ACTUAL CYCLES AND

THEIR ANALYSIS
2.2.1 Introduction

The actual cycles for IC engines differ from the fuel-air cycles and air-standard cycles in many respects. The actual
cycle efficiency is much lower than the air-standard efficiency due to various losses occurring in the actual engine
operation. The major losses are due to:

(i) Variation of specific heats with temperature

(ii) Dissociation of the combustion products
(iii) Progressive combustion
(iv) Incomplete combustion of fuel
(v) Heat transfer into the walls of the combustion chamber
(vi) Blow down at the end of the exhaust process
(vii) Gas exchange process

An estimate of these losses can be made from previous experience and some simple tests on the
engines and these estimates can be used in evaluating the performance of an engine.

5.2 COMPARISON OF AIR-STANDARD AND ACTUAL CYCLES

The actual cycles for internal combustion engines differ from air-standard cycles in many respects. These
differences are mainly due to:
(i) The working substance being a mixture of air and fuel vapor or finely atomized liquid fuel in air
combined with the products of combustion left from the previous cycle.
(ii) The change in chemical composition of the working substance.
(iii) The variation of specific heats with temperature.
(iii) The change in the composition, temperature and actual amount of fresh charge because of the
residual gases.
(v) The progressive combustion rather than the instantaneous combustion.
(vi) The heat transfer to and from the working medium.
(vii) The substantial exhaust blow down loss, i.e., loss of work on the expansion stroke due to early
opening of the exhaust valve.

(viii) Gas leakage, fluid friction etc., in actual engines.

Points (i) to (iv), being related to fuel-air cycles have already been dealt in detail in Section 2.1 of this
Chapter. Remaining points viz. (v) to (viii) are in fact responsible for the difference between fuel-air cycles and
actual cycles.
Most of the factors listed above tend to decrease the thermal efficiency and power output of the actual
engines. On the other hand, the analysis of the cycles while taking these factors into account clearly indicates that
the estimated thermal efficiencies are not very different from those of the actual cycles.
Out of all the above factors, major influence is exercised by
(i) Time loss factor i.e. loss due to time required for mixing of fuel and air and also for combustion.
(ii) Heat loss factor i.e. loss of heat from gases to cylinder walls.
(iii) Exhaust b10wdown factor i.e. loss of work on the expansion stroke due to early opening of the
exhaust valve
These major losses which are not considered in air-standard cycle and fuel-air cycles are discussed
in the following sections.

2.2.3 Time Loss Factor

In air-standard cycles the heat addition is assumed to be an instantaneous process whereas in an actual cycle it is
over a definite period of time. The time required for the combustion is such that under all circumstances some
change in volume takes place while it is in progress. The crankshaft will usually turn about 30 to 40° between the
initiation of the spark and the end of combustion. There will be a time loss during this period and is called time loss
factor.
The consequence of the finite time of combustion is that the peak pressure will not occur when the volume is
minimum i.e., when the piston is at TDC; but will occur sometime after TDC. The pressure, therefore, rises in the
first part of the working stroke from b to c as shown in Fig. 2. The point 3. represents the state of gases had the
combustion been instantaneous and an additional amount of work equal to area shown hatched would have been
done. This loss of work reduces the efficiency and is called time loss due to progressive combustion or merely time
losses.
 Fig. 2.2.1 The Effect of Time Losses shown on p-V Diagram

The time taken for the burning depends upon the flame velocity which in turn depends upon the type of
fuel and the fuel-air ratio and also on the shape and size of the combustion chamber. Further, the distance from
the point of ignition to the opposite side of the combustion space also plays an important role.
In order that the peak pressure is not reached too late in the expansion stroke, the time at which the
combustion starts is varied by varying the spark timing or spark advance. Figures 2.2.2 and 2.2.3 show the effect
of spark timing on p- V diagram from a typical trial. With spark at TDC (Fig.2.2.2) the peak pressure is low due to
the expansion of gases. If the spark is advanced to achieve complete combustion close to TDC (Fig.2.2.3)
additional work is required to compress the burning gases.
This represents a direct loss. In either case, viz., with or without spark advance the work area is less and
the power output and efficiency are lowered. Therefore, a moderate or optimum spark advance (Fig.2.2.4) is the
best compromise resulting in minimum losses on both the compression and expansion strokes. Table 2.2.1
compares the engine performance for various ignition timings. Figure 2.2.5 shows the effect of spark advance on
the power output by means of the p- V diagram. As seen from Fig.2.2.6, when the ignition advance is increased
there is a drastic reduction in the imep and the consequent loss of power. However, sometimes deliberate spark
retardation from optimum may be necessary in actual practice in order to avoid knocking and to simultaneously
reduce exhaust emissions of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide.

Fig. 2.2.3 Spark at TDC, Advance 00 Fig. 2.2.4 Combustion Completed at TDC,
Advance 350
 At full throttle with the fuel-air ratio corresponding to maximum power and the optimum ignition advance
the time losses may account for a drop in efficiency of about 5 per cent (fuel-air cycle efficiency is reduced by
about (2%). These losses are higher when the mixture is richer or leaner when the ignition advance is· not
optimum and also at part throttle operations the losses are higher. It is impossible to obtain a perfect
homogeneous mixture with fuel-vapor and air, since, residual gases from the previous cycle are present in the

Fig. 2.2.4 Optimum Advance 150 - 300

Table 2.2.1 Cycle Performance for Various Ignition Timings for r = 6

Cycle Ignition Max.Cycle Mep Efficiency Actual η

Advance Pressure
(Degrees) (bar) (bar) %
Fuel −Air cycle η
Fuel-Air Cycle 0 44 10.20 32.2 1.00
Actual Cycle 0 23 7.50 24.1 0.75
Actual cycle 17 34 8.35 26.3 0.81
Actual cycle 35 41 7.60 23.9 0.74

Fig. 2.2.6 p-V Diagram showing Power Fig. 2.2.7 Power Loss due to Ignition Advance
Loss due to
 Ignition Advance

clearance volume of the cylinder. Further, only very limited time is available between the mixture preparation and
ignition. Under these circumstances, it is possible that a pocket of excess oxygen is present in one part of the
cylinder and a pocket of excess fuel in another part. Therefore, some fuel does not burn or burns partially to CO
and the unused O2 appears in the exhaust as shown in Fig.5.7. Energy release data show that only about 95% of
the energy is released with stoichiometric fuel-air ratios. Energy release in actual engine is about 90% of fuel
energy input.

Fig. 2.2.8 The Composition of Exhaust Gases for Various Fuel-Air Ratios

It should be noted that it is necessary to use a lean mixture to eliminate wastage of fuel, while a rich
mixture is required to utilize all the oxygen. Slightly leaner mixture would give maximum efficiency but too lean a
mixture will burn slowly increasing the time losses or will not burn at all causing total wastage of fuel. In a rich
mixture a part of the fuel will not get the necessary oxygen and will be completely lost. Also the flame speed in
mixtures more than 10% richer is low, thereby, increasing the time losses and lowering the efficiency. Even if this
unused fuel and oxygen eventually combine during the exhaust stroke and burn, the energy which is released at
such a late stage cannot be utilized.
Imperfect mixing of fuel and air may give different fuel-air ratios during suction stroke or certain cylinders
in a multi cylinder engine may get continuously leaner mixtures than others.

2.2.4 Heat Loss Factor

During the combustion process and the subsequent expansion stroke the heat flows from the cylinder gases
through the cylinder walls and cylinder head in to the water jacket or cooling fins. Some heat enters the piston
head and flows through the piston rings into the cylinder wall or is carried away by the engine lubricating oil which
splashes on the underside of the piston. The heat loss along with other losses is shown on the p-V diagram in Fig.
2.2.8.
Heat loss during combustion will naturally have the maximum effect on the cycle efficiency while heat
loss just before the end of the expansion stroke can have very little because of its contribution to the useful work is
very little. The heat lost during the combustion does not represent complete loss because, even under ideal
conditions assumed for air-standard cycle, only a part of this heat could be converted into work (equal to Q x ηth)
and the rest would be rejected during the exhaust stroke. About 15 % of the total heat is lost during combustion
and expansion. Of this, however much is lost so late in the cycle to have contributed to useful work. If all the heat
loss is recovered only about 20% of it may appear as useful work. Fig.2.2.9 shows percentage of time loss, heat
loss and exhaust loss in a Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) engine. Losses are given as percentage of fuel-air cycle
work. The effect of loss of heat during combustion is to reduce the maximum temperature and therefore, the
specific heats are lower. It may be noted from the Fig.2.2.9 that of the various losses, heat loss factor contributes
around 12%.

2.2.5 Exhaust Blowdown

The cylinder pressure at the end of exhaust stroke is about 7 bar depending on the compression ratio
employed. If the exhaust valve is opened at the bottom dead centre, the piston has to do work against high
cylinder pressures during the early part of the exhaust stroke. If the exhaust valve is opened too early, a part of
the expansion stroke is lost. The best compromise is to open the exhaust valve 40° to 70° before BDC thereby
reducing the cylinder pressure to halfway (say 3.5 bar) before the exhaust stroke begins. This is shown in
Fig.2.2.10 by the roundness at the end of the diagram.

2.2.5.1 Loss Due to Gas Exchange Process

The difference of work done in expelling the exhaust gases and the work done by the fresh charge during the
suction stroke is called the pumping work. In other words loss due to the gas exchange process (pumping loss)
is due to pumping gas from lower inlet pressure Pi to higher exhaust pressure Pe. The pumping loss increases at
part throttle because throttling reduces the suction pressure. Pumping loss also increases with speed. The gas
exchange processes affect the volumetric efficiency of the engine. 'The performance of the engine, to a great deal,
depends on the volumetric efficiency. Hence, it is worthwhile to discuss this parameter in greater detail
here.

Fig. 2.2.9 Time Loss, Heat Loss and Fig. 2.2.10 Effect of Exhaust Valve Opening time on
Exhaust Loss in Petrol Engines Blow down

2.2.5.2 Volumetric Efficiency

As already stated in section 1.8.4, volumetric efficiency is an indication of the breathing ability of the engine and is
defined as the ratio of the volume of air actually inducted at ambient condition to swept volume. However,
it may also be defined on mass basis as the ratio of the actual mass of air drawn into the engine during a given
period of time to the theoretical mass which should have been drawn in during that same period of time, based
upon the total piston displacement of the engine, and the temperature and pressure of the surrounding
atmosphere.
The above definition is applicable only to the naturally aspirated engine. In the case of the
supercharged engine, however, the theoretical mass of air should be calculated at the conditions of pressure and
temperature prevailing in the intake manifold. The volumetric efficiency is affected by many variables, some of the
important ones are:
(i) The density of the fresh charge: As the fresh charge arrives in the hot cylinder, heat is transferred to it from
the hot chamber walls and the hot residual exhaust gases, raising its temperature. This results in a decrease in the
mass of fresh charge admitted and a reduction in volumetric efficiency. The volumetric efficiency is increased by
low temperatures (provided there are no heat transfer effects) and high pressure of the fresh charge, since density
is thereby increased, and more mass of charge can be inducted into a given volume.
(ii) The exhaust gas in the clearance volume: As the piston moves from TDC to BDC on the intake stroke, these
products tend to expand and occupy a portion of the piston displacement greater than the clearance volume, thus
reducing the space available to the incoming charge. In addition, these exhaust products tend to raise the
temperature of the fresh charge, thereby decreasing its density and further reducing volumetric efficiency.
(iii) The design of the intake and exhaust manifolds: The exhaust manifold should be so designed as to enable
the exhaust products to escape readily, while the intake manifold should be designed so as to bring in the
maximum possible fresh charge. This implies minimum restriction is offered to the fresh charge flowing into the
cylinder, as well as to the exhaust products being forced out.
(iv)The timing of the intake and exhaust valves: Valve timing is regulation of the points in the cycle at which
the valves are set to open and close. Since, the valves require a finite period of time to open or close for smooth
operation, a slight "lead" time is necessary for proper opening and closing. The design of the valve operating cam
provides for the smooth transition from one position to the other, while the cam setting determines the timing of
the valve.
The effect of the intake valve timing on the engine air capacity is indicated by its effect on the air inducted
per cylinder per cycle, i.e., the mass of air taken into one cylinder during one suction stroke. Figure 2.2.1.1 shows
representative intake valve timing for both a low speed and high speed SI engine.
 Fig. 2.2.11 Valve Timing Diagram of Four-stroke Engine.

The approximate losses for a gasoline engine of high compression ratio, say 8:1 using a chemically correct
mixture are given in Table 2.2.2, as percentage of fuel energy input.

S.No. Item At Full Load At Half Load

(a) Air-standard cycle efficiency (ηair-std) 56.5 56.5
1 Losses due to variation of specific heat
and chemical equilibrium, % 13.0 13.0
2 Loss due to progressive combustion, % 4.0 4.0
3 Loss due to incomplete combustion, % 3.0 3.0
4 Direct heat loss, % 4.0 5.0
5 Exhaust blow down loss, % 0.5 0.5
6 Pumping loss, % 0.5 1.5
7 Rubbing friction loss, % 3.0 6.0
(b ) Fuel-air cycle efficiency=η(air-std) – (1) 43.5 43.5
(c ) Gross indicated thermal efficiency (ηith)
= Fuel-air cycle efficiency – 32.0 31.0
(2+3+4+5)
(d) Actual brake thermal efficiency
= ηith – (6+7) 28.5 23.5

2.2.7 ACTUAL AND FUEL-AIR CYCLES OF CI ENGINES

In the diesel cycle the losses are less the in the Otto cycle. The main loss is due. to incomplete combustion and is t
e cause of main difference between fuel-air cycle and actual cycle of a diesel engine. This is shown in Fig.2.2.12.
In a fuel-air cycle the combustion is supposed to be completed at the end of the constant pressure burning
whereas in actual practice after burning continues up to half of the expansion stroke. The ratio between the actual
efficiency and the fuel-air cycle efficiency is about 0.85 in the diesel engines. In fuel-air cycles, when allowance is
made for the presence of fuel and Combustion products, there is reduction in cycle efficiency. In actual cycles,
allowances are also made for the losses due to phenomena such as heat transfer and finite combustion time. This
reduces the cycle efficiency further. For complete analysis of actual cycles, computer models are being developed
nowadays. These models are helpful in understanding the various processes that are taking place in an engine.
Models are developed for both not only for C1 engines but also for SI engines.
Fig. 2.2.11 Actual Diesel Cycle Vs Equivalent Fuel Combustion Limited
Pressure Cycle for Two-Stroke Diesel Engine