𝑥 is a set of irrational numbers}
𝐺 = {𝑥/𝑥 is a set of prime numbers}
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𝐻 = {𝑥/𝑥 is a set of composite numbers}

𝐼 = {𝑥/𝑥 is a set of real numbers}

Determine the following sets.

6. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
7. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
8. 𝐶 − 𝐴
9. 𝐹′
10. 𝐶 − 𝐷
11. 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶
12. 𝐺 ∩ 𝐻

C. Determine which of the following ordered pairs or relationships or graphs or equations are functions or just mere relations.
13. (0, −2), (1, −3), (−2, 0), (−3, 1)
14. (0.5, 1), (0.4, 2), (0.3, 3), (0.5, 4), (0.4, 4)
15. A rational number to its square
16. A student to his or her grade in mathematics
17.

18.

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2
19. 𝑦 = − 𝑥
3
20. 𝑦 = √−𝑥

21. Let 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 , where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ+ . Is ∗ a binary operation on the set of ℤ+ ? Is the operation ∗ commutative? Is the operation ∗ associative? Show complete solution.

D. Write the statements in symbolic form using the symbols ~, ∨, and ∧ and the indicated letters to represent components statements.
Let ℎ = “John is healthy”, 𝑤 = “John is wealthy”, 𝑠 = “John is wise”.
22. John is healthy and wealthy but not wise.
23. John is neither healthy, wealthy nor wise.
24. John is wealthy, but he is not both healthy and wise.
25. John is neither wealthy nor wise, but he is healthy.

E. Write as English sentences and say whether they are true or false.
26. ∃𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 0.
27. ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 > 0.
28. ∃𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℚ, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 9.

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Evaluate: Gauge Your Learning!

A. Given the following sets: 𝑈 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓}, 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑒, 𝑓}, 𝐵 = {𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, 𝐶 = {𝑒, 𝑓}. Find each of the following.
1. 𝐴
2. 𝐵
3. 𝐶
4. 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶
5. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶
6. 𝐴 − 𝐶
7. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)
8. 𝐵– 𝐶
9. 𝐴’ ∪ 𝐵’
10. 𝐴’ ∩ 𝐵’

11. Let 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = |𝑎 − 𝑏|, where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ+ . Is ∗ a binary operation on the set of ℤ+ ?

𝑏−1
12. Let 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 , where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ+ . Is ∗ a binary operation on the set of ℝ+ ? Is the operation ∗ commutative? Is the operation ∗ associative? Show complete solution.

B. In numbers 13 to 15, determine if the specified operation is a binary operation on the given set. Justify your answer.
13. The operation subtraction on the set of natural numbers ℕ.
𝑎
14. The operation ∗ defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 on the set of rational numbers ℚ except 0.
15. The operation ∗ defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = +√𝑎𝑏 on the set of real numbers ℝ.

C. Express the following in symbolic form. For each item, indicate what letter you used to represent the simple statement.
16. The lyrics are controversial and the performance is banned.
17. The lyrics are not controversial and the performance is not banned.
18. If the lyrics are not controversial, the performance is not banned.

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D. In every item, indicate what statements 𝑝, 𝑞, or 𝑟 might stand for then express the item using the correct symbols (∧,∨, →, ↔, ~).

19. Triangle ABC is a right triangle if and only if 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .

20. The function 𝑓 is either an odd or an even function.
21. The function 𝑓 is a rational function but its graph has no
horizontal asymptote.
22. Three non-collinear points determine a plane.
23. Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent.
24. A quadratic equation has two distinct real roots, provided
that the discriminant is positive.

E. Construct a truth table for each of the following:

25. ~( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → 𝑟
26. (𝑝 → 𝑞) ↔ (𝑞 ∨ ~𝑝)

F. The following statement is true: “∀ nonzero numbers 𝑥, ∃ a real number 𝑦 such that 𝑥𝑦 = 1.” For each 𝑥 given below, find a 𝑦 to make the predicate “𝑥𝑦 = 1” true.
27. 𝑥 = 2
28. 𝑥 = −1
3
29. 𝑥 = 4
G. Let 𝐺(𝑥, 𝑦) be “𝑥 2 > 𝑦”. Indicate which of the following statements are true and which are false. Show complete solution.
30. 𝐺(2,3)
1 1
31. 𝐺 (2 , 2)
32. 𝐺(1, 1)
33. 𝐺(−2, 2)
34. 𝐺(0.5, 0.15)

H. Find counterexamples to show that the statements below are false.

1
35. ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 > 𝑥.
(𝑎−1)
36. ∀𝑎 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 is not an integer.
37. ∀ positive integers 𝑚 and 𝑛, (𝑚)(𝑛) ≥ 𝑚 + 𝑛.
38. ∀ real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, √𝑥 + 𝑦 = √𝑥 + √𝑦.

Carlos Hilado Memorial State College Module GECMAT

College of Arts and Sciences, Mathematics Department Revision 01