PALLAVI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Approved by AICTE New Delhi and Affiliated to JNTUH & SBTET, Hyderabad) Kuntlur,
Hyderabad-501 505.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

(Common for all branches)

Course details in the A.Y : 2021 – 2022

Curriculum: R-18 (B.Tech) IV Year -I Semester

BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(ME700OE)

Unit: 1,2Notes and Important

Questions
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Pallavi Engineering College

Kuntloor(v), Abdullapurmet(M), Hyderabad-501 505.

by
CH,SEKHAR, Associate. Prof .
 PALLAVI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Formerly Nagole Institute of Technology & Science)
Abdullapurmet(M), Near Hayathanagar

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
COURSE INFORMATION SHEET
DEPARTMENTAL VISION AND MISSION
VISION

o To give the nation qualitative Civil Engineers, who can contribute for the construction of a better world
with sophisticated infrastructural facilities, eco friendly houses, modern transportation facilities with a
pollution free environment and to protect the precious natural resources of this planet.
o To mould the students into good entrepreneurs and to promote self confidence and all-round development
of the student personality through special lectures, practical training programs, field visits and technical
seminars.
o To generate knowledge base through sustained research and developmental efforts.
o To promote faculty development programs for updating knowledge and improving their overall professional
competence and caliber

MISSION
The mission of the CIVIL Engineering Department is to provide education for those students who
are able to compete internationally, able to produce creative solutions to the society's needs, conscious to
the universal moral values, adherent to the professional ethical code, and to generate and disseminate
knowledge and technologies essential to the local and global needs in the field of Civil engineering.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

The Civil Engineering graduate will:
PEO Statements
To produce graduates who have a strong foundation of scientific and technical
PEO1 knowledge and are equipped with problem solving, teamwork, and communication
skills that will serve them throughout their careers
PEO2 To produce graduates who have the ability to assume professional leadership
roles
To produce graduates with skills and qualifications for careers outside the traditional
PEO3
focus areas of civil engineering

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

The Graduates of ECE will be able to:

PSOs Statements
The graduates will plan, produce detailed drawings, write specification, and prepare
PSO1
cost estimates.
The Graduates will excel in the core areas of civil engineering such as structural,
PSO2
Geotechnical, environmental and water resources engineering
Program outcomes:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.

2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

3. Design / Development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research

methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with
an understanding of the limitations.

6. The Engineer and Society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.

7. Environment and Sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering

solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.

8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.

9. Individual and Team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.

11. Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
 PALLAVI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Formerly Nagole Institute of Technology & Science)
Abdullapurmet(M), Near Hayathanagar

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Sub. Code : ME700 OE Year / Sem:IV/I

Sub. Name : BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Batch: 2018-22

Course Objectives:
The learning objectives of this course are to
S.No Objectives

1 To understand the various aspects of Environment Impact Assessment methodologies.

2 To know the impact of development activities.

3 To Identification Impact on surface water, Air and Biological Environment

4 To know Environment legislation Environment.

Course Outcomes:
Upon completion of the course, the students will be able to

COs Course Outcomes (CO)

CO.1 Identify the environmental attributes to be considered for the EIA study.

CO.2 Formulate objectives of the EIA studies

CO.3 Identify the suitable methodology and prepare Rapid EIA.

CO.4 Indentify and incorporate mitigation measures.

 MAPPING OF COURSE OUTCOMES, PROGRAM OUTCOMES AND
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

Course Program outcomes PSO

outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
CO.1 3 2 1 - - - - - - - - - 1 -
CO.2 1 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 2 -
CO.3 - 2 2 - 2 3 - - - - - - 3 -
CO.4 1 - 3 3 1 1 - - - - - - 1 -

Gaps in the Syllabus:

1.

Content beyond the syllabus:

1.
 ME700OE: BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (Open Elective – II)
B.Tech. Mech. Engg. IV Year I Sem. L T P C
3 0 0 3
Course Objectives
• To gain an understanding of the basic concepts of various aspects of Mechanical Engineering,
fields of application, their merits, demerits, and limitations and applications.

UNIT - I
Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer: Definitions – continuum concept –
properties – point and path functions – systems – processes – thermodynamic equilibrium - laws of
thermodynamic- First law applied to open and closed systems – steady and unsteady flow systems
- Second law – heat engines and heat pumps – efficiency and Coefficient of Performance (COP).
Heat transfer – conduction – general conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates – conduction in
composite walls. Convection – free and forced convection – simple empirical correlations. Radiation –
laws – black body and grey body radiation.

UNIT - II
IC Engines and Air Conditioning: I C engines – classification - construction and working - two and
four stroke engines – S I and C.I. engines – powdered coal as an alternative to diesel fuel.
Air conditioning – air cycles, vapour compression cycle – vapour absorption cycle – psychrometric
processes. Air cooling – methods and simple cooling load calculations. Systems applicable to mining
environment.

UNIT - III
Power Transmission: Gears – nomenclature, laws of gearing, types of gears including rack and pinion,
interference, gear trains, calculation of gear ratios, couplings - types, features and applications.
Basic concepts in hydraulic & pneumatic power and devices and their utilisation – simple calculations.

UNIT - IV
Kinematics of Machines: Mechanisms – basics – kinematic concepts and definitions – degree of
freedom, mechanical advantage – transmission angle – description of common mechanisms – quick
return mechanisms, straight line generators, dwell mechanisms, ratchets and escapements –
universal joints.
Cams and followers – terminology and definitions, displacement diagrams – uniform velocity, parabolic
and simple harmonic motions.

UNIT - V
Rotodynamic and Vibratory Machines: Fans and compressors – types, construction, working
principle, characteristics and applications. Single stage and multistage air compressors – intercooling.
Simple calculations for output and efficiency.
Vibration – Importance of free and forced vibration. Vibrators and shakers – construction, working
principle, applications and limitations.

Note: HMT Data book to be permitted

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Elements of Mechanical Engineering/ S.N. Lal/ Cengage Learning
2. Theory of Machines and Mechanisms / Shigley J.E., Pennock G.R. and Uicker J. J./ Oxford
University Press, 2003.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Rajput, R.K. Thermal Engineering, 6th Edition, Laxmi Publications, 2007
2. Ballaney, P.L. Thermal Engineering, Khanna Publishers, 24th Edition, 2003
 PALLAVI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN

Academic Year : 2021-2022 Semester : I

Name of the Subject : BME Year & Branch: IV& Mechanical
Name of the Faculty : CH.SEKHAR Subject Code :ME700OE

Lecture No: Topics to be covered Plan Actual Textbook/ Teaching Remar

Week 1

Week1

ned Date Ref book Aids ks

date
Unit-1
L UNIT - I 06/09/21 S.N.LAL ON-LINE
Basic Concepts of
Thermodynamics and Heat
Transfer: Definitions – continuum
concept –
properties
L2 point and path functions – systems 07/09/21 S.N.LAL ON-LINE

L3 thermodynamic equilibrium - laws 08/09/21 S.N.LAL ON-LINE

of thermodynamic
L4 First law applied to open and 09/09/21 S.N.LAL ON-LINE
closed systems –
L5 steady and unsteady flow 13/09/21 S.N.LAL B.B/DUSTER
Week 2

Week2

systems - Second law

L6 heat engines and heat pumps – 14/09/21 S.N.LAL B.B/DUSTER
efficiency and Coefficient of
Performance (COP)
L7 Heat transfer – conduction – 15/09/21 S.N.LAL B.B/DUSTER
general conduction equation in
Cartesian coordinates –
L8 conduction in composite walls. 16/09/21 S.N.LAL B.B/DUSTER
Convection
free and forced convection simple 20/09/21
Week 3
Week3

empirical correlations.
Unit-2 Radiation– laws black body and 21/09/21
grey body radiation
UNIT - II IC Engines and Air 22/09/21
Conditioning: engines ic
classification construction and 23/09/21
working two and four stroke
engines
si and ci. engines powdered coal 27/09/21
Week 4

Week4

as an alternative to diesel fuel.

Air conditioning – air cycles, 28/09/21
vapour compression cycle –
vapour absorption cycle 29/09/21
psychrometric processes. Air
cooling
1
 methods and simple cooling load 30/09/21
Unit-3 calculations. Systems applicable
mining environment.
si and ci. engines powdered coal 04/10/21
as an alternative to diesel fuel.
Air conditioning – air cycles, 05/10/21
vapour compression cycle –
Week 5

vapour absorption cycle 06/10/21

psychrometric processes. Air
cooling
methods and simple cooling load 07/10/21
calculations. Systems applicable
mining environment.
UNIT - III Power Transmission: 18/10/21
Gears – nomenclature, laws of
gearing
types of gears including rack and 19/10/21
Week 6
Week6

pinion
interference,gear alculation of 20/10/21
gear ratios,couplings
features and applications. Basic 21/10/21
concepts in hydraulic
interference,gear alculation of 25/10/21
gear ratios,couplings
features and applications. Basic 26/10/21
Week 7

concepts in hydraulic
pneumatic power and devices 27/10/21
UNIT-4
and their utilization –
simple calculations. 28/10/21

UNIT - IV Kinematics of 01/11/21

Machines: Mechanisms –
basics – kinematic concepts and 02/11/21
Week 8

definitions –
basics – kinematic concepts and 03/11/21
definitions –
degree of freedom, mechanical 04/11/21
advantage – transmission angle –
degree of freedom, mechanical 15/11/21
advantage – transmission angle –
description of common 16/11/21
Week 9

mechanisms –
Unit 5 quick return mechanisms, 17/11/21

description of common 18/11/21

mechanisms
straight line generators, dwell 22/11/21
Week 10

mechanisms
ratchets and escapements – 23/11/21
universal joints
2
 ratchets and escapements – 24/11/21
universal joints
Cams and followers – 25/11/21
terminology and definitions,
Cams and followers – 29/11/21
terminology and definitions,
displacement diagrams
uniform velocity, parabolic and 30/11/21
Week 11

simple harmonic motions.

UNIT - V Rotodynamic and 01/12/21
Vibratory Machines: Fans and
compressors
Rotodynamic and Vibratory 02/12/21
Machines:
types, construction, working 06/12/21
principle,
characteristics and applications. 07/12/21
Week 12
Week12

characteristics and applications. 08/12/21

Single stage and multistage air 09/12/21

compressors.

Single stage and multistage air 13/10/21

compressors
intercooling. Simple calculations 14/10/21
Week 13

for output and efficiency

intercooling. Simple calculations 15/10/21
for output and efficiency
intercooling. Simple calculations 16/10/21
for output and efficiency
Vibration – Importance of free 20/12/21
and forced vibration
Vibration – Importance of free 21/12/21
Week 14

and forced vibration

Single stage and multistage air 22/12/21
compressors
intercooling. Simple calculations 23/12/21
for output and efficiency
intercooling. Simple calculations 27/12/21
for output and efficiency
Fans and compressors 28/12/21
Week 15

Vibration – Importance of free 29/12/21

and forced vibration
construction, working principle 30/12/21

construction, working principle 03/01/22

Week
16

construction, working principle 04/01/22

3
 construction, working principle 05/01/22

applications and limitations. 06/01/22

applications and limitations. 06/01/22

Week 17

HMT Data book to be permitted 07/01/22

HMT Data book to be permitted 08/01/22

Books / Material:

Text Books

a. Elements of Mechanical Engineering/ S.N. Lal/ Cengage Learning

b. Theory of Machines and Mechanisms / Shigley J.E., Pennock G.R. and Uicker J. J./ Oxford
University Press, 2003.

Suggested / Reference Books

a. Rajput, R.K. Thermal Engineering, 6th Edition, Laxmi Publications, 2007

b. Ballaney, P.L. Thermal Engineering, Khanna Publishers, 24th Edition, 2003

Signature of Faculty with date Signature of HOD

4
BME ME 700 OE Notes on Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics:- It is the branch of physics which deals with process involving heat, work and
internal energy. Thermodynamics is concerned with macroscopic behavior rather than
microscopic behavior of the system.
• Basic Terminology:-
System Part of the universe under investigation.

Open System A system which can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings.

Closed System A system which permits passage of energy but not mass, across its boundary.

Isolated system A system which can neither exchange energy nor matter with its surrounding.

Surroundings Part of the universe other than system, which can interact with it.

Boundary Anything which separates system from surrounding.

State variables The variables which are required to be defined in order to define state of any
system i.e. pressure, volume, mass, temperature, surface area, etc.
State Functions Property of system which depend only on the state of the system and not on the
path.
Example: Pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy etc
Intensive properties Properties of a system which do not depend on mass of the
system i.e. Temperature, pressure, density, concentration,
Extensive properties Properties of a system which depend on mass of the system i.e. Volume, energ
enthalpy, entropy etc.
Process Path along which state of a system changes.

Isothermal process Process which takes place at constant temperature

Isobaric process Process which takes place at constant pressure

Isochoric process Process which takes place at constant volume.

Adiabatic process Process during which transfer of heat cannot take place between system and
surrounding.
Cyclic process Process in which system comes back to its initial state after undergoing series o
changes.
Reversible process Process during which the system always departs infinitesimally from the state o
equilibrium i.e. its direction can be reversed at any moment.
• Kinetic Energy:- Energy possessed by the atoms or molecules by virtue of their motion is
called kinetic energy.

• Internal Energy (ΔU):- Sum total of kinetic and potential energies of atoms/molecules
constituting a system is called the internal energy of the system.
(a) ΔU is taken as positive if the internal energy of the system increases.
(b) ΔU is taken as negative if the internal energy of the system decreases.
• Heat:- Heat is the part of internal energy which is transferred from one body to another an
account of the temperature difference.
• Work:- Work is said to be done when a force acting on a system displaces the body in its own
direction.
dW = Fdx = PdV
W = P(Vf -Vi)
(a) If the gas expands, work is said to be done by the system. In this case Vf > Vi,
therefore, W will be positive.
(b) If the gas is compressed, work is said to be done on the system. In this case Vf < Vi,
therefore, work done is negative.
• Thermodynamic variables or parameters:- The thermodynamic state of system can be
determined by quantities like temperature (T), volume (V), pressure (P), internal energy (U) etc.
These quantities are known as thermodynamic variables, or the parameters of the system.
• Equation of state:- A relation between the values of any of the three thermodynamic variables
for the system, is called its equation of state.
Equation of state for an ideal gas is PV = RT

• Equilibrium of a system:- A system is said to be in equilibrium if its macroscopic quantities do

not change with time.
• Relation between joule and calorie:- 1 joule = 4.186 cal
• First law of thermodynamics:- If the quantity of heat supplied to a system is capable of doing
work, then the quantity of heat absorbed by the system is equal to the sum of the increase in the
internal energy of the system, and the external work done by it.
dQ = dU+dW
• Thermodynamic Process:- A process by which one or more parameters of thermodynamic
system undergo a change is called a thermodynamic process or a thermodynamic change.
 (a) Isothermal process:- The process in which change in pressure and volume takes place at
a constant temperature, is called a isothermal change. It may be noted that in such a change
total amount of heat of the system does not remain constant.
(b) Isobaric process:- The process in which change in volume and temperature of a gas take
place at a constant pressure is called an isobaric process.
(c) Isochoric process:- The process in which changes in pressure and temperature take
place in such a way that the volume of the system remains constant, is called isochoric
process.
(d) Adiabatic process:- The process in which change in pressure and volume and
temperature takes place without any heat entering or leaving the system is called adiabatic
change.
(e) Quasi-static process:- The process in which change in any of the parameters take place
at such a slow speed that the values of P,V, and T can be taken to be, practically, constant, is
called a quasi-static process.
(f) Cyclic process:- In a system in which the parameters acquire the original values, the
process is called a cyclic process.
(g) Free expansion:- Such an expansion in which no external work is done and the total
internal energy of the system remains constant is called free expansion.
• Reversible isothermal and adiabatic curve:-
• Application of first law of thermodynamics:-
(a) Cooling caused in adiabatic process:- dT = PdV/Cv
(b) Melting:- dU = mLf
(c) Boiling:- dU = mLv – P(Vf -Vi)
(d) Mayer’s formula:- Cp - Cv = R
• Specific heat capacity of gases:- Specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of substance through 1ºC.
(a) Specific heat capacity at constant volume (cv):- Specific heat capacity at constant
volume is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of the gas
through 1ºC keeping volume of the gas constant.
Molar specific heat capacity, at constant volume (Cv), is defined as the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of gas through 1ºC keeping its volume constant.
Cv= Mcv
(b) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure (cp):- Specific heat capacity, at constant
pressure, is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of gas
through 1ºC keeping its pressure constant.
Gram molecular specific heat capacity of a gas (Cp), at constant pressure, is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of the gas through 1ºC keeping its
pressure constant.
Cp = Mcp
• Difference between two specific heat capacities – (Mayer’s formula):-
(a) Cp - Cv = R/J
(b) For 1 g of gas, cp - cv = r/J
(c) Adiabatic gas constant, γ = Cp/ Cv = cp/ cv
• Relation of Cv with energy:-
Cv= 1/m (dU/dT)
(a) Mono-atomic gas (3 degree of freedom):-
Total energy, U = mN 3 [(1/2) KT], Here m is the number of moles of the gas and N is the
Avogadro’s number.
Cv = (3/2) R
Cp = (5/2) R
γ = Cp/ Cv = 5/3 = 1.67
 (b) Diatomic gas:-
At very low temperature, Degree of Freedom (DOF) = 3
U = (3/2) mRT
Cv = (3/2) R, Cp = (5/2) R
γ= Cp/ Cv = 5/3 = 1.67
At medium temperature, DOF = 5
U = (5/2) mRT
Cv = (5/2) R, Cp = (7/2) R
γ = Cp/ Cv = 7/5 = 1.4
At high temperature, DOF = 7
U = (7/2) mRT
Cv = (7/2) R, Cp = (9/2) R
γ = Cp/ Cv = 9/7 = 1.29
• Adiabatic gas equation:- PV γ = Constant
(a) Equation of adiabatic change in terms of T and V:- TV γ-1 = Constant
(b) Equation of adiabatic change in terms of P and T:- T γ P1-γ = Constant
• Comparison of slopes of an isothermal and adiabatic:-

(a) Slope of isothermal:- dP/dV = -P/V

(b) Slope of adiabatic:- dP/dV = -γP/V
(c) Adiabatic gas constant:- γ = Cp/Cv
As, Cp>Cv, So, γ>1
This signifies that, slope of adiabatic curve is greater than that of isothermal.
• Slope on PV diagram:-
(a) For isobaric process: zero
(b) For isochoric process: infinite
• Work done for isobaric process:- W = P(V2-V1)
• Work done for isochoric process:- W = 0
• Work done in isothermal expansion and compression:-
?W = 2.3026 RT log10Vf/Vi (isothermal expansion)
W = - 2.3026 RT log10Vf/Vi (isothermal compression)
• Work done during an adiabatic expansion:-

W = K/1-γ [Vf1-γ – Vi 1-γ] = 1/1-γ [P2V2-P1V1] = R/1- γ [T2-T1]

• Adiabatic constant (γ):- γ = Cp/Cv = 1+2/f, Here f is the degrees of freedom.
• Work done in expansion from same initial state to same final volume:-
• Wadiabatic < Wisothermal < Wisobaric
• Work done in compression from same initial state to same final volume:-
Wadiabatic < Wisothermal < Wisobaric
• Reversible process:- It is a process which can be made to proceed in the reverse direction by a
very slight change in its conditions so that the system passes through the same states as in
direct process, and at the conclusion of which the system and its surroundings acquire the initial
conditions.
Example:- All isothermal and adiabatic process when allowed to proceed slowly, are
reversible, provided there is no loss of energy against any type of resistance. Friction,
viscosity are other examples.
• Irreversible process:- A process which cannot be made to be reversed in opposite direction by
reversing the controlling factor is called an irreversible process.
Example:-
(a) work done against friction
(b) Joule’s heating effect
(c) Diffusion of gases into one another
(d) Magnetic hysteresis
• Heat engine:- It is a device used to convert heat into mechanical energy
(a) Work done, W = Q1-Q2
(b) Efficiency:- Efficiency η of an engine is defined as the fraction of total heat, supplied to
the engine which is converted into work.
η= W/ Q1 = [Q1- Q2]/ Q1 = 1-[Q2/Q1]
• Carnot engine – Carnot’s reverse cycle:-
(a) First stroke (isothermal expansion):- W1= RT1 loge[V2/V1]
(b) Second stroke (adiabatic expansion):- W2= R/γ-1 [T1-T2]
(c) Third stroke (isothermal compression):- W3= RT2 logeV3/V4
(d) Fourth stroke (adiabatic compression):- W4= R/γ-1 [T1-T2]
(e) Total work done in one cycle, W = W1+ W2+ W3+ W4 = R (T1-T2) loge (V2/V1)
• Efficiency of Carnot engine:- Efficiency η of an engine is defined as the ratio between useful
heat (heat converted into work) to the total heat supplied to the engine.
η = W / Q1 = [Q1- Q2]/ Q1 = 1-[Q2/Q1] = 1- T2/T1
• Second law of thermodynamics:-
(a) Clausius statement:- Heat cannot flow from a cold body to a hot body without the
performance of work by some external agency.
(b) Kelvin’s statement:- It is impossible to obtain a continuous supply of energy by cooling a
body below the coldest of its surroundings.
(c) Planck’s statement:- It is impossible to extract heat from a single body and convert the
whole of it into work.
• Refrigerator:- It is a device which is used to keep bodies at a temperature lower than that of
surroundings.
• Coefficient of performance (β):- Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator is defined as the
amount of heat removed per unit work done on the machine.
β = Heat removed/work done = Q2/W = Q2/[Q1- Q2] = T2/[T1- T2]
Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator is not a constant quantity since it depends upon
the temperature of body from which the heat is removed.
For a perfect refrigerator, W = 0 or Q1= Q2 or β =∞
• Mean free path:- λ= 1/√2πd2ρn
Here ρn = (N/V) = number of gas molecules per unit volume
d = diameter of molecules of the gas.
• Heat added or removed:-
(a) For isobaric process:- Q = n CpΔT
 (b) For isochoric process:- Q = n CvΔT
(c)For isothermal process:- Q = nRT loge (V2/V1)
(d) For adiabatic process: Q = 0
• Change in internal energy:-
(a) For isobaric process, ΔU = n CpΔT
(b) For isobaric process, ΔU = n CvΔT
(c) For isothermal process, ΔU = 0
(d) For adiabatic process, ΔU = -W = [nR (T2-T1)]/(γ-1)
• Mixture of gases:- n = n1+n2
M = n1M1+n2M2/ n1+ n2 = N1m1+N2m2/N1+N2

and

• Enthalpy (H):-
(a) H = U+PV
(b) At constant pressure:-
dH = dU + pdV
(c) For system involving mechanical work only:-
dH = QP (At constant pressure)
(d) For exothermic reactions:-
dH is negative
(e) For endothermic reactions:-
dH is positive
• Relation between dH and dU:-
dH = dU + dng RT
Here, dng = (Number of moles of gaseous products - Number of moles of gaseous reactants)
 BRIEF HISTORY OF REFRIGERATION

In the past around 4000 years from now, people in India and Egypt are known to produce ice by

keeping water in the porous pots outside the home during the night period. The evaporation of water in

almost cool dry air and radiative heat transfer between the water and the deep sky that is at a very low

temperature (much below the freezing point of ice) caused the formation of ice even though the

surrounding air was at a higher temperature than the freezing point of water. There are a few accounts

in China about the use of ice around 1000 BC for cooling the beverages. In 4th century A.D., East

Indians were producing ice by dissolving salt in water.

Schematic of the Hand-Operated Refrigeration Machine of Jacob Perkins

Because of the very small amount of production, the aforesaid methods were not feasible for

commercial applications. Natural ice is limited to certain regions, therefore, the absence of good

quality insulation systems in those days forced the man to develop methods to produce ice artificially.

Out of many pioneers’ work on refrigeration side, a few are presented here. In 1790 the first British

Patent was obtained by Thomas Hariss and John Long. In 1834 Jacob Perkins developed a hand

operated refrigeration system using ether as the working fluid (Figure 1.5). Ether vapor was sucked by

the hand operated compressor and then high temperature and pressure ether vapor was condensed in

the water cooled chamber that served as the condenser. Liquid ether was finally throttled to the

lower pressure, which was then evaporated in a

8
 chamber called evaporator, A. With the evaporation, temperature of the water surrounding the

evaporator fell down and finally the ice was formed. In this system, either was used again and again in

the cyclic process with negligible wastage.

The first American patent of a cold air machine to produce ice in order to cure people suffering from

high fever was obtained by Dr. John Gorrie of Florida in 1851. In 1860, instead of air or ether, Dr.

James Harrison of Australia used sulfuric ether. This was the world’s first installation of refrigeration

machine for brewery. In 1861, Dr. Alexander Kirk of England constructed a cold air machine similar

to that of Dr. Gorrie. In his machine, air was compressed by a reciprocating compressor driven by a

steam engine running on coal.

In the 19th century, there was remarkable development of refrigeration systems to replace natural ice

by artificial ice producing machines. In the beginning of the 20th century, large sized refrigeration

machines were developed. In 1904 in the New York Stock Exchange, about 450 ton cooling machine

was installed. In Germany, people used air conditioning in theater. Around 1911 the compressors with

speed between 100 to 300 rpm were developed. In 1915, the first two-stage modern compressor was

developed.

Vapor-Absorption Machine of Ferdinand Carre

9
 To meet the demand for ice during the civil war, Ferdinand Carre of the USA developed a vapor-

absorption refrigeration system (Figure 1.6) using ammonia and water. Carre’s system consisted of an

evaporator, an absorber, a pump, a generator, a condenser and an expansion device. The evaporated

vapor is absorbed by the week ammonia-water mixture in the absorber yielding strong aqua ammonia.

The pump delivers this strong solution into generator where heat transfer from a burner separates

ammonia vapor and the weak ammonia returns to the absorber. On the other hand the ammonia vapor

condenses in the condenser before being throttled. The throttled liquid ammonia enters the evaporator

resulting in completion of the cyclic process.

Until about 1920s the development in refrigeration system was restricted to the refinement in the cold-

air machines and vapor-compression systems. After 1920s, there has been extensive diversification in

the growth of refrigeration systems leading to new developments such as vortex tube, thermoelectric,

pulse-tube, steam-jet, centrifugal compression systems, etc. The most important development can be

the invention of new refrigerants which were chlorfluor hydrocarbons. This development occurred in

1930 in GE Corporation of USA at a time when Refrigeration industry had begun to stagnate on the

use of NH3 SO2 as refrigerant. The chlorfluor carbons offered the advantages of best refrigerants and

were proven non-toxic substances in comparison with NH3 and SO2 Other developments took place

due to special requirements to utilize waste heat or low grade energy or materials of specific

properties for thermoelectric effect. Owing to the likelihood of energy crisis in the future, many

commercial units have been developed that utilizes waste heat or solar energy.

Applications of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

The fields of refrigeration and air conditioning are although interconnected, as shown in Figure 1.4,

each has its own province too. The largest application of refrigeration is for air

10
 conditioning. In addition, refrigeration embraces industrial refrigeration including the processing and

preservation of food, removing heat from substances in chemical, petroleum and petrochemical plants,

and numerous special applications such as those in the manufacturing and construction industries.

In a similar manner, air conditioning embraces more than cooling. The comfort air conditioning is the

process of treating air to control simultaneously its temperature humidity, cleanliness, and distribution

to meet the comfort requirements of the occupants of the conditioned space. Air conditioning,

therefore, includes entire heating operation as well as regulation of velocity, thermal radiation, and

quality of air, including removal of foreign particles and vapors.

Some applications of refrigeration and air conditioning are as follows :

Air Conditioning of Residential and Official Buildings

Most of the air conditioning units are devoted for comfort air conditioning that is meant to provide

comfortable conditions for people. Air conditioning of building is required in all climates. In the

summer, living/working spaces have to be cooled and in the winter the same have to be heated. Even

in places where temperature remains normal, cooling of the building is required to remove the heat

generated internally by people, lights, mechanical and electrical equipment. Further in these buildings,

for the comfort, humidity and cleanliness of air has to be maintained. In hospitals and other medical

buildings, conditions on cleanliness and humidity are more stringent. There ventilation requirements

often specify the use of 100 percent outdoor air, and humidity limits.

Industrial Air Conditioning

The term industrial air conditioning refers to providing at least a partial measure of comfort for workers

in hostile environments and controlling air conditions so that they are favorable to

11
 processing some objects or materials. Some examples of industrial air conditioning are the following:

Spot Heating

In a cold weather it may be more practical to warm a confined zone where a worker is located. One

such approach is through the use of an infrared heater. When its surfaces are heated to a high

temperature by means of a burner or by electricity, they radiate heat to the affected area. If a specific

area has to be cooled, it will be unwise to cool entire room or factory. In this case, conditions may be

kept tolerable for workers by directing a stream of cool air onto occupied areas.

Environmental Laboratories

The role of air conditioning may vary from one laboratory to the other. In one laboratory, a very low

temperature, say – 40oC must be maintained to test certain equipment at low temperatures, and in

another, a high temperature and humidity may be required to study behavior of animals in tropical

climates.

Printing

In printing industries, control of humidity is a must. In some printing processes the paper is run through

several different passes, and air conditioning must be maintained to provide proper registration. If the

humidity is not properly maintained the problems of static electricity, curling or buckling of paper or

the failure of the ink to dry arise.

Textiles

Like paper, textiles are sensitive to changes in humidity and to a lesser extent changes in temperature.

In modern textile plants, yarn moves at very high speeds and any changes in

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 flexibility and strength of the yarn because of the change in humidity and temperature will thus affect

the production.

Precision Parts and Clean Rooms

In manufacturing of precision metal parts air conditioning helps to (a) keep the temperature uniform

so that the metal will not expand and contract, (b) maintain a humidity so that rust is prevented and (c)

filter the air to minimize dust.

Photographic Products

Raw photographic materials deteriorate fast in high humidity and temperatures. Other materials used in

coating film also require a careful control of temperature. Therefore, photographic- products industry

is a large user of refrigeration and air conditioning.

Computer Rooms

In computer rooms, air conditioning controls temperature, humidity and cleanliness of the air. Some

electronic components operate in a faulty manner if they become too hot. One means of preventing

such localized high temperature is to maintain the air temperature in the computer room in the range

of 20 to 23 0C. The electronic components in the computer functions favorably at even lower

temperatures, but this temperature is a compromise with the lowest comfortable temperature for

occupants. A relative humidity of about 65% is maintained for comfort condition.

Air Conditioning of Vehicles

For comfortable journey, planes, trains, ships, buses are air conditioned. In many of these vehicles the

major contributor to the cooling load is the heat from solar radiation and in case of public

transportation, heat from people.

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 Food Storage and Distribution

Many meats, fish, fruits and vegetables are perishable and their storage life can be extended by

refrigeration. Fruits, many vegetables and processed meat, such as sausages, are stored at temperatures

just slightly above freezing to prolong their life. Other meats, fish, vegetables and fruits are frozen for

many months at low temperatures until they are defrosted and cooked by consumer.

UNIT OF REFRIGERATION AND COP

The standard unit of refrigeration is ton refrigeration or simply ton denoted by TR. It is equivalent to

the rate of heat transfer needed to produce 1 ton (2000 lbs) of ice at 32 0F from water at 32 0F in one

day, i.e., 24 hours. The enthalpy of solidification of water from and at 32 0F in British thermal unit is

144 Btu/lb.

VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE

Vapour compression cycle is an improved type of air refrigeration cycle in which a suitable working

substance, termed as refrigerant, is used. The refrigerants generally used for this purpose are ammonia

(NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulphur-dioxide (SO2).

The refrigerant used, does not leave the system, but is circulated throughout the system alternately

condensing and evaporating. In evaporating, the refrigerant absorbs its latent heat from the solution

which is used for circulating it around the cold chamber and in condensing; it gives out its latent heat

to the circulating water of the cooler. The vapour compression cycle which is used in vapour

compression refrigeration system is now-a-days used for all purpose refrigeration. It is used for all

industrial purposes from a small domestic refrigerator to a big air conditioning plant.

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 Simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration System:

It consists of the following essential parts:

Compressor

The low pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from evaporator is drawn into the compressor

through the inlet or suction valve A, where it is compressed to a high pressure and temperature. This

high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant is discharged into the condenser through the delivery

or discharge valve B.

Condenser

The condenser or cooler consists of coils of pipe in which the high pressure and temperature vapour

refrigerant is cooled and condensed.

Simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

The refrigerant, while passing through the condenser, gives up its latent heat to the surrounding condensing

medium which is normally air or water.

15
 Receiver

The condensed liquid refrigerant from the condenser is stored in a vessel known as receiver from

where it is supplied to the evaporator through the expansion valve or refrigerant control valve.

Expansion Valve

It is also called throttle valve or refrigerant control valve. The function of the expansion valve is to

allow the liquid refrigerant under high pressure and temperature to pass at a controlled rate after

reducing its pressure and temperature. Some of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes through

the expansion valve, but the greater portion is vaporized in the evaporator at the low pressure and

temperature

Evaporator

An evaporator consists of coils of pipe in which the liquid-vapour. refrigerant at low pressure and

temperature is evaporated and changed into vapour refrigerant at low pressure and temperature. In

evaporating, the liquid vapour refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from the medium (air,

water or brine) which is to be cooled.

Theoretical Vapour Compression Cycle with Dry Saturated Vapour after Compression

A vapour compression cycle with dry saturated vapour after compression is shown on T-s diagrams in

Figures 2.2(a) and (b) respectively. At point 1, let T1, p1 and s1 be the temperature, pressure and

entropy of the vapour refrigerant respectively. The four processes of the cycle are as follows :

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 AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

Introduction:

In order to maintain required conditions inside the conditioned space, energy has to be either supplied

or extracted from the conditioned space. The energy in the form of sensible as well as latent heat has to

be supplied to the space in winter and extracted from the conditioned space in case of summer. An air

conditioning system consists of an air conditioning plant and a thermal distribution system as shown

in Fig. 36.1. As shown in the figure, the air conditioning (A/C) plant acts either as a heat source (in

case of winter systems) or as a heat sink (in case of summer systems). Air, water or refrigerant are

used as media for transferring energy from the air conditioning plant to the conditioned space. A

thermal distribution system is required to circulate the media between the conditioned space and the

A/C plant. Another important function of the thermal distribution system is to introduce the required

amount of fresh air into the conditioned space so that the required Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) can be

maintained.

Win

Schematic of a summer air conditioning system with the thermal distribution system

Selection criteria for air conditioning systems:

Selection of a suitable air conditioning system depends on:

88
 1. Capacity, performance and spatial requirements

2. Initial and running costs

3. Required system reliability and flexibility

4. Maintainability

5. Architectural constraints

The relative importance of the above factors varies from building owner to owner and may vary from

project to project. The typical space requirement for large air conditioning systems may vary from

about 4 percent to about 9 percent of the gross building area, depending upon the type of the system.

Normally based on the selection criteria, the choice is narrowed down to 2 to 3 systems, out of which

one will be selected finally.

Classification of air conditioning systems:

Based on the fluid media used in the thermal distribution system, air conditioning systems can be

classified as:

1. All air systems

2. All water systems

3. Air- water systems

4. Unitary refrigerant based systems

All air systems:

As the name implies, in an all air system air is used as the media that transports energy from the

conditioned space to the A/C plant. In these systems air is processed in the A/C plant and this

processed air is then conveyed to the conditioned space through insulated ducts using blowers and

fans. This air extracts (or supplies in case of winter) the required amount of

89
 sensible and latent heat from the conditioned space. The return air from the conditioned space is

conveyed back to the plant, where it again undergoes the required processing thus completing the cycle.

No additional processing of air is required in the conditioned space. All air systems can be further

classified into:

1. Single duct systems, or

2. Dual duct systems

The single duct systems can provide either cooling or heating using the same duct, but not both heating

and cooling simultaneously. These systems can be further classified into:

1. Constant volume, single zone systems

2. Constant volume, multiple zone systems

3. Variable volume systems

The dual duct systems can provide both cooling and heating simultaneously. These systems can be

further classified into:

1. Dual duct, constant volume systems

2. Dual duct variable volume systems

Single duct, constant volume, single zone systems:

Figure shows the classic, single duct, single zone, constant volume systems. As shown in the figure,

outdoor air (OD air) for ventilation and recirculated air (RC air) are mixed in the required proportions

using the dampers and the mixed air is made to flow through a cooling and dehumidifying coil, a

heating coil and a humidifier using a an insulated ducting and a supply fan. As the air flows through

these coils the temperature and moisture content of the air are brought to the required values. Then

this air is supplied to the conditioned space,

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 KINEMATICS OF MACHINERY

UNIT I BASICS OF MECHANISMS

Introduction:
Definitions : Link or Element, Pairing of Elements with degrees of freedom, Grubler’s criterion
(without derivation), Kinematic chain, Mechanism, Mobility of Mechanism, Inversions,
Machine.
Kinematic Chains and Inversions:
Kinematic chain with three lower pairs, Four bar chain, Single slider crank chain and Double
slider crank chain and
their inversions.
Mechanisms:
i) Quick return motion mechanisms – Drag link mechanism, Whitworth mechanism and Crank
and slotted lever mechanism
ii) Straight line motion mechanisms – Peacelier’s mechanism and Robert’s mechanism.
iii) Intermittent motion mechanisms – Geneva mechanism and Ratchet & Pawl mechanism.
iv) Toggle mechanism, Pantograph, Hooke’s joint and Ackerman Steering gear mechanism.
Terminology and Definitions-Degree of Freedom, Mobility
• Kinematics: The study of motion (position, velocity, acceleration). A major goal of
understanding kinematics is to develop the ability to design a system that will satisfy
specified motion requirements. This will be the emphasis of this class.
• Kinetics: The effect of forces on moving bodies. Good kinematic design should produce
good kinetics.
• Mechanism: A system design to transmit motion. (low forces)
• Machine: A system designed to transmit motion and energy. (forces involved)
• Basic Mechanisms: Includes geared systems, cam-follower systems and linkages (rigid links
connected by sliding or rotating joints). A mechanism has multiple moving parts (for
example, a simple hinged door does not qualify as a mechanism).

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• Examples of mechanisms: Tin snips, vise grips, car suspension, backhoe, piston engine,
folding chair, windshield wiper drive system, etc.

Key concepts:

• Degrees of freedom: The number of inputs required to completely control a system.

Examples: A simple rotating link. A two link system. A four-bar linkage. A five-bar
linkage.
• Types of motion: Mechanisms may produce motions that are pure rotation, pure translation,
or a combination of the two. We reduce the degrees of freedom of a mechanism by
restraining the ability of the mechanism to move in translation (x-y directions for a 2D
mechanism) or in rotation (about the z-axis for a 2-D mechanism).
• Link: A rigid body with two or more nodes (joints) that are used to connect to other rigid
bodies. (WM examples: binary link, ternary link (3 joints), quaternary link (4 joints)

• Joint: A connection between two links that allows motion between the links. The motion
allowed may be rotational (revolute joint), translational (sliding or prismatic joint), or a
combination of the two (roll-slide joint).
• Kinematic chain: An assembly of links and joints used to coordinate an output motion with
an input motion.
• Link or element:

A mechanism is made of a number of resistant bodies outof which some may have motions relative
to the others. Aresistant body or a group of resistant bodies with rigidconnections preventing their
relative movement is known as alink.
A link may also be defined as a member or a combination ofmembers of a mechanism, connecting
other members and havingmotion relative to them, thus a link may consist of one or moreresistant
bodies. A link is also known as Kinematic link or anelement.
Links can be classified into 1) Binary, 2) Ternary, 3) Quarternary, etc.

• Kinematic Pair:
A Kinematic Pair or simply a pair is a joint of two links having relative motion between them.

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Example:

In the above given Slider crank mechanism, link 2 rotates relative to link 1 and constitutes a revolute
or turning pair. Similarly, links 2, 3 and 3, 4 constitute turning pairs. Link 4 (Slider) reciprocates
relative to link 1 and its a sliding pair.

Types of Kinematic Pairs:

Kinematic pairs can be classified according to
i) Nature of contact.
ii) Nature of mechanical constraint.
iii) Nature of relative motion.

i) Kinematic pairs according to nature of contact:

a) Lower Pair: A pair of links having surface or area contact between the members is known as a
lower pair. The contact surfaces of the two links are similar.
Examples: Nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing, all pairs of a slider-crank mechanism,
universal joint.
b) Higher Pair: When a pair has a point or line contact between the links, it is known as a higher pair.
The contact surfaces of the two links are dissimilar.
Examples: Wheel rolling on a surface cam and follower pair, tooth gears, ball and roller bearings,
etc.
ii) Kinematic pairs according to nature of mechanical constraint.

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a) Closed pair: When the elements of a pair are held together mechanically, it is known as a closed
pair. The contact between the two can only be broken only by the destruction of at least one of the
members. All the lower pairs and some of the higher pairs are closed pairs.
b) Unclosed pair: When two links of a pair are in contact either due to force of gravity or some
spring action, they constitute an unclosed pair. In this the links are not held together mechanically.
Ex.: Cam and follower pair.

iii) Kinematic pairs according to nature of relative motion.

a) Sliding pair: If two links have a sliding motion relative to each other, they form a sliding pair. A
rectangular rod in a rectangular hole in a prism is an example of a sliding pair.
b) Turning Pair: When on link has a turning or revolving motion relative to the other, they constitute
a turning pair or revolving pair.
c) Rolling pair: When the links of a pair have a rolling motion relative to each other, they form a
rolling pair. A rolling wheel on a flat surface, ball ad roller bearings, etc. are some of the examples
for a Rolling pair.
d) Screw pair (Helical Pair): if two mating links have a turning as well as sliding motion between
them, they form a screw pair. This is achieved by cutting matching threads on the two links.
The lead screw and the nut of a lathe is a screw Pair
e) Spherical pair: When one link in the form of a sphere turns inside a fixed link, it is a spherical
pair. The ball and socket joint is a spherical pair.

Degrees of Freedom:
An unconstrained rigid body moving in space can describe the following independent
motions.

1. Translational Motions along any three mutually perpendicular axes x, y and z,

2. Rotational motions along these axes.

Thus a rigid body possesses six degrees of freedom. The connection of a link with another imposes
certain constraints on their relative motion. The number of restraints can never be zero (joint is
disconnected) or six (joint becomes solid).

Degrees of freedom of a pair is defined as the number of independent relative motions, both
translational and rotational, a pair can have.

Degrees of freedom = 6 – no. of restraints.

To find the number of degrees of freedom for a plane mechanism we have an equation known as
Grubler’s equation and is given by F = 3 ( n – 1 ) – 2 j1 – j2

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F = Mobility or number of degrees of freedom

n = Number of links including frame.

j1 = Joints with single (one) degree of freedom.

J2 = Joints with two degrees of freedom.

If F > 0, results in a mechanism with ‘F’ degrees of freedom.

F = 0, results in a statically determinate structure.

F < 0, results in a statically indeterminate structure.

Kinematic Chain:
A Kinematic chain is an assembly of links in which the relative motions of the links is
possible and the motion of each relative to the others is definite (fig. a, b, and c.)

In case, the motion of a link results in indefinite motions of other links, it is a non-kinematic chain.
However, some authors prefer to call all chains having relative motions of the links as kinematic
chains.

Linkage, Mechanism and structure:

A linkage is obtained if one of the links of kinematic chain is fixed to the ground. If motion
of each link results in definite motion of the others, the linkage is known as mechanism. If one of the
links of a redundant chain is fixed, it is known as a structure.
To obtain constrained or definite motions of some of the links of a linkage, it is necessary to know
how many inputs are needed. In some mechanisms, only one input is necessary that determines the
motion of other links and are said to have one degree of freedom. In other mechanisms, two inputs

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may be necessary to get a constrained motion of the other links and are said to have two degrees of
freedom and so on.
The degree of freedom of a structure is zero or less. A structure with negative degrees of freedom is
known as a Superstructure.

• Motionand itstypes:

• The threemain typesof constrainedmotion in kinematic pairare,

1. Completely constrained motion : If the motion between a pair of links is limited to a definite
direction, then it is completely constrained motion. E.g.: Motion of a shaft or rod with collars at each
end in a hole as shown in fig.

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2. Incompletely Constrained motion : If the motion between a pair of links is not confined to a
definite direction, then it is incompletely constrained motion. E.g.: A spherical ball or circular shaft
in a circular hole may either rotate or slide in the hole as shown in fig.

3. Successfully constrained motion or Partially constrained motion:If the motion in a definite

direction is not brought about by itself but by some other means, then it is known as successfully
constrained motion. E.g.: Foot step Bearing

• Machine:
It is a combination of resistant bodies with successfully constrained motion which is used to transmit
or transform motion to do some useful work. E.g.: Lathe, Shaper, Steam Engine, etc.
• Kinematic chain with three lower pairs
It is impossible to have a kinematic chain consisting of three turning pairs only. But it is possible to
have a chain which consists of three sliding pairs or which consists of a turning, sliding and a screw
pair.

The figure shows a kinematic chain with three sliding pairs. It consists of a frame B, wedge C and a
sliding rod A. So the three sliding pairs are, one between the wedge C and the frame B, second
between wedge C and sliding rod A and the frame B.

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This figure shows the mechanism of a fly press. The element B forms a sliding with A and turning
pair with screw rod C which in turn forms a screw pair with A. When link A is fixed, the required fly
press mechanism is obtained.

Kutzbach criterion,
Grashoff's law Kutzbach
criterion:

• Fundamental Equation for 2-D Mechanisms: M = 3(L – 1) – 2J1 – J2

Can we intuitively derive Kutzbach’s modification of Grubler’s equation? Consider a
rigid link constrained to move in a plane. How many degrees of freedom does the link have?
(3: translation in x and y directions, rotation about z-axis)

• If you pin one end of the link to the plane, how many degrees of freedom does it now have?
• Add a second link to the picture so that you have one link pinned to the plane and one free to
move in the plane. How many degrees of freedom exist between the two links? (4 is the
correct answer)
• Pin the second link to the free end of the first link. How many degrees of freedom do you
now have?
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• How many degrees of freedom do you have each time you introduce a moving link? How
many degrees of freedom do you take away when you add a simple joint? How many
degrees of freedom would you take away by adding a half joint? Do the different terms in
equation make sense in light of this knowledge?

Grashoff's law:

• Grashoff 4-bar linkage: A linkage that contains one or more links capable of undergoing a
full rotation. A linkage is Grashoff if: S + L < P + Q (where: S = shortest link length, L =
longest, P, Q = intermediate length links). Both joints of the shortest link are capable of 360
degrees of rotation in a Grashoff linkages. This gives us 4 possible linkages: crank-rocker
(input rotates 360), rocker-crank-rocker (coupler rotates 360), rocker-crank (follower);
double crank (all links rotate 360). Note that these mechanisms are simply the possible
inversions (section 2.11, Figure 2-16) of a Grashoff mechanism.
• Non Grashoff 4 bar: No link can rotate 360 if: S + L > P + Q

Let’s examine why the Grashoff condition works:

• Consider a linkage with the shortest and longest sides joined together. Examine the linkage
when the shortest side is parallel to the longest side (2 positions possible, folded over on the
long side and extended away from the long side). How long do P and Q have to be to allow
the linkage to achieve these positions?
• Consider a linkage where the long and short sides are not joined. Can you figure out the
required lengths for P and Q in this type of mechanism

Kinematic Inversions of 4-bar chain and slider crank chains:

• Types of Kinematic Chain: 1) Four bar chain 2) Single slider chain 3) Double Slider chain
• Four bar Chain:
The chain has four links and it looks like a cycle frame and hence it is also called quadric cycle

chain. It is shown in the figure. In this type of chain all four pairs will be turning pairs.

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• Inversions:
By fixing each link at a time we get as many mechanisms as the number of links, then each
mechanism is called ‘Inversion’ of the original Kinematic Chain.
Inversions of four bar chain mechanism:
There are three inversions: 1) Beam Engine or Crank and lever mechanism. 2) Coupling rod of
locomotive or double crank mechanism. 3) Watt’s straight line mechanism or double lever
mechanism.
• Beam Engine:
When the crank AB rotates about A, the link CE pivoted at D makes vertical reciprocating motion at
end E. This is used to convert rotary motion to reciprocating motion and vice versa. It is also known
as Crank and lever mechanism. This mechanism is shown in the figure below.

2. Coupling rod of locomotive: In this mechanism the length of link AD = length of link C. Also
length of link AB = length of link CD. When AB rotates about A, the crank DC rotates about D. this
mechanism is used for coupling locomotive wheels. Since links AB and CD work as cranks, this
mechanism is also known as double crank mechanism. This is shown in the figure below.

3. Watt’s straight line mechanism or Double lever mechanism: In this mechanism, the links AB
& DE act as levers at the ends A & E of these levers are fixed. The AB & DE are parallel in the
mean position of the mechanism and coupling rod BD is perpendicular to the levers AB & DE. On
any small displacement of the mechanism the tracing point ‘C’ traces the shape of number ‘8’, a

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portion of which will be approximately straight. Hence this is also an example for the approximate
straight line mechanism. This mechanism is shown below.

• 2. Slider crank Chain:

It is a four bar chain having one sliding pair and three turning pairs. It is shown in the figure below
the purpose of this mechanism is to convert rotary motion to reciprocating motion and vice versa.
Inversions of a Slider crank chain:
There are four inversions in a single slider chain mechanism. They are:
st
1) Reciprocating engine mechanism (1 inversion)
nd
2) Oscillating cylinder engine mechanism (2 inversion)
nd
3) Crank and slotted lever mechanism (2 inversion)
rd
4) Whitworth quick return motion mechanism (3 inversion)
rd
5) Rotary engine mechanism (3 inversion)
th
6) Bull engine mechanism (4 inversion)
th
7) Hand Pump (4 inversion)
• 1. Reciprocating engine mechanism :
In the first inversion, the link 1 i.e., the cylinder and the frame is kept fixed. The fig below shows a
reciprocating engine.

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A slotted link 1 is fixed. When the crank 2 rotates about O, the sliding piston 4 reciprocates in the
slotted link 1. This mechanism is used in steam engine, pumps, compressors, I.C. engines, etc.

• 2. Crank and slotted lever mechanism:

It is an application of second inversion. The crank and slotted lever mechanism is shown in figure
below.

In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1) reciprocates in oscillating slotted lever (link 4)
and crank (link 2) rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6). The ram with the cutting tool
reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The ram with the tool reverses its direction of motion
when link 2 is perpendicular to link 4. Thus the cutting stroke is executed during the rotation of the
crank through angle α and the return stroke is executed when the crank rotates through angle β or
360 – α. Therefore, when the crank rotates uniformly, we get
Time to cutting = α = α
Time of return β 360 – α
This mechanism is used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary engines.

1.4 . 1 Whitworth quick return motion mechanism:

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Third inversion is obtained by fixing the crank i.e. link 2. Whitworth quick return mechanism is an
application of third inversion. This mechanism is shown in the figure below. The crank OC is fixed
and OQ rotates about O. The slider slides in the slotted link and generates a circle of radius CP. Link
5 connects the extension OQ provided on the opposite side of the link 1 to the ram (link 6). The
rotary motion of P is taken to the ram R which reciprocates. The quick return motion mechanism is
used in shapers and slotting machines. The angle covered during cutting stroke from P1 to P2 in
counter clockwise direction is α or 360 -2θ. During the return stroke, the angle covered is 2θ or β.
Therefore, Time to cutting = 360 -2θ = 180 – θ
Time of return 2θθ = α = α . β 360 – α

1. Rotary engine mechanism or Gnome Engine:

Rotary engine mechanism or gnome engine is another application of third inversion. It is a rotary
cylinder V – type internal combustion engine used as an aero – engine. But now Gnome engine has
been replaced by Gas turbines. The Gnome engine has generally seven cylinders in one plane. The
crank OA is fixed and all the connecting rods from the pistons are connected to A. In this mechanism
when the pistons reciprocate in the cylinders, the whole assembly of cylinders, pistons and
connecting rods rotate about the axis O, where the entire mechanical power developed, is obtained in
the form of rotation of the crank shaft. This mechanism is shown in the figure below.

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2 Double Slider Crank Chain:

A four bar chain having two turning and two sliding pairs such that two pairs of the same kind are
adjacent is known as double slider crank chain.

3 Inversions of Double slider Crank chain:

It consists of two sliding pairs and two turning pairs. They are three important inversions of double
slider crank chain. 1) Elliptical trammel. 2) Scotch yoke mechanism. 3) Oldham’s Coupling.

4 1. Elliptical Trammel:
This is an instrument for drawing ellipses. Here the slotted link is fixed. The sliding block P and Q in
vertical and horizontal slots respectively. The end R generates an ellipse with the displacement of
sliders P and Q.

The co-ordinates of the point R are x and y. From the fig. cos θ = x.PR
and Sin θ = y. QR
Squaring and adding (i) and (ii) we get x2 + y2= cos2 θ + sin2 θ
2 2
(PR) (QR)
x2 + y2= 1
2 2
(PR) (QR)
The equation is that of an ellipse, Hence the instrument traces an ellipse. Path traced by mid-point of
2 2 2 2
PQ is a circle. In this case, PR = PQ and so x +y =1 (PR) (QR)
It is an equation of circle with PR = QR = radius of a circle.
5. Scotch yoke mechanism: This mechanism, the slider P is fixed. When PQ rotates above P, the
slider Q reciprocates in the vertical slot. The mechanism is used to convert rotary to reciprocating
mechanism.

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5.Oldham’s coupling: The third inversion of obtained by fixing the link connecting the 2 blocks
P & Q. If one block is turning through an angle, the frame and the other block will also turn
through the same angle. It is shown in the figure below.

An application of the third inversion of the double slider crank mechanism is Oldham’s coupling
shown in the figure. This coupling is used for connecting two parallel shafts when the distance
between the shafts is small. The two shafts to be connected have flanges at their ends, secured by
forging. Slots are cut in the flanges. These flanges form 1 and 3. An intermediate disc having
tongues at right angles and opposite sides is fitted in between the flanges. The intermediate piece
forms the link 4 which slides or reciprocates in flanges 1 & 3. The link two is fixed as shown. When
flange 1 turns, the intermediate disc 4 must turn through the same angle and whatever angle 4 turns,
the flange 3 must turn through the same angle. Hence 1, 4 & 3 must have the same angular velocity
at every instant. If the distance between the axis of the shaft is x, it will be the diameter if the circle
traced by the centre of the intermediate piece. The maximum sliding speed of each tongue along its
slot is given by
v=xω where, ω = angular velocity of each shaft in rad/sec v = linear velocity in m/sec

Mechanical Advantage, Transmission angle:

1The mechanical advantage (MA) is defined as the ratio of output torque to the input torque. (or)
ratio
of load to output.
2 Transmission angle.
3 The extreme values of the transmission angle occur when the crank lies along the line of frame.

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Description of common mechanisms-Single, Double and offset slider mechanisms - Quick

return mechanisms:
1. Quick Return Motion Mechanisms:
Many a times mechanisms are designed to perform repetitive operations. During these operations
for a certain period the mechanisms will be under load known as working stroke and the remaining
period is known as the return stroke, the mechanism returns to repeat the operation without load. The
ratio of time of working stroke to that of the return stroke is known a time ratio. Quick return
mechanisms are used in machine tools to give a slow cutting stroke and a quick return stroke. The
various quick return mechanisms commonly used are i) Whitworth ii) Drag link. iii) Crank and
slotted lever mechanism
2. Whitworth quick return mechanism:
Whitworth quick return mechanism is an application of third inversion of the single slider
crank chain. This mechanism is shown in the figure below. The crank OC is fixed and OQ rotates
about O. The slider slides in the slotted link and generates a circle of radius CP. Link 5 connects the
extension OQ provided on the opposite side of the link 1 to the ram (link 6). The rotary motion of P
is taken to the ram R which reciprocates. The quick return motion mechanism is used in shapers and
slotting machines.

The angle covered during cutting stroke from P1 to P2 in counter clockwise direction is α or 360 -2θ.
During the return stroke, the angle covered is 2θ or β.
3. Drag link mechanism :

This is four bar mechanism with double crank in which the shortest link is fixed. If the crank AB
rotates at a uniform speed, the crank CD rotate at a non-uniform speed. This rotation of link CD is
transformed to quick return reciprocatory motion of the ram E by the link CE as shown in figure.

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When the crank AB rotates through an angle α in Counter clockwise direction during working stroke,
the link CD rotates through 180. We can observe that / α >/ β. Hence time of working stroke is α /β
times more or the return stroke is α /β times quicker. Shortest link is always stationary link. Sum of
the shortest and the longest links of the four links 1, 2, 3 and 4 are less than the sum of the other two.
It is the necessary condition for the drag link quick return mechanism.
4. Crank and slotted lever mechanism:
It is an application of second inversion. The crank and slotted lever mechanism is shown in figure
below.

In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1) reciprocates in oscillating slotted lever (link 4)
and crank (link 2) rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6). The ram with the cutting tool
reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The ram with the tool reverses its direction of motion
when link 2 is perpendicular to link 4. Thus the cutting stroke is executed during the rotation of the
crank through angle α and the return stroke is executed when the crank rotates through angle β or
360 – α. Therefore, when the crank rotates uniformly, we get,
Time to cutting = α = α
Time of return β 360 – α
This mechanism is used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary engines.

5. Ratchets and escapements - Indexing Mechanisms - Rocking Mechanisms:

Intermittent motion mechanism:
Ratchet and Pawl mechanism: This mechanism is used in producing intermittent rotary motion
member. A ratchet and Pawl mechanism consists of a ratchet wheel 2 and a pawl 3 as shown in
the figure. When the lever 4 carrying pawl is raised, the ratchet wheel rotates in the counter clock
wise direction (driven by pawl). As the pawl lever is lowered the pawl slides over the ratchet
teeth. One more pawl 5 is used to prevent the ratchet from reversing. Ratchets are used in feed
mechanisms, lifting jacks, clocks, watches and counting devices.

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6. Geneva mechanism: Geneva mechanism is an intermittent motion mechanism. It consists of a

driving wheel D carrying a pin P which engages in a slot of follower F as shown in figure.
During one quarter revolution of the driving plate, the Pin and follower remain in contact and
hence the follower is turned by one quarter of a turn. During the remaining time of one
revolution of the driver, the follower remains in rest locked in position by the circular arc.

7. Pantograph: Pantograph is used to copy the curves in reduced or enlarged scales. Hence this
mechanism finds its use in copying devices such as engraving or profiling machines.

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This is a simple figure of a Pantograph. The links are pin jointed at A, B, C and D. AB is parallel to
DC and AD is parallel to BC. Link BA is extended to fixed pin O. Q is a point on the link AD. If the
motion of Q is to be enlarged then the link BC is extended to P such that O, Q and P are in a straight
line. Then it can be shown that the points P and Q always move parallel and similar to each other
over any path straight or curved. Their motions will be proportional to their distance from the fixed
point. Let ABCD be the initial position. Suppose if point Q moves to Q1 , then all the links and the
joints will move to the new positions (such as A moves to A1 , B moves to Q1, C moves to Q1 , D
moves to D1 and P to P1 ) and the new configuration of the mechanism is shown by dotted lines. The
movement of Q (Q Q1) will be enlarged to PP1 in a definite ratio.

8. Toggle Mechanism:

In slider crank mechanism as the crank approaches one of its dead centre position, the slider
approaches zero. The ratio of the crank movement to the slider movement approaching infinity is
proportional to the mechanical advantage. This is the principle used in toggle mechanism. A toggle
mechanism is used when large forces act through a short distance is required. The figure below
shows a toggle mechanism. Links CD and CE are of same length. Resolving the forces at C
vertically F Sin α =P Cos α 2

Therefore, F = P . (because Sin α/Cos α = Tan α) 2 tan α Thus for the given value of P, as the links
CD and CE approaches collinear position (αO), the force F rises rapidly.
9. Hooke’s joint:

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Hooke’s joint used to connect two parallel intersecting shafts as shown in figure. This can also be
used for shaft with angular misalignment where flexible coupling does not serve the purpose. Hence
Hooke’s joint is a means of connecting two rotating shafts whose axes lie in the same plane and their
directions making a small angle with each other. It is commonly known as Universal joint. In Europe
it is called as Cardan joint.

10. Ackermann steering gear mechanism:

This mechanism is made of only turning pairs and is made of only turning pairs wear and tear of the
parts is less and cheaper in manufacturing. The cross link KL connects two short axles AC and BD
of the front wheels through the short links AK and BL which forms bell crank levers CAK and DBL
respectively as shown in fig, the longer links AB and KL are parallel and the shorter links AK and
BL are inclined at an angle α. When the vehicles steer to the right as shown in the figure, the short
link BL is turned so as to increase α, where as the link LK causes the other short link AK to turn so
as to reduce α. The fundamental equation for correct steering is, CotΦ–Cosθ = b / l
In the above arrangement it is clear that the angle Φ through which AK turns is less than the angle θ
through which the BL turns and therefore the left front axle turns through a smaller angle than the
right front axle. For different angle of turn θ, the corresponding value of Φ and (Cot Φ – Cos θ) are
noted. This is done by actually drawing the mechanism to a scale or by calculations. Therefore for
different value of the corresponding value of and are tabulated. Approximate value of b/l for correct
steering should be between 0.4 and 0.5. In an Ackermann steering gear mechanism, the
instantaneous centre I does not lie on the axis of the rear axle but on a line parallel to the rear axle
axis at an approximate distance of 0.3l above it.
Three correct steering positions will be:
1) When moving straight. 2) When moving one correct angle to the right corresponding to the
link ratio AK/AB and angle α. 3) Similar position when moving to the left. In all other
positions pure rolling is not obtainable.

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Some Of The Mechanisms Which Are Used In Day To Day Life.

BELL CRANK: GENEVA STOP:

BELL CRANK: The bell crank was originally used in large house to operate the servant’s bell, hence the
name. The bell crank is used to convert the direction of reciprocating movement. By varying the angle of the
crank piece it can be used to change the angle of movement from 1 degree to 180 degrees.

GENEVA STOP: The Geneva stop is named after the Geneva cross, a similar shape to the main part
of the mechanism. The Geneva stop is used to provide intermittent motion, the orange wheel turns
continuously, the dark blue pin then turns the blue cross quarter of a turn for each revolution of the
drive wheel. The crescent shaped cut out in dark orange section lets the points of the cross past, then
locks the wheel in place when it is stationary. The Geneva stop mechanism is used commonly in film
cameras.

ELLIPTICAL TRAMMEL PISTON ARRANGEMENT

ELLIPTICAL TRAMMEL: This fascinating mechanism converts rotary motion to reciprocating

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motion in two axis. Notice that the handle traces out an ellipse rather than a circle. A similar
mechanism is used in ellipse drawing tools.

PISTON ARRANGEMENT: This mechanism is used to convert between rotary motion and
reciprocating motion, it works either way. Notice how the speed of the piston changes. The piston
starts from one end, and increases its speed. It reaches maximum speed in the middle of its travel
then gradually slows down until it reaches the end of its travel.

RACK AND PINION RATCHET

RACK AND PINION: The rack and pinion is used to convert between rotary and linear motion.
The rack is the flat, toothed part, the pinion is the gear. Rack and pinion can convert from rotary to
linear of from linear to rotary. The diameter of the gear determines the speed that the rack moves as
the pinion turns. Rack and pinions are commonly used in the steering system of cars to convert the
rotary motion of the steering wheel to the side to side motion in the wheels. Rack and pinion gears
give a positive motion especially compared to the friction drive of a wheel in tarmac. In the rack and
pinion railway a central rack between the two rails engages with a pinion on the engine allowing the
train to be pulled up very steep slopes.

RATCHET: The ratchet can be used to move a toothed wheel one tooth at a time. The part used to
move the ratchet is known as the pawl. The ratchet can be used as a way of gearing down motion. By
its nature motion created by a ratchet is intermittent. By using two pawls simultaneously this
intermittent effect can be almost, but not quite, removed. Ratchets are also used to ensure that motion
only occurs in only one direction, useful for winding gear which must not be allowed to drop.
Ratchets are also used in the freewheel mechanism of a bicycle.

WORM GEAR WATCH ESCAPEMENT.

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WORM GEAR: A worm is used to reduce speed. For each complete turn of the worm shaft the gear
shaft advances only one tooth of the gear. In this case, with a twelve tooth gear, the speed is reduced
by a factor of twelve. Also, the axis of rotation is turned by 90 degrees. Unlike ordinary gears, the
motion is not reversible, a worm can drive a gear to reduce speed but a gear cannot drive a worm to
increase it. As the speed is reduced the power to the drive increases correspondingly. Worm gears
are a compact, efficient means of substantially decreasing speed and increasing power. Ideal for use
with small electric motors.
WATCH ESCAPEMENT: The watch escapement is the centre of the time piece. It is the
escapement which divides the time into equal segments.The balance wheel, the gold wheel, oscillates
backwards and forwards on a hairspring (not shown) as the balance wheel moves the lever is moved
allowing the escape wheel (green) to rotate by one tooth. The power comes through the escape wheel
which gives a small 'kick' to the palettes (purple) at each tick.

GEARS CAM FOLLOWER.

GEARS: Gears are used to change speed in rotational movement. In the example above the blue
gear has eleven teeth and the orange gear has twenty five. To turn the orange gear one full turn the
blue gear must turn 25/11 or 2.2727r turns. Notice that as the blue gear turns clockwise the orange
gear turns anti-clockwise. In the above example the number of teeth on the orange gear is not
divisible by the number of teeth on the blue gear. This is deliberate. If the orange gear had thirty
three teeth then every three turns of the blue gear the same teeth would mesh together which could
cause excessive wear. By using none divisible numbers the same teeth mesh only every seventeen
turns of the blue gear.

CAMS: Cams are used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion. The motion created can
be simple and regular or complex and irregular. As the cam turns, driven by the circular motion, the
cam follower traces the surface of the cam transmitting its motion to the required mechanism. Cam
follower design is important in the way the profile of the cam is followed. A fine pointed follower

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will more accurately trace the outline of the cam. This more accurate movement is at the expense of
the strength of the cam follower.

STEAM ENGINE.

Steam engines were the backbone of the industrial revolution. In this common design high pressure
steam is pumped alternately into one side of the piston, then the other forcing it back and forth. The
reciprocating motion of the piston is converted to useful rotary motion using a crank.

As the large wheel (the fly wheel) turns a small crank or cam is used to move the small red control
valve back and forth controlling where the steam flows. In this animation the oval crank has been
made transparent so that you can see how the control valve crank is attached.

Straight line generators, Design of Crank-rocker Mechanisms:

• Straight Line Motion Mechanisms:
The easiest way to generate a straight line motion is by using a sliding pair but in precision machines
sliding pairs are not preferred because of wear and tear. Hence in such cases different methods are
used to generate straight line motion mechanisms:
1. Exact straight line motion mechanism.

a. Peaucellier mechanism, b. Hart mechanism, c. Scott Russell mechanism

2. Approximate straight line motion mechanisms

a. Watt mechanism, b. Grasshopper’s mechanism, c. Robert’s mechanism,

d. Tchebicheff’s mechanism

• a. Peaucillier mechanism :
The pin Q is constrained to move long the circumference of a circle by means of the link OQ. The
link OQ and the fixed link are equal in length. The pins P and Q are on opposite corners of a four bar
chain
which has all four links QC, CP, PB and BQ of equal length to the fixed pin A. i.e., link AB = link
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AC. The product AQ x AP remain constant as the link OQ rotates may be proved as follows: Join
BC to bisect PQ at F; then, from the right angled triangles AFB, BFP, we have AB=AF+FB and
BP=BF+FP. Subtracting, AB-BP= AF-FP=(AF–FP)(AF+FP) = AQ x AP .
Since AB and BP are links of a constant length, the product AQ x AP is constant. Therefore the point
P traces out a straight path normal to AR.

• b. Robert’s mechanism:
This is also a four bar chain. The link PQ and RS are of equal length and the tracing pint ‘O’ is
rigidly attached to the link QR on a line which bisects QR at right angles. The best position for O
may be found by making use of the instantaneous centre of QR. The path of O is clearly
approximately horizontal in the Robert’s mechanism.

a. Peaucillier mechanism b. Hart mechanism

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UNIT II KINEMATICS OF LINKAGE MECHANISMS

Displacement, velocity and acceleration analysis in simple

mechanisms: Important Concepts in Velocity Analysis

1. The absolute velocity of any point on a mechanism is the velocity of that point with reference
to ground.

2. Relative velocity describes how one point on a mechanism moves relative to another point on
the mechanism.

3. The velocity of a point on a moving link relative to the pivot of the link is given by the
equation: V = r, where = angular velocity of the link and r = distance from pivot.

Acceleration Components

• Normal Acceleration:An = 2r. Points toward the center of rotation

• Tangential Acceleration:At = r. In a direction perpendicular to the link
• Coriolis Acceleration:Ac = 2 (dr/dt). In a direction perpendicular to the link
• Sliding Acceleration:As = d2r/dt2. In the direction of sliding.
A rotating link will produce normal and tangential acceleration components at any point a
distance, r, from the rotational pivot of the link. The total acceleration of that point is the vector
sum of the components.

A slider attached to ground experiences only sliding acceleration.

A slider attached to a rotating link (such that the slider is moving in or out along the link as the
link rotates) experiences all 4 components of acceleration. Perhaps the most confusing of these
is the coriolis acceleration, though the concept of coriolis acceleration is fairly simple. Imagine
yourself standing at the center of a merry-go-round as it spins at a constant speed ( ). You begin
to walk toward the outer edge of the merry-go-round at a constant speed (dr/dt). Even though
you are walking at a constant speed and the merry-go-round is spinning at a constant speed, your
total velocity is increasing because you are moving away from the center of rotation (i.e. the edge
of the merry-go-round is moving faster than the center). This is the coriolis acceleration. In
what direction did your speed increase? This is the direction of the coriolis acceleration.

The total acceleration of a point is the vector sum of all applicable acceleration components:

A = An + At + Ac + As

These vectors and the above equation can be broken into x and y components by applying sines

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and cosines to the vector diagrams to determine the x and y components of each vector. In this

way, the x and y components of the total acceleration can be found.

Graphical Method, Velocity and Acceleration polygons :

* Graphical velocity analysis:

It is a very short step (using basic trigonometry with sines and cosines) to convert the graphical
results into numerical results. The basic steps are these:

1. Set up a velocity reference plane with a point of zero velocity designated.

2. Use the equation, V = r, to calculate any known linkage velocities.

3. Plot your known linkage velocities on the velocity plot. A linkage that is rotating about
ground gives an absolute velocity. This is a vector that originates at the zero velocity point and
runs perpendicular to the link to show the direction of motion. The vector, VA, gives the velocity
of point A.

4. Plot all other velocity vector directions. A point on a grounded link (such as point B) will
produce an absolute velocity vector passing through the zero velocity point and perpendicular to
the link. A point on a floating link (such as B relative to point A) will produce a relative velocity
vector. This vector will be perpendicular to the link AB and pass through the reference point (A)
on the velocity diagram.

5. One should be able to form a closed triangle (for a 4-bar) that shows the vector equation: VB =
VA + VB/A where VB = absolute velocity of point B, VA = absolute velocity of point A, and VB/A
is the velocity of point B relative to point A.

Velocity and Acceleration analysis of mechanisms (Graphical Methods):

Velocity and acceleration analysis by vector polygons: Relative velocity and accelerations of
particles in a common link, relative velocity and accelerations of coincident particles on separate
link, Coriolis component of acceleration.
Velocity and acceleration analysis by complex numbers: Analysis of single slider crank
mechanism and four bar mechanism by loop closure equations and complex numbers.

✓ Velocity Analysis of Four Bar Mechanisms:

• Problems solving in Four Bar Mechanisms and additional links.
✓ Velocity Analysis of Slider Crank Mechanisms:
• Problems solving in Slider Crank Mechanisms and additional links.
✓ Acceleration Analysis of Four Bar Mechanisms:
• Problems solving in Four Bar Mechanisms and additional links.
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✓ Acceleration Analysis of Slider Crank Mechanisms:

• Problems solving in Slider Crank Mechanisms and additional links.
✓ Kinematic analysis by Complex Algebra methods:
• Analysis of single slider crank mechanism and four bar mechanism by loop closure equations
and complex numbers.
✓ Vector Approach:
• Relative velocity and accelerations of particles in a common link, relative velocity and
accelerations of coincident particles on separate link
✓ Computer applications in the kinematic analysis of simple mechanisms:
• Computer programming for simple mechanisms

Coincident points, Coriolis Acceleration:

• Coriolis Acceleration:Ac = 2 (dr/dt). In a direction perpendicular to the link.
A slider attached to ground experiences only sliding acceleration.

A slider attached to a rotating link (such that the slider is moving in or out along the link as the
link rotates) experiences all 4 components of acceleration. Perhaps the most confusing of these
is the coriolis acceleration, though the concept of coriolis acceleration is fairly simple. Imagine
yourself standing at the center of a merry-go-round as it spins at a constant speed ( ). You begin
to walk toward the outer edge of the merry-go-round at a constant speed (dr/dt). Even though
you are walking at a constant speed and the merry-go-round is spinning at a constant speed, your
total velocity is increasing because you are moving away from the center of rotation (i.e. the edge
of the merry-go-round is moving faster than the center). This is the coriolis acceleration. In
what direction did your speed increase? This is the direction of the coriolis acceleration.

Linkage Synthesis

Problem Example:1

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UNIT III KINEMATICS OF CAMMECHANISMS

INTRODUCTION
Acam is a mechanical device used to transmitmotion to a follower by direct contact. The
driveris called the cam and the driven member is called the follower.In a cam follower pair,the
cam normally rotates while the follower may translate or oscillate.Afamiliar exampleis the cam
shaft of an automobile engine, where the cams drive the push rods (thefollowers) to open
And close the valves in synchronization withth emotion of the pistons.

• Cams:
Type of cams, Type of followers, Displacement, Velocity and acceleration time curves for cam
profiles, Disc cam with reciprocating follower having knife edge, roller follower, Follower
motions including SHM, Uniform velocity, Uniform acceleration and retardation and Cycloidal
motion.

Cams are used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion. The motion created can be simple
and regular or complex and irregular. As the cam turns, driven by the circular motion, the cam
follower traces the surface of the cam transmitting its motion to the required mechanism. Cam
follower design is important in the way the profile of the cam is followed. A fine pointed follower
will more accurately trace the outline of the cam. This more accurate movement is at the expense of
the strength of the cam follower.

Types of cams

Cams can be classified based on their physical shape.

a) DiskorplatecamThedisk(orplate)camhas anirregularcontourtoimpartaspecificmotion
tothefollower.Thefollowermovesinaplaneperpendiculartotheaxis ofrotationofthe camshaftandis
heldincontactwiththecambysprings orgravity.

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Fig.3.1Plateordiskcam.

b) Cylindricalcam:Thecylindricalcamhas agroovecutalongits cylindrical surface.The

rollerfollows thegroove,andthefollowermovesinaplaneparalleltotheaxis ofrotationofthe cylinder.

Fig.3.2Cylindricalcam.

c) Translatingcam.Thetranslatingcamis acontouredorgroovedplateslidingonaguiding
surface(s).Thefollowermayoscillate (Fig.3.3a)orreciprocate(Fig.3.3b).Thecontourorthe
shapeofthegrooveis determinedbythespecifiedmotionofthefollower.

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Fig.3.3translatingcam

Types offollowers(Fig3.4):

(i)Basedonsurfaceincontact.

(a)Knifeedgefollower

(b)Rollerfollower
(c) Flatfacedfollower

(d) Sphericalfollower

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Fig3.4

(ii)Basedontypeofmotion(Fig3.5):

(a)Oscillatingfollower

(b)Translatingfollower

Fig:3.5

Basedonlineofmotion(Fig3.6):

(a) Radialfollower:Thelines ofmovementofin-linecamfollowers pass throughthecenters of

thecamshafts

(b) Off-setfollower:Forthis type,thelines ofmovementareoffsetfromthecenters ofthe

camshafts

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Fig
3.6

Cam

nomenclature (Fig.3.7):

CamProfileThecontouroftheworkingsurfaceofthecam.

Tracer PointThepointattheknifeedgeofafollower, orthecenterofa roller, orthecenterofa

sphericalface.

PitchCurveThepathofthetracerpoint.

BaseCircleThesmallestcircledrawn,tangentialtothecamprofile, withits centerontheaxis of

thecamshaft.Thesizeofthebasecircledetermines thesizeof

thecam.

PrimeCircleThesmallestcircledrawn,tangentialtothepitchcurve, withits centeron theaxis

ofthecamshaft.

PressureAngleTheanglebetweenthenormaltothepitchcurveandthedirectionof
motionofthefolloweratthepointofcontact

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Fig3.7

Types offollowermotion:

Cam follower systems are designed to achieve a desired oscillatory motion.Appropriate

displacement patterns are to beselected forthis purpose, before designing the cam surface.The
cam is assumed to rotate at a constant speed and the follower raises,dwells, returns to it soriginal
position and dwells again through specified angles of rotation of the cam,during each revolution
of the cam.Some of the standard follower motions are as follows:

Theyare,follower motion with,

(a)Uniformvelocity

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(b)Modifieduniformvelocity

(c)Uniformaccelerationanddeceleration

(d)Simpleharmonicmotion

(e)Cycloidalmotion

Displacementdiagrams:
In a cam follower system,the motion of the follower is very important. Its displacement can
be plotted against the angular displacement θ of the cam and it is called as the displacement
diagram.The displacement of the follower is plotted along they-axis and angular displacement θ of
the cam is plotted along x-axis.From the displacement diagram, velocity y and acceleration of the
follower can also be plotted for different angular displacements θ of the cam.The
displacement,velocity and acceleration diagrams are plotted forone cycle of operationi.e., one
rotation of the cam. Displacement diagrams are basic requirements for the construction of cam
profiles.Construction of displacement diagrams and calculation of velocities and accelerations of
followers with different types of motions are discussed in the following sections.

(a) FollowermotionwithUniformvelocity:

Fig.3.8shows the displacement,velocity and acceleration patterns of a follower having uniform

velocity type of motion.Since the follower moves with constant velocity,during riseand fall,the
displacement varies linearly with θ.Also,since the velocity changes from zero to a finite value,
with in no time, theoretically,the acceleration be comes in finite at the beginning and end of rise
and fall.

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Fig
3.8

(b)

Follower motion with modified uniform velocity:

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Itis observedin thedisplacement diagrams ofthefollower with uniform velocity that the
acceleration nof the follower becomes in finit eat the beginning and ending of rise and return
strokes. Inorder to prevent this,the displacement diagrams are slightly modified.In the modified
form,thevelocity of the follower changes uniformly during the beginning and end of each
stroke. Accordingly,the displacemen to the follower varies parabolically during the seperiods.
With this modification, the acceleration becomes constant during the seperiods, instead of being
infinite a sin the uniform velocity type of motion.The displacement, velocity and acceleration
patterns shownin fig

(c)
Follower
motion
with
uniform

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(b) SimpleHarmonicMotion:In fig3.11, the motion executed by point Pl, whichis the
projection of point P on the vertical diameter is called simple harmonicmotion. Here, P moves
With uniform angular velocity ωp, along a circle of radius r (r=s/2).

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Fig3.11

(c) Cycloidalmotion:

Cycloid is the path generated by a point on the circumference of a circle, as the circle rolls
without slipping, on a straight/flat surface.The motion executed by the follower here, is similar
to that of the projection of a point moving along a cyloidal curve on a vertical lineas shown in
figure6.12.

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Drawthecamprofileforfollowingconditions:

Followertype=Knifeedged,in-line;lift=50mm;basecircle radius =50mm;outstrokewith SHM,for600

camrotation;dwellfor450camrotation;returnstrokewithSHM,for90ocam rotation;dwellforthe
remainingperiod.

(2)Draw the cam profile for the same operating condition so f with the follower offset by 10mm
to the left of cam center.

Camprofile:

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Camprofilewith10mmoffset:

(1)Drawthecamprofileforfollowingconditions:

Follower type=roller follower, in-line; lift=25mm; base circle radius=20mm;roller radius=

5mm;out stroke with Uniform acceleration and retardation,for1200cam rotation;dwellfor600
camrotation;return stroke withUniform acceleration and retardation,for900 camrotation; dwell for
the remaining period.

(4)Draw the cam profile for conditions same with follower off set to right

of cam center by 5mm and cam rotating counter clockwise.

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DisplacementDiagram:

Cam profile;

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Camprofilewith5mmoffset

(2) Drawthecamprofileforfollowingconditions:

Follower type=knife edge d follower, in line; lift=30mm;base circle radius =20mm;outstroke with
uniform velocity in1200of cam rotation;dwell for 600; return stroke with uniform velocity,
during900ofcam rotation;dwell for the remaining period.

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DisplacementDiagram

Cam profile

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(3) Drawthecamprofileforfollowingconditions:

Followertype=flatfacedfollower,inline;followerrisesby20mmwithSHMin1200of cam
rotation,dwellsfor300 ofcamrotation;returnswithSHMin1200 ofcamrotationanddwells duringthe
remainingperiod.Basecircle radius =25mm.

DisplacementDiagram:

Cam profile

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Layout of plate cam profiles:

• Drawing the displacement diagrams for the different kinds of the motions and the plate cam
profiles for these different motions and different followers.
• SHM, Uniform velocity, Uniform acceleration and retardation and Cycloidal motions
• Knife-edge, Roller, Flat-faced and Mushroom followers.

Derivatives of Follower motion:

• Velocity and acceleration of the followers for various types of motions.
• Calculation of Velocity and acceleration of the followers for various types of motions.

Circular arc and Tangent cams:

• Circular arc
• Tangent cam

Standard cam motion:

• Simple Harmonic Motion
• Uniform velocity motion
• Uniform acceleration and retardation motion
• Cycloidal motion

Pressure angle and undercutting:

• Pressure angle
• Undercutting

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UNIT IV GEARS AND TRAINS

Introduction

Gears are used to change speed in rotational movement.

In the example above the blue gear has eleven teeth and the orange gear has twenty five. To turn the
orange gear one full turn the blue gear must turn 25/11 or 2.2727r turns. Notice that as the blue gear
turns clockwise the orange gear turns anti-clockwise. In the above example the number of teeth on
the orange gear is not divisible by the number of teeth on the blue gear. This is deliberate. If the
orange gear had thirty three teeth then every three turns of the blue gear the same teeth would mesh
together which could cause excessive wear. By using none divisible numbers the same teeth mesh
only every seventeen turns of the blue gear.

A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth,or cogs,which mesh with
another toothed part in order to transmit torque.Two or more gears working intandemare

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called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through agearratio and
thus may be considered a simple machine.Geared devices can change the speed,
magnitude,and direction of a powersource.The most common situation is for a gear to
mesh with another gear,however a gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed part, called
a rack, there by producing translation instead of rotation.

The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a pulley.Anadvantage of

gears is that theteeth of a gear prevent slipping.

When two gears of unequal number of teeth are combined a mechanical advantage is
produced, with both the rotational speeds and the torques of the two gears differing in
asimple relationship.

In transmissions which offer multiple gear ratios, such as bicycles and cars, the term
gear, as infirstgear, refers to agear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The
term is used to describe similar devices even when gear ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or
when the device does not actually on tain any gears, as in a continuously variable transmission.

Fundamental LawofGear-Tooth

Pitch point divides the line between the line of

centers and its positiond ecides the velocity ratio of
the two teeth.The above expression is the
fundamental law of gear-tooth action.

Formation of teeth:

Involute teeth

Cycloidal teeth

Involute curve:

The curve most commonly use d for gear-tooth

profiles is the involute of a circle. This involute curve
is the path traced by a pointonalineas the line
Rolls without slipping on the circumference of a circle. It may also be defined asapathtraced by
the end of a string, which is originally wrapped on a circle when the string is un wrapped from the
circle.The circle from which the involute is derived is called the base circle

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CycloidalCurve

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Pathofcontact:

Consider a pinion driving wheel as shown in figure. When the pinion rotates in
clockwise, the contact between a pair of involute teeth begin sat K(on the near the base circle of
pinionortheouterendofthetoothfaceonthewheel)andendsatL(outerendofthetoothface on the pinion
or on the flank near the base circle of wheel).

MN is the common normal at the point of contacts and the common tangent to the base
circles.The point K is the intersection of the addendum circle of wheel and the common tangent.
The point L is the intersection of the addendum circle of pinion and common tangent.
The lengthof path of contact is the length of common normal cut-offbytheaddendum circlesof
thewheelandthepinion.Thusthelengthof partof contactisKLwhichisthesumof thepartsof pathof
contactsKPandPL.ContactlengthKPiscalledaspathofapproachand contactlength PLis
calledaspathofrecess.

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Arcofcontact:Arc of contact is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the beginning
to the end of engagement of a given pair of teeth. In Figure, the arc of contact is EPF or GPH.

The arc GP is known a sarcofapproachand the arc PH is called arc of recess.The angles
subtended by the searcs at O1arecalled angle of approach and angle of recessrespectively.

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Contact Ratio ( or Number of Pairs of Teeth in Contact)

The contactratioor the number of pairs ofteethincontactis defi

ned as the ratio of the length of the arc of contact to the circular pitch.

Continuous motion transfer requires two pairs of teeth in contact at the ends of the
path of contact, though the reisonly one pairincontact in the middle of the path,as in Figure. The
average number of teeth in contact is an important parameter-If itis tool owdue the use of
inappropriate profile shift sortoan excessive centredistance.Them anufacturinginaccuracies
mayleadtolossof kinematiccontinuity-thatistoimpact,vibrationandnoiseTheaverage numberof
teethincontactisalsoaguidetoloadsharingbetweenteeth;itistermedthecontact ratio

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The tooth tip of the pinion will then undercut the toot h on the wheel at the
rootanddamages partoftheinvoluteprofile.Thiseffectis knownas
interference,andoccurs when theteetharebeingcutandweakens thetoothatits root.

Ingeneral,thephenomenon,whenthetipoftoothundercuts the rootonitsmatinggearis

knownasinterference.Similarly,if theradiusof theaddendum circlesof thewheelincreases
beyondO2M,thenthetipoftoothonwheelwillcauseinterferencewiththetoothonpinion.The points M
andNarecalledinterferencepoints.

Interference may be avoided if the path of the contact does not extend beyond
interferencepoints.Thelimitingvalueoftheradius oftheaddendumcircleofthepinionisO1N
andofthewheelis O2M.

Theinterferencemayonlybeprevented,ifthepointof contactbetweenthetwoteethis alwayson

theinvoluteprofilesandiftheaddendum circlesofthetwomatinggearscutthe
commontangenttothebasecircles atthepoints oftangency.

MethodstoavoidInterference

1.Heightoftheteethmaybe reduced.

2.undercutofthe radialflankofthepinion.

3. Centredistancemaybeincreased.Itleads toincreaseinpressureangle.

4. Bytoothcorrection,thepressureangle,centredistanceandbasecircles remainunchanged,but
tooththickness ofgear willbegreaterthanthepiniontooththickness.

Minimumnumbers ofteethonthepinionavoidInterference

Thepinionturns clockwiseanddrives thegearas showninFigure.

PointsMandNarecalledinterferencepoints.i.e.,ifthecontacttakesplacebeyondMandN,
interferencewilloccur.

Thelimitingvalueofaddendumcircleradiusof pinionisO1Nandthelimitingvalueof addendum

circleradiusofgearisO2M.Consideringthecriticaladdendum circleradiusofgear,
thelimitingnumberofteethongearcanbecalculated.

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equation gives minimum number of teeth required on the pinion to avoid interference.

If the number of teethonpinionandgearissame:G=1

Theequationgivesminimum number of teethrequiredonthewheel toavoidinterference.

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Spur Gear Terminology

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Addendum:The radialdistancebetweenthePitchCircleandthetopoftheteeth.

Arc of Action: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the beginning and the end ofthe
engagementofagivenpairofteeth.

ArcofApproach:Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between thefirstpointofcontactofthegear

teethandthePitchPoint.

ArcofRecession:ThatarcofthePitchCirclebetweenthePitchPointandthelastpointof
contactofthegearteeth.

Backlash:Playbetweenmatingteeth.

BaseCircle:Thecirclefromwhichisgeneratedtheinvolutecurveuponwhichthetoothprofile isbased.

CenterDistance:Thedistancebetweencenters oftwogears.

ChordalAddendum:Thedistancebetweenachord,passingthroughthepointswherethe Pitch
Circlecrosses thetoothprofile, andthetoothtop.

ChordalThickness:Thethicknessofthetoothmeasuredalongachordpassingthroughthe points
wherethePitchCirclecrosses thetoothprofile.

CircularPitch:MillimeterofPitchCirclecircumferencepertooth

CircularThickness:Thethickness ofthetoothmeasuredalonganarcfollowingthePitchCircle

Clearance:Thedistancebetweenthetopofatooth andthebottomofthespaceintowhichitfits
onthemeshinggear.

ContactRatio:The ratioofthelengthoftheArcofActiontotheCircularPitch.

Dedendum:The radialdistancebetweenthebottomofthetoothtopitchcircle.

DiametralPitch:Teethpermmofdiameter.

Face:Theworkingsurfaceofageartooth,locatedbetweenthepitchdiameterandthetopofthe tooth.

FaceWidth:Thewidthofthetoothmeasuredparalleltothegearaxis.

Flank:Theworkingsurfaceofageartooth,locatedbetweenthepitchdiameterandthebottom oftheteeth

Gear: Thelargeroftwomeshedgears.Ifbothgearsarethesamesize,theyarebothcalled
"gears".

Land:Thetopsurfaceofthetooth.

LineofAction:Thatlinealongwhichthepointofcontactbetweengearteethtravels,between
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thefirstpointofcontactandthelast.

Module:MillimeterofPitchDiametertoTeeth.

Pinion:Thesmalleroftwomeshedgears.

PitchCircle:Thecircle,theradiusof whichisequaltothedistancefromthecenterofthegear
tothepitchpoint.

Diametralpitch:Teethpermillimeterofpitchdiameter.

PitchPoint:Thepointoftangencyofthepitchcirclesoftwomeshinggears,wheretheLineof
Centers crosses thepitchcircles.

PressureAngle:AnglebetweentheLineofActionandalineperpendiculartotheLineof
Centers.

Profile Shift:AnincreaseintheOuterDiameterandRootDiameterofagear,introduced

tolowerthepracticaltoothnumberor acheiveanon-standardCenterDistance.

Ratio:Ratioofthenumbers ofteethonmatinggears.

RootCircle:Thecirclethatpasses throughthebottomofthetoothspaces.

RootDiameter:ThediameteroftheRootCircle.

WorkingDepth:Thedepthtowhichatoothextendsintothespacebetweenteethonthemating gear.

Worm, Rack and Pinion Gears

RACK AND PINION WORM GEAR

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RACK AND PINION: The rack and pinion is used to convert between rotary and linear motion.
The rack is the flat, toothed part, the pinion is the gear. Rack and pinion can convert from rotary to
linear of from linear to rotary. The diameter of the gear determines the speed that the rack moves as
the pinion turns. Rack and pinions are commonly used in the steering system of cars to convert the
rotary motion of the steering wheel to the side to side motion in the wheels. Rack and pinion gears
give a positive motion especially compared to the friction drive of a wheel in tarmac. In the rack and
pinion railway a central rack between the two rails engages with a pinion on the engine allowing the
train to be pulled up very steep slopes.

WORM GEAR: A worm is used to reduce speed. For each complete turn of the worm shaft the gear
shaft advances only one tooth of the gear. In this case, with a twelve tooth gear, the speed is reduced
by a factor of twelve. Also, the axis of rotation is turned by 90 degrees. Unlike ordinary gears, the
motion is not reversible, a worm can drive a gear to reduce speed but a gear cannot drive a worm to
increase it. As the speed is reduced the power to the drive increases correspondingly. Worm gears
are a compact, efficient means of substantially decreasing speed and increasing power. Ideal for use

with small electric motors.

Parallel axis gear trains:

• Simple Gear Trains – A simple gear train is a collection of meshing gears where each gear is
on its own axis. The train ratio for a simple gear train is the ratio of the number of teeth on
the input gear to the number of teeth on the output gear. A simple gear train will typically
have 2 or 3 gears and a gear ratio of 10:1 or less. If the train has 3 gears, the intermediate
gear has no numerical effect on the train ratio except to change the direction of the output
gear.
• Compound Gear Trains – A compound gear train is a train where at least one shaft carries
more than one gear. The train ratio is given by the ratio mV = (product of number of teeth on
driver gears)/(product of number of teeth on driven gears). A common approach to the design
of compound gear trains is to first determine the number of gear reduction steps needed (each

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step is typically smaller than 10:1 for size purposes). Once this is done, determine the
desired ratio for each step, select a pinion size, and then calculate the gear size.
• Reverted Gear Trains – A reverted gear train is a special case of a compound gear train. A
reverted gear train has the input and output shafts in –line with one another. Assuming no
idler gears are used, a reverted gear train can be realized only if the number of teeth on the
input side of the train adds up to the same as the number of teeth on the output side of the
train.

Epicyclic gear trains:

• If the axis of the shafts over which the gears are mounted are moving relative to a fixed axis ,
the gear train is called the epicyclic gear train.
• Problems in epicyclic gear trains.

Differentials:
• Used in the rear axle of an automobile.
• To enable the rear wheels to revolve at different speeds when negotiating a curve.
• To enable the rear wheels to revolve at the same speeds when going straight.

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Problem:1

Problem:2

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QUESTION BANK

UNIT -I

TWO MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWER

1. Define Kinematic link.

It is a resistive body which go to make a part of a machine having relative
motion
between them.

2. Define Kinematic pair.

When two links are in contact with each other it is known as a pair. If the pair
makes
constrain motion it is known as kinematic pair.

3. Define Kinematic chain.

When a number of links connected in space make relative motion of any point on a
link
with respect to any other point on the other link follow a definite law it is
known as kinematic chain.

4. Write the Grubler’s criterion for determining the degrees of freedom of a

mechanism having plane motion.
n=3(l-1)-2j
h-Higher pair
joint l-
Number of
links
j-Lower pair joint

5. Define degree of freedom, what is meant by mobility. (Ap/May-2008)

The mobility of a mechanism is defined as the number of input parameters which must
be
independently controlled in order to bring the device into a particular position.

6. Write the Kutzbach’s relation. (Ap/May-2008)

Kutzbach’s criterion for determining the number of degrees of freedom or movability
(n)
of a plane mechanism is n=3(l-
1)-2j-h n-Degree of freedom.
l-Number of
links. h-
Higher pair
joint j-Lower
pair joint.

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7. Define Grashoff’s law and state its significance. (Ap/May-2008)

It states that in a planar four bar mechanism, the sum of shortest link length
and
longest link length is not greater than the sum of remaining two links length, if there is
to be continuous relative motion between two members.
Significance:
Grashoff’s law specifies the order in which the links are connected in a kinematic
chain. Grashoff’s law specifies which link of the four-bar chain is
fixed.(s+1)=(p+q) should be
satisfied, if not, no link will make a complete revolution relative to
another. s= length of the shorter length
l= length of the longest link

p & q are the lengths of the other two links.

8. Define Inversion of mechanism.

The method of obtaining different mechanism by fixing different links in a kinematic
chain
is known as inversion of mechanism.
9. What is meant by Mechanical advantage of mechanism?
It is defined as the ratio of output torque to the input torque also defined as the ratio
of
load to effort.
M.A ideal = TB / TA
TB =driven (resisting
torque) TA =driving
torque

10. Define Transmission angle.

The acute angle between follower and coupler is known as transmission angle.

11. Define Toggle position.

If the driver and coupler lie in the same straight line at this point mechanical
advantage is
maximum. Under this condition the mechanism is known as toggle position.

12. List out few types of rocking mechanism.

Pendulum motion is called rocking mechanism.
1. Quick return motion mechanism.
2. Crank and rocker mechanism.
3. Cam and follower mechanism.

13. Define pantograph.

It is device which is used to reproduce a displacement exactly in a enlarged scale. It
is
used in drawing offices, for duplicating the drawing maps, plans, etc. It works
on the principle of 4 bar chain mechanism.
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Eg. Oscillating-Oscillating converter mechanism

14. Name the application of crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism.
1. Shaping machines.
2. Slotting mechanism.
3. Rotary internal combustion engine.

15. Define structure.

It is an assemblage of a number of resistant bodies having no relative motion
between
them and meant for carrying loads having straining action.

16. What is simple mechanism?

A mechanism with four links is known as simple mechanism.

17. Define mechanism.

When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed, the chain is known as a
mechanism.
18. Define equivalent mechanism; and spatial mechanism.
Equivalent mechanism: The mechanism, that obtained has the same number of the
degree
of freedom, as the original mechanism called equivalent mechanism.
Spatial mechanism: Spatial mechanism have special geometric characteristics in that
all revolute axes are parallel and perpendicular to the plane of motion and all prism
axes lie in the plane of motion.

19. Define double slider crank chain mechanism.

A kinematic chain which consists of two turning pair and two sliding pair is known
as
double slider crank mechanism.
20. Define single slider crank chain mechanism.
A single slider crank chain is a modification of the basic four bar chain. It consists of
one
sliding pair and three turning pair.
Applications:
Rotary or Gnome engines Crank and slotted lever mechanism
Oscillating cylinder engine Ball engine
Hand pump

21. Define Sliding pair.

In a sliding pair minimum number of degree of freedom is only one.

22. Define Turning pair.

In a turning pair also degree of freedom is one. When two links are connected such
that
one link revolves around another link it forms a turning pair.

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23. Define cylindrical pair.

In a cylindrical pair degree of freedom is two. If one link turns and slides along
another
link it forms a cylindrical pair.

24. Define Rolling pair.

In a rolling pair degree of freedom is two. The object moves both linearly and
angularly.

25. Define Spherical pair.

In a spherical pair degree of freedom is three. It can both move left and right,up
and
down, and rotate along the same point.

26. Define Lower pair.

If contact between two links is surface contact also having degree of freedom one,
then
the pair is known as lower pair.
Example: Sliding pair.

27. Define higher pair.

If contact between two links is either point contact or line contact then the pair is
known
as higher pair.
Example: Point contact-Rolling pair.
Line contact-Cylindrical
pair.

PART-B (16 Marks)

1. a) Explain different types ofLink.(8)
b)Classifyand explain the Kinematicpair.(8)
2. a) Explain anytwo inversion of four bar chain.(8)
b)Explain the first inversion ofSingle SliderCrank Chain.(8)
3. a) Explain first inversion ofDoubleSlider crank chain.(8)
b)Explain third inversion of double slider crank chain.(8)
4. a) Explain the offset slider crank mechanism.(8)
b)Explain Straight line mechanismwith neat sketch(8)
5. a)With the help of aneat sketch explain the workingof Oldham‘s coupling.(8)
b)Explain steering gearmechanismwith neat sketch (8)

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6. With the help of aneatsketch explain the workingof Whitworth

quick return mechanism. (16)
7. With the help of aneatsketch explain the workingof Single
slider and double slider crankchain mechanism.(16)
UNIT -II

TWO MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWER

1. What are the components of acceleration?

Radial component of acceleration
Tangential component of acceleration

2. Write an expression for find number of instantaneous centers in a mechanism.

N=n(n-1)/2, n-no of links

3. What is expression for Coriolis componenet of acceleration?

a BC
=2r
Where =Angular velocity of
‘OA’ V=Linear
velocity of ‘B’

4. How can we represent the direction of linear velocity of any point on a link with
respect to another point on the same link?
The direction of linear velocity of any point on a link with respect to another point on
the
same link the direction is perpendicular to the line joining the points.
5. What is the expression for radial and tangential component of acceleration?
Radial component
Arc
OB=OB*OB
Tangential
component
Arc OB=OB*OB
Where OB=Angular velocity of link OB
OB=Angular acceleration of
link OB OB=Length of link OB.
(Radial component of acceleration is perpendicular to the velocity of the component
and
tangential component is perpendicular to link position)

6. Define instantaneous center and instantaneous axis?

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Instantaneous center of a moving body may be defined as that center which

goes on changing from one instant to another.
Instantaneous axis is a line drawn through an instantaneous center and
perpendicular to the plane of motion.

7. What are the names of instantaneous center?

Virtual center Centro
Rotopole.

8. How can we apply instantaneous center method to determine velocity?

Consider three points A, B, C on a rigid link. I am being instantaneous Center. Let
VA,
VB, VC be the points A, B
& C. Then we have
VA/IA=VB/IB=VC/IC

9. What is the objective of Kinematic analysis?

The objective of Kinematic analysis is to determine the Kinematic quantities such
as
displacement, velocity and acceleration of the element in a mechanism.

10. Write any two rules to locate Instantaneous center.

When two links are connected by a pin joint the instantaneous center lies on the center
of
the pin.
When two links have a sliding contact, the instantaneous center lies at infinity
in a direction perpendicular to the path of motion of slide.

11. Define Kennedy’s theorem.

The Kennedy’s theorem states that if three bodies move relatively to each other,
they
have three instantaneous centers and lie on a straight line.

12. What is meant by efficiency of a mechanism?

Efficiency of a mechanism is defined as the ratio of the product of force and velocity
in
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driven link to the product of force and velocity in driving link.

13. A pin joins two links A & B. A rotates with A angular velocity and B rotates with
B
angular velocity in opposite direction. What is the rubbing velocity of that point?
Rubbing velocity of pin = ( A + B ) * r
Where ‘r’ is the radius of pin.

14. What is the magnitude of linear velocity of a point B on a link AB relative to A?

The magnitude of linear velocity of a point B on a link AB, which rotates with
‘’
angular velocity with respect to A is:
VB/A = A/B *AB

PART-B (16 Marks)

1. TheCrank ofaslider crank mechanisms rotatesclockwise at a Constant speed of

600 r.p.m. The crank is 125 mmand connectingrodis 500 mmlong.
Determine1. Linear velocityand acceleration ofthe mid Pointof the
connecting rod, and 2. Angular velocityandangular acceleration ofthe
connecting rod, at acrankangle
of45° from innerdead centreposition.

2.Ina four link mechanism, thedimensions of thelinks areAB=200 mm,

BC=400mm, CD=450 mm and AD=600mm. At the instant when DAB=90°,
the link ABhasangularvelocityof36 rad/s in the clockwisedirection.
Determine (i) The velocityof pointC, (ii) Thevelocityof pointEonthe link BC
When BE =200 mm (iii) the angularvelocities oflinks BC and CD,
iv)acceleration oflink oflink BC
3. Thedimensions of thevarious links of amechanism, as shown in fig. are
as follows: OA=300 mm; AB=1200;BC=450 mmand CD=450 mm. ifthe
crank OA rotates at 20 r.p.m. in theanticlockwise direction and gives
motion to the sliding blocks Band D,find, forgivenconfiguration:
(1)Velocityof slidingatBand D, (2) Angular velocityof CD
(3)Linearacceleration ofD and (4)angularacceleration of CD.
4 a)Derivethe expressions forVelocityandacceleration ofpiston in

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reciprocating steam engine mechanismwith neat sketch

b).Derivethe expression for Coriolis component of acceleration with neat sketch

5.Inaslider crankmechanism, the length of thecrank and theconnectingrod
are100 mmand 400 mmrespectively./ Thecrank [position is 45° fromIDC,
the crank shaft speed is 600 r.p.m. clockwise.Using analytical method
Determine
(1)Velocityandacceleration of theslider,and (2)Angular
velocityandangular acceleration oftheconnectingrod.
6.Locate allinstantaneous centers of theslider crank mechanism; thelength of crank
OBand Connecting rod ABare125 mmand 500 mm respectively. Thecrank speed is 600
rpm clockwise. When thecrank has turned 45° from theIDC. Determine(i)velocityof
. slider‘A‘ (ii)Angular Velocityofconnecting rod‗AB‘.

UNIT -III

TWO MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWER

1. What is a cam? Give some examples?

A Cam is a rotating machine element, which gives reciprocating or oscillating motion
to
another element known as
follower. Examples are:
Radial or Disc, Cylindrical or Barrel, End or Face cams and Wedge cams.

2. What is the Classification of cams?

• According to cam shape
• According to follower movement
• According to manner of constraint of the follower

3. Classify cams based on their shape.

• Wedge cam • Radial cams • Spiral cams
• Drum cams • Spherical cams

4. What is the classification of followers?

(i) According to follower shape
(ii) According to motion of follower

5. What is a roller follower?

In place of a knife edge roller is provided at the contacting end of the follower

6. What is a Spherical follower?

In the contacting end of the follower is of spherical shape.
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7. What is meant by angle of ascend?

The angle of rotation of the cam from the position when the follower begins to rise
till it
reaches its highest points. It is denoted by θ

8. What is meant by angle of descend?

The angle through which the cam rotates during the time the follower returns to the
initial
position. It is denoted by θr.

9. What is angle of dwell?

It is the angle through which the cam rotates while the follower remains stationary at
the
highest or the lowest.
10. What is meant by angle of action?
The total angle moved by the cam during its rotation between the beginning of
rise and the end of return of the follower.

11. What is radial or disc cams?

In radial cams the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction perpendicular to
the
cam axis. The cams are all radial rams. In actual practice, radial cams are widely
used due to their simplicity and compactness.

12. What is dwell?

The zero displacement or the absence of motion of the follower during the motion of
the
cam is called dwell.

13. What are the classifications of follower according to follower shape?

• Knife edge follower
• Roller follower
• Mushroom or flat faced follower and
• Spherical faced or curved shoe follower

14. What are the classifications of follower according to the motion of the follower?
• Reciprocating or translating follower
• Oscillating or rotating follower

15. What are the classifications of followers according to the path of motion?
• Radial follower • Offset follower

16. What is the motion of the follower?

The follower can have any of the following four types of motions
• Uniform velocity • Simple harmonic motion
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• Uniform acceleration and retardation • Cycloidal motion.

17. What is the application of cam?

Closing and opening of inlet and exit valve operating in IC engine .

18. What are the necessary elements of a cam mechanism?

Cam-The driving member is known as the cam
Follower-The driven member is known as the
follower. Frame-It supports the cam and guider
the follower.

19. Where are the roller follower extensively used? (Ap/May-2008)

Roller followers are extensively used where more space is available such as in
stationary
gas oil engines and aircraft
engines.

20. Write the formula for maximum velocity.

Vo (max) =
2ωs
θo
Vr (max) =
2ωs
PART-B (16 Marks)
1.A cam is to give the followingmotion to aknifeedgedfollower:

(a) Outstrokeduring60°of cam rotation

(b)Dwellfor thenext 45° of cam rotation
(c) Return strokeduring next 90° of cam rotation and
(d)Dwellfor theremainingofcam rotation
Thestrokeof thefollower is 40 mmand the minimumradius of the cam is50 mm.
The followermoves with uniform velocityduringboth theoutstrokeand return
strokes.Draw the profileof thecam when (a) theaxis of the follower passes
through theaxis of the cam shaft, and (b)the axis of the follower is offset
by20mmfrom the axis of the cam shaft.

2. Draw theprofileofacam operatingaKnife-edgedfollower from the following data:

(a)Follower to moveoutward through 40 mm during60° ofa cam rotation;(b)
Follower to dwellforthenext 45° (c) Followertoreturn its original position during
next 90° (d)Follower to dwellforthe rest of camrotation. Thedisplacement of the

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follower is to takeplacewith simple harmonic motion duringboth theoutward and

return strokes. Theleast radius of the cam is 50mm.If the cam rotates at 300 r.p.m.,
determinethe maximum velocityand accelerationof the follower duringtheoutward
stroke and return stroke.
3. A cam, with aminimum radius of 50 mm, rotatingclockwise at a uniform speed,
is required togiveraknife-edgedfollower themotion as described below: (a) To
moveoutwards through 40 mmduring100° rotation of the cam; (b)to dwellfornext
80° (c) To return to its startingposition duringnext 90 ° and (d)Todwellforthe rest
periodof revolution. Draw theprofileof the cam (i) When thelineof strokeof the
follower passes through the centreof the cam shaft and (ii)When the line ofstrokeof
the follower is to takeplacewith Uniform acceleration and uniform retardation.
Determinethe maximum velocity and acceleration of the followerwhen the cam
shaft rotates at 900 r.p.m.
4. Draw theprofileofacam operatingaroller reciprocatingfollowerand with the
followingdata:
Minimum radius of cam =25 mm;lift=30mm; Rollerdiameter=15mm. Thecam lifts
the follower for 120° with SHM, followed byadwellperiod of30°. Thenthe follower
lowers down during150°of cam rotation with uniform acceleration and retardation
followed byadwellperiod.If thecam rotates atauniform speed of 150 RPM.
Calculate the maximumvelocityand accelerationof follower duringthe descent
period.
5.It is required to set outthe profileof a cam togivethe followingmotion to the
reciprocating follower with a flat mushroom contact surface: (i)Follower to
haveastrokeof 20mm during120° ofcam rotation, (ii) Follower to dwellfor30°
ofcam rotation,(iii) Follower to return to its initial position during120° of cam
rotation, (iv)Follower to dwellfor remaining90°of cam rotation. Theminimum
radius of the cam is 25 mm. Theout strokeof the follower is performed with
SHM and return strokewith equal uniform acceleration andretardation.
6. A tangent cam to drivea roller follower throughatotal lift of 12.5 mm fora cam
rotation of75°.Thecam speed is 600rpm . Thedistancebetweencam centre and

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follower centre atfull lift is 45 mm and the roller is 20 mmin diameter. Find the
cam proportions and plot displacement, velocityandacceleration for one full cycle.
UNIT -IV

TWO MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWER

1. Define spur gear.

A spur gear is a cylindrical gear whose tooth traces are straight line generation of
the
reference cylinder. They are used to transmit rotary motion between parallel shafts.
2. Define addendum and dedendum.
Addendum is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of the tooth.
Dedendum is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom of the
tooth.

3. Define circular pitch.

It is the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch circle from a point of
one
tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth. It is denoted by Pc
Circular pitch Pc= /DT
Where D = Diameter of pitch
circle. T = Number of teeth on
the wheel.
4. Define I) path of contact. II) Length of path of contact.
Path of contact: It is the path traced by the point of contact of two teeth from
the
beginning to the end of engagement.
Length of path of contact: It is the length of common normal cut- off by the
addendum circles of the wheel and pinion.

5. State the law of gearing.

Law of gearing states that, the common normal at the point of contact between a pair
of
teeth must always pass through the pitch point.

6. Define conjugate action.

When the tooth profiles are so shaped so as to produce a constant angular velocity
ratio
during Meshing, then the surface are said to de conjugate.

7. Define angle of approach.

The angle of approach is defined as the angle through which a gear rotates from
the
instant a pair of teeth comes into contact until the teeth are in contact at the pitch point.

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8. List out the characteristics of in volute action.

a) Arc of contact. b) Length of path of contact. c) Contact ratio.

9. Define contact ratio.

Contact ratio is defined as the ratio of the length of arc of contact to the circular
pitch.
Mathematically.
Contact ratio = length of arc of conta
[Pc] Where Pc = circular path.

10. What is the advantage of involute gear?

The most important advantage of involutes gear is that the center distance for a
pair of
involute gears can be varied within limits without changing the velocity ratio.

11. What are the conditions to be satisfied for interchangeability of all gears?
For interchangeability of all gears, the set must have the same circular pitch,
module,
diameter pitch, pressure, angle, addendum and dedendum and tooth thickness must
be one half of the circular pitch.
12. Define gear tooth system.
A tooth system is a standard which specifies the relationship between addendum,
dedendum, working depth, tooth thickness and pressure angle to attain
interchangeability of gears of tooth numbers but of the same pressure angle and pitch

13. Define cycloid.

A cycloid is the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle which
rolls
without slipping on a fixed straight line.

14. Define clearance.

The amount by which the dedendum of a gear exceeds the addendum of the mating
gear
is called clearance.

15. When in volute interference occurs.

If the teeth are of such proportion that the beginning of contact occurs before
the
interference point is met then the involute proportion of the driven gear will mate a
non in volute portion of the driving gear and involute interference is said to occur.
16. What is the principle reason for employing non standard gears?
a) To eliminate the undercutting.
b) To prevent interference.
c) To maintain reasonable contact ratio.

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17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of gear drive?

Advantages:
a) It transmits exact velocity
ratio. b) It has high
efficiency.
Disadvantages:
The manufacture of gears require special tool and equipment.
The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during operation.

18. Define helix angle ().

It is the angle between the line drawn through one of the teeth and the center line of
the
shaft on which the gear is maintained.

19. Define gear ratio.

The quotient of the number of teeth on the wheel divided by the number of threads on
the
worm.

20. Define gear train.

A combination of gears that is used for transmitting motion from one shaft to
another
shaft is known as gear
train. eg. spur gear,
spiral gear.

21. Define velocity ratio.

Velocity ratio of a simple gear train is defined as the ratio of the angular velocity of
the
first gear in the train to the angular velocity of the last gear.

PART-B (16 Marks)

1. a) Two matingspurgear with modulepitch of 6.5 mmhave19 ad 47 teeth of

20° pressureangle and 6.5 mm addendum. Determinethe number ofpair of
teethand angleturned through bythelarger wheel foronepair ofteeth in contact.
Determinealso theslidingvelocityat theinstant (i)engagement commences (ii)
engagement terminates. When the pitch line velocityis 1.2 m/s.(8)
b)Thenumberof teeth on each of thetwo spurgears in mesh is 40. Theteeth have
20° involuteprofile and the module is6mm.If thearcof contact is 1.75 times the circularpitch. Find
theaddendum. (8)

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2. a) Two 20° involutespurgears haveamoduleof 10 mm. The addendumis one

module. Thelargergear has 50 teeth and pinion 13 teeth. Does the
interferenceoccur?Ifitoccurs, to whatvalue should thepressureanglebe changed
to eliminate interference?(8)

b)Twomatinginvolute spur gears 20° pressure angle haveagearratio of2.the

numberof teeth on thepinion is 20 and its speed is 250 rpm. Themodulepitch of the
teeth is 12 mm. if theaddendum on each wheelwheel recess on each side arehalf
themaximum possible lengtheach, find(1)the addendum forpinion and
gearwheel(2)the length of arcof contact(30 themaximum velocityof
slidingduringapproachand recess.Assume pinion to bedriver. (8)
3.a) Apair of spurgearwith involuteteeth is to give agear ratio of 4:1. The arcof
approach is not be less than the circular pitch and thesmaller wheel is the driver. The
angleof pressureis 14.5What is the least number ofteeth can beusedoneach wheel?
What is the addendum of thewheel in terms ofcircularpitch?(8)
b). A pair 20° fulldepth involutespur gear having 30 and 50 teeth
respectively module4 mmarcin mesh, thesmaller gearrotates at 1000 rpm.
Determine (a) Slidingvelocities at engagementand disengagement of apair
ofteethand (b) Contact ratio.(8)

3. Inan epicyclicgear train theinternal wheels Aand Band compound wheels Cand
D rotateindependentlyabout axis O. Thewheels E andFrotateon pins fixed to the arm G. E
gears withA and C . Wheel Fgearwith B and D. Allthe wheels havethe same
module and the numberof teeth are: TC=28 TD=26;TE=TF=18.(1) Sketch the
arrangement, (2) Find thenumber ofteeth on A and B,(3)Ifthe armG makes 100
rpm clockwise and A is fixed, find thespeed ofB, and (4)If thearm Gmakes 100
rpm clockwise and wheel A makes 10rpm counter clockwise; Find
the speed ofwheelB. (16)
4. Twogearwheels meshexternallyandaretogiveavelocityratio of 3to 1. The
teeth areof involute form;module=6mm, addendum=onemodule,
pressureangle=20°. The pinion rotates at 90 rpm. Determine (1) thenumber
ofteeth on thepinion toavoid interferenceon itand the correspondingnumber
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ofteeth on thewheel, (2)Thelength of path andarc of contact, (3)the numberof

pairs of teeth in contact.(16)

5. The arm ofan epicyclicgear train rotatesat 100rpm in the anticlock wisedirection.
The arm carries two wheels AandBhaving36 and 45 teeth respectively. Thewheel A
is fixed and the arm rotates about thecentreof wheel A. Find thespeed of wheelB.
What will be the speed ofB, if thewheelA instead of beingfixed, makes 200 rpm
(clockwise).(16)
6.Ina revertedepicyclictrain, the armF carries two wheels Aand D anda compound
wheel B-C. Wheel A meshes with wheelBand Wheel D meshes with wheel C. Ther
numberof teeth on wheel A, Dand C are80,48, and 72. Find thespeed and direction
ofwheel D , when wheel A is fixed and arm Fmakes 200 rpm clockwise.(16)

7. An epicyclictrain is composed of afixed annularwheel A having150 teeth. Meshingwith A is

awheel Bwhich drives wheel D throughan idlewheel C, D being concentricwith A. Wheels B and
C are carried onarm which revolves clockwise at 100 rpm about the axis of A orD.Ifthe wheels
Band D arehaving25 teeth and 40 teeth respectively,find thenumberof teeth of C and the speed
and sense ofrotation of C. (16)
8. Thesun planetgear ofan epicyclicgear train, the annularD has 100 internal teeth,
the sun gear Ahas 50 external teethand planetgear Bhas 25external teeth.Thegear
Bmeshes withgear Dand gear A. ThegearBis carried onarm E, which rotatesabout
the centreof annulargearD.If thegear Dis fixedand arm rotates at 20 rpm, then find
the speeds ofgear AandB.(16)
UNIT -V
TWO MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWER

1. Define clutch.
Clutch is a transmission device of an automobile which is used to engage and
disengage
the power from the engine to the rest of the system.

2. What are the types of friction

clutches?
Types of friction clutches
are:
*Disc or plate clutches.
*Cone clutches.
*Centrifugal clutches.
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3. Define centrifugal clutch.

Centrifugal clutch is being increasingly used in automobile and machines
obviously it
works on the principle of centrifugal force.

4. What are the types of flat drives?

The types of flat drives are:
*Compound belt drive.
*Stepped or cone pulley drive.
*Fast and loose pulley.

5. Define slip.
Slip is defined as the relative motion between the belt and pulley.

6. Define law of belting.

Law of belting states that the centre line of the belt, as it approaches the pulley lie
in a
plane perpendicular to the axis of that pulley or must lie in the plane of the pulley,
otherwise the belt will run off the pulley.

7. What is the use of rope drive?

The rope drives are widely used when large power is to be transmitted continuously
from
one pulley to another over a considerable distance. One advantage of rope drives is
that a number of separate driver may be from the driving pulley.

8. What is the use of belt drive?

Belt drive is commonly used for transmission of power when exact velocity ratio is
not
required. Generally, belt drives are used to transmit power from one pulley to another,
when the two pulleys are not more than 10 meters apart.

9. What are the types of ropes?

The types of ropes are: *Fiber ropes. *Wire ropes.

10. What is the use of quarter turn left drive?

The quarter turn left drive is used with shafts arranged at right angles and rotating in
one
definite direction.

11. Define the velocity ratio of the belt drive.

The velocity ratio of the belt drive is defined as the ratio between the velocities of
the
driver and the follower or the driven.

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Engineering
 Module-1
What is Kinematics? Kinematics is the study of motion (position, velocity, acceleration).
A major goal of understanding kinematics is to develop the ability to design a system that
will satisfy specified motion requirements. This will be the emphasis of this class.
What is Kinetics? Kinetics is the study of effect of forces on moving bodies. Good
kinematic design should produce good kinetics.
Definitions Link:
A link is defined as a member or a combination of members of a mechanism connecting
other members and having relative motion between them. The link may consist of one or
more resistant bodies. A link may be called as kinematic link or element. Eg:
Reciprocating steam engine.

Classification of link is binary, ternary and quarternary.

Joint: A connection between two links that allows motion between the links. The motion
allowed may be rotational (revolute joint), translational (sliding or prismatic joint), or a
combination of the two (roll-slide joint).
Kinematic pair: Kinematic pair is a joint of two links having relative motion between
them. The types of kinematic pair are classified according to

Closed pair, unclosed pair)

pair)
classification of kinematics pairs
According to the type of relative motion between the elements
a) Sliding pair:- When the elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one can
only slide relative to the other, the pair is known as a sliding pair.
• The piston and cylinder, cross-head
• Guides of a reciprocating steam engine
• Ram and its guides in shaper
• Tail stock on the lathe bed
(b) Turning pair:-When the elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one can
only turn or revolve relative to another link, the pair is known as turning pair.
• A shaft with collars at both ends fitted into a circular hole
• The crankshaft in a journal bearing in an engine
• Lathe spindle supported in head stock
• Cycle wheels turning over their axles

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 are the examples of a turning pair
(c) Rolling pair:- When the elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one link
rolls over another fixed link, the pair is known as rolling pair.
• Ball and roller bearings
(d) Screw pair:- When the elements of a pair are connected in suchca way that one
element turn about the other by screw threads, the pair is known as screw pair.
• The lead screw of a lathe with nut
• Bolt with a nut
(e) Spherical pair:- When the elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one
element turns or swivels about the other fixed element, the pair formed is called a
spherical pair.
• The ball and socket joint
• Attachment of a car mirror
• Pen stand
According to the type of contact between the elements
(a) Lower pair:-When the elements of a pair having a surface contact between them
when relative motion takes place and the surface of one element slides over the surface of
the other, the pair formed is known as lower pair.
• sliding pairs
• turning pairs
• screw pairs
(b) Higher pair:- When the elements of a pair having a line or point contact between
them when relative motion takes place and the motion between the two elements is partly
turning and partly sliding, then the pair is known as higher pair.
• Pair of friction discs
• toothed gearing
• Belt and rope drives
According to nature of mechanical constraint
(a) Closed pair:- When the elements of a pair are held together mechanically in such a
way that only required relative motion occurs, it is then known as closed pair.
• The lower pairs are closed pair.
(b) Un closed pair/Open Pair:- When the elements of a pair are in contact either due to
force of gravity or spring action, the pair is called as a Un-closed pair or Open Pair.
• The cam and follower and gravity

Kinematic chain: When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that the last link is
joined to the first link to transmit definite motion it is called a kinematic chain. Eg: The
crank shaft of an engine forms a kinematic pair with the bearings which are fixed in a pair,
the connecting rod with the crank forms a second kinematic pair, the piston with the
connecting rod forms a third pair and the piston with the cylinder forms the fourth pair.
The total combination of these links is a kinematic chain. Eg: Lawn mover
Here, we had to check whether the given link is a kinematic chain We can use two
formulas

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1. l = 2p-4

2. j= (3/2)l – 2
Mechanism If motion of any of the movable links results in definite motions of the others
the linkage is known as mechanism
Machine When a mechanism is required to transmit power or to do some particular type
of work it then becomes a machine.
Degrees of Freedom It is defined as the number of input parameters which must be
independently controlled in order to bring the mechanism in to useful engineering
purposes. It is also defined as the number of independent relative motions, both
translational and rotational, a pair can have. Degrees of freedom = 6 – no. of restraints. To
find the number of degrees of freedom for a plane mechanism we have Grubler’s
equation F = 3 (n – 1) – 2 j1 – j2
F = Mobility or number of degrees of freedom
n = Number of links including frame.
j1 = Joints with single (one) degree of freedom.
J2 = Joints with two degrees of freedom.
F > 0, results in a mechanism with ‘F’ degrees of freedom.
F = 0, results in a statically determinate structure.
F < 0, results in a statically indeterminate structure
Grashoff's law:
Grashoff 4-bar linkage: A linkage that contains one or more links capable of
undergoing a full rotation. A linkage is Grashoff if: S + L < P + Q (Where: S = shortest
link length, L = longest, P, Q = intermediate length links). Both joints of the shortest link
are capable of 360 degrees of rotation in a Grashoff linkages. This gives us 4 possible
linkages:
1.1 crank-rocker (input rotates 360
1.2 rocker-crank-rocker (coupler rotates 360)
1.3 rocker-crank (follower)
1.4 double crank (all links rotate 360).
Inversion of Mechanism
we can obtain as many mechanisms as the number of links in a kinematic chain by
fixing, in turn, different links in a kinematic chain. This method of obtaining different
mechanisms by fixing different links in a kinematic chain, is known as inversion of the
mechanism
Types of Kinematic Chains
The most important kinematic chains are those which consist of four lower pairs, each pair
being a sliding pair or a turning pair. The following three types of kinematic chains with four
lower pairs are important from the subject point of view :
1. Four bar chain or quadric cyclic chain,
2. Single slider crank chain, and
3. Double slider crank chain.
Inversions of Four Bar Chain

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Though there are many inversions of the four bar chain, yet the following are important from
the subject point of view :

1. Beam engine (crank and lever mechanism).

A part of the mechanism of a beam engine (also known as crank and lever mechanism) which
consists of four links, is shown in Fig. In this mechanism, when the crank rotates about the
fixed centre A, the lever oscillates about a fixed centre D. The end E of the lever CDE is
connected to a piston rod which reciprocates due to the rotation of the crank. In other words,
the purpose of this mechanism is to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion.

2. Coupling rod of a locomotive (Double crank mechanism). The mechanism of a coupling

rod of a locomotive (also known as double crank mechanism) which consists of four links, is
shown in Fig.
In this mechanism, the links AD and BC (having equal length) act as cranks and are connected
to the respective wheels. The link CD acts as a coupling rod and the link AB is fixed in order
to maintain a constant centre to centre distance between them. This mechanism is meant for
transmitting rotary motion from one wheel to the other wheel

3.Watt’s straight line mechanism or Double lever mechanism: In this mechanism, the
links AB & DE act as levers at the ends A & E of these levers are fixed. The AB & DE are
parallel in the mean position of the mechanism and coupling rod BD is perpendicular to
the levers AB & DE. On any small displacement of the mechanism the tracing point ‘C’
traces the shape of number ‘8’, a portion of which will be approximately straight. Hence
this is also an example for the approximate straight line mechanism. This mechanism is
shown below

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Inversions of Slider crank Chain: It is a four bar chain having one sliding pair and three
turning pairs. It is shown in the figure below the purpose of this mechanism is to convert
rotary motion to reciprocating motion and vice versa.
There are four inversions in a single slider chain mechanism.
They are: 1) Reciprocating engine mechanism (1st inversion)
2) Oscillating cylinder engine mechanism (2 nd inversion)
3) Crank and slotted lever mechanism (2 nd inversion)
4) Whitworth quick return motion mechanism (3 rd inversion)
5) Rotary engine mechanism (3rd inversion)
6) Bull engine mechanism (4th inversion)
7) Hand Pump (4th inversion)
Reciprocating engine mechanism: In the first inversion, the link 1 i.e., the cylinder and
the frame is kept fixed. The fig below shows a reciprocating engine

A slotted link 1 is fixed. When the crank 2 rotates about O, the sliding piston 4
reciprocates in the slotted link 1. This mechanism is used in steam engine, pumps,
compressors, I.C. engines, etc.
Crank and slotted lever mechanism: It is an application of second inversion. The crank
and slotted lever mechanism is shown in figure below

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In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1) reciprocates in oscillating slotted
lever (link 4) and crank (link 2) rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6). The
ram with the cutting tool reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The ram with the
tool reverses its direction of motion when link 2 is perpendicular to link 4. Thus the
cutting stroke is executed during the rotation of the crank through angle α and the return
stroke is executed when the crank rotates through angle β or 360 – α. Therefore, when the
crank rotates uniformly, we get,

Whitworth quick return motion mechanism

Third inversion is obtained by fixing the crank i.e. link 2. Whitworth quick return
mechanism is an application of third inversion. This mechanism is shown in the figure
below. The crank OC is fixed and OQ rotates about O. The slider slides in the slotted link
and generates a circle of radius CP. Link 5 connects the extension OQ provided on the

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opposite side of the link 1 to the ram (link 6). The rotary motion of P is taken to the ram R
which reciprocates. The quick return motion mechanism is used in shapers and slotting
machines. The angle covered during cutting stroke from P1 to P2 in counter clockwise
direction is α or 360 -2θ. During the return stroke, the angle covered is 2θ or β.

Rotary engine mechanism or Gnome Engine:

Rotary engine mechanism or gnome engine is another application of third inversion. It is
a rotary cylinder V – type internal combustion engine used as an aero – engine. But now
Gnome engine has been replaced by Gas turbines. The Gnome engine has generally seven
cylinders in one plane. The crank OA is fixed and all the connecting rods from the pistons
are connected to A. In this mechanism when the pistons reciprocate in the cylinders, the
whole assembly of cylinders, pistons and connecting rods rotate about the axis O, where
the entire mechanical power developed, is obtained in the form of rotation of the crank
shaft. This mechanism is shown in the figure below

Double Slider Crank Chain: A four bar chain having two turning and two sliding pairs
such that two pairs of the same kind are adjacent is known as double slider crank chain.
Inversions of Double slider Crank chain: It consists of two sliding pairs and two
turning pairs. There are three important inversions of double slider crank chain.
1) Elliptical trammel.
2) Scotch yoke mechanism.
3) Oldham’s Coupling.
Elliptical Trammel: This is an instrument for drawing ellipses. Here the slotted link is
fixed. The sliding block P and Q in vertical and horizontal slots respectively. The end R
generates an ellipse with the displacement of sliders P and Q.

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Scotch yoke mechanism: This mechanism is used to convert rotary motion in to
reciprocating motion.The inversion is obtained by fixing either the link 1 or link 3. Link I
is fixed. In this mechanism when the link 2 rotates about B as centre, the link 4
reciprocates. The fixed link 1 guides the frame.

Oldham’s coupling: The third inversion of obtained by fixing the link connecting the 2
blocks P & Q. If one block is turning through an angle, the frame and the other block will
also turn through the same angle. It is shown in the figure below

An application of the third inversion of the double slider crank mechanism is Oldham’s
coupling shown in the figure. This coupling is used for connecting two parallel shafts
when the distance between the shafts is small. The two shafts to be connected have
flanges at their ends, secured by forging. Slots are cut in the flanges. These flanges form 1

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and 3. An intermediate disc having tongues at right angles and opposite sides is fitted in
between the flanges. The intermediate piece forms the link 4 which slides or reciprocates
in flanges 1 & 3. The link two is fixed as shown. When flange 1 turns, the intermediate
disc 4 must turn through the same angle and whatever angle 4 turns, the flange 3 must
turn through the same angle. Hence 1, 4 & 3 must have the same angular velocity at every
instant. If the distance between the axis of the shaft is x, it will be the diameter if the
circle traced by the centre of the intermediate piece. The maximum sliding speed of each
tongue along its slot is given by
v=xω
where,
ω = angular velocity of each shaft in rad/sec
v = linear velocity in m/sec

Cam and followers

A cam is a rotating machine element which gives reciprocating or oscillating
motion to another element known as follower. The cam and the follower have
a line contact and constitute a higher pair. The cams are usually rotated at
uniform speed by a shaft, but the follower motion is predetermined and will be
according to the shape of the cam.
Classification of Followers
The followers may be classified as discussed below :
1. According to the surface in contact. The followers, according to the
surface in contact, are as follows :
(a) Knife edge follower. When the contacting end of the follower has a sharp
knife edge, it is called a knife edge follower, The sliding motion takes place
between the contacting surfaces (i.e. the knife edge and the cam surface). It is
seldom used in practice because the small area of contacting surface results in
excessive wear. In knife edge followers, a considerable side thrust exists
between the follower and the guide.

(b) Roller follower. When the contacting end of the follower is a roller, it is
called a roller follower, Since the rolling motion takes place between the

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contacting surfaces (i.e. the roller and the cam), therefore the rate of wear is
greatly reduced. In roller followers also the side thrust exists between the
follower and the guide. The roller followers are extensively used where more
space is available such as in stationary gas and oil engines and aircraft
engines.

(c) Flat faced or mushroom follower. When the contacting end of the
follower is a perfectly flat face, it is called a flat-faced follower.The flat faced
followers are generally used where space is limited such as in cams which
operate the valves of automobile engines.

.
(d) Spherical faced follower. When the contacting end of the follower is of
spherical shape, it is called a spherical faced follower, It may be noted that
when a flat-faced follower is used in automobile engines, high surface stresses
are produced. In order to minimise these stresses, the flat end of the follower is
machined to a spherical shape.

According to the motion of the follower. The followers, according to its

motion, are of the following two types:
(a) Reciprocating or translating follower. When the follower reciprocates in
guides as the cam rotates uniformly, it is known as reciprocating or translating
follower.

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(b) Oscillating or rotating follower. When the uniform rotary motion of the
cam is converted into predetermined oscillatory motion of the follower, it is
called oscillating or rotating follower.
3. According to the path of motion of the follower. The followers, according
to its path of motion, are of the following two types:
(a) Radial follower. When the motion of the follower is along an axis passing
through the centre of the cam, it is known as radial follower
(b) Off-set follower. When the motion of the follower is along an axis away
from the axis of the cam centre, it is called off-set follower.

Classification of Cams
Though the cams may be classified in many ways, yet the following two types are important
from the subject point of view
1. Radial or disc cam. In radial cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction
perpendicular to the cam axis. The cams as shown in Fig are all radial cams.

2. Cylindrical cam. In cylindrical cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction

parallel to the cam axis. The follower rides in a groove at its cylindrical surface. A cylindrical
grooved cam with a reciprocating and an oscillating follower is shown in Fig

Terms Used in Radial Cams

1. Base circle. It is the smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam profile.
2. Trace point. It is a reference point on the follower and is used to generate the pitch curve.
In case of knife edge follower, the knife edge represents the trace point and the pitch curve

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corresponds to the cam profile. In a roller follower, the centre of the roller represents the trace
point.
3. Pressure angle. It is the angle between the direction of the follower motion and a normal
to the pitch curve. This angle is very important in designing a cam profile. If the pressure angle
is too large, a reciprocating follower will jam in its bearings.

4. Pitch point. It is a point on the pitch curve having the maximum pressure angle.
5. Pitch circle. It is a circle drawn from the centre of the cam through the pitch points.
6. Pitch curve. It is the curve generated by the trace point as the follower moves relative to
the cam. For a knife edge follower, the pitch curve and the cam profile are same whereas for a
roller follower, they are separated by the radius of the roller.
7. Prime circle. It is the smallest circle that can be drawn from the centre of the cam and
tangent to the pitch curve. For a knife edge and a flat face follower, the prime circle and the
base circle are identical. For a roller follower, the prime circle is larger than the base circle by
the radius of the roller.
8. Lift or stroke. It is the maximum travel of the follower from its lowest position to the
Top most position.

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 Gears
Gears are also used for power transmission. This is accomplished by the successive
engagement of teeth. The two gears transmit motion by the direct contact like chain drive.
Gears also provide positive drive.
The drive between the two gears can be represented by using plain cylinders or discs 1
and 2 having diameters equal to their pitch circles as shown in Figure 3.5. The point of
contact of the two pitch surfaces shell have velocity along the common tangent. Because
there is no slip, definite motion of gear 1 can be transmitted to gear 2 or vice-versa.
The tangential velocity ‘Vp’ =  1 r1
=2 r2
where r1 and r2 are pitch circle radii of gears 1 and 2, respectively

Gear
Gears are also used for power transmission. This is accomplished by the successive
engagement of teeth.They can be applied between two shafts which are
Parallel
Collinear
Perpendicular and intersecting
Perpendicular and nonintersecting
Inclined at any arbitrary angle
Classify gears
According to the position of axes of the shafts. The axes of the two shafts between which
the motion is to be transmitted, may be
Parallel, (b) Intersecting, and (c) Non-intersecting and non-parallel.
2. According to the peripheral velocity of the gears. The gears, according to the
peripheral
velocity of the gears may be classified as :
(a) Low velocity, (b) Medium velocity, and (c) High velocity

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 According to the type of gearing. The gears, according to the type of gearing may be
classified as :
External gearing, (b) Internal gearing, and (c) Rack and pinion.
According to position of teeth on the gear surface. The teeth on the gear surface may be
(a) straight, (b) inclined, and (c) curved

Pitch circle. It is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give the same
motion as the actual gear.
2. Pitch circle diameter. It is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size of the gear is
usually specified by the pitch circle diameter. It is also known as pitch diameter.
3. Pitch point. It is a common point of contact between two pitch circles.
4. Pitch surface. It is the surface of the rolling discs which the meshing gears have
replaced at the pitch circle.
5. Pressure angle or angle of obliquity. It is the angle between the common normal to
two gear teeth at the point of contact and the common tangent at the pitch point. The

6. Addendum. It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of the
tooth.
7. Dedendum. It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom of the
tooth.
8. Addendum circle. It is the circle drawn through the top of the teeth and is concentric
with the pitch circle.
9. Dedendum circle. It is the circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth. It is also called
root circle.
10. Circular pitch.
It is the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch

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 circle from a point of one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth. It is usually
denoted by pc.
Mathematically,
Circular pitch,=D/T
Where, D=diameter of pitch circle
T=number of teeth on the wheel
Diametral pitch. It is the ratio of number of teeth to the pitch circle diameter in
millimetres.
It is denoted by pd
. Mathematically,
Diametral pitch,Pd=T/D
, D=diameter of pitch circle
T=number of teeth on the wheel
Module. It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter in millimeters to the number of teeth.
It is usually denoted by m. Mathematically,
m=D/T

Working depth. It is the radial distance from the addendum circle to the clearance circle.
It is equal to the sum of the addendum of the two meshing gears.
16. Tooth thickness. It is the width of the tooth measured along the pitch circle.
17. Tooth space . It is the width of space between the two adjacent teeth measured along
the pitch circle.
18. Backlash. It is the difference between the tooth space and the tooth thickness, as
measured along the pitch circle. Theoretically, the backlash should be zero, but in actual
practice some backlash must be allowed to prevent jamming of the teeth due to tooth
errors and thermal expansion.
19. Face of tooth. It is the surface of the gear tooth above the pitch surface.
20. Flank of tooth. It is the surface of the gear tooth below the pitch surface.
21. Top land. It is the surface of the top of the tooth.
22. Face width. It is the width of the gear tooth measured parallel to its axis.
23. Profile. It is the curve formed by the face and flank of the tooth.
24. Fillet radius. It is the radius that connects the root circle to the profile of the tooth.
25. Path of contact. It is the path traced by the point of contact of two teeth from the
beginning to the end of engagement.
26. *Length of the path of contact. It is the length of the common normal cut-off by the
addendum circles of the wheel and pinion.
27. ** Arc of contact. It is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the
beginning to the end of engagement of a given pair of teeth. The arc of contact consists of
two parts, i.e.
(a) Arc of approach. It is the portion of the path of contact from the beginning of the
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Simple gear train

A simple gear train uses two gears, which may be of different sizes. If one of these gears is
attached to a motor or a crank then it is called the driver gear. The gear that is turned by
the driver gear is called the driven gear. The input and the output shaft are necessarily being
parallel to each other. In this gear train, there are series of gears which are capable of receiving
and transmitting motion from one gear to another. They may mesh externally or internally. Each
gear rotates about separate axis fixed to the frame. Two gears may be external meshing and
internal meshing.
Velocity ratio:

N1/N 2=T 2/T1=d2/d1

Compound gear train

When there are more than one gear on a shaft, , it is called a compound train of gear.
in a simple train of gears do not effect the speed ratio of the system. But these gears are useful
in bridging over the space between the driver and the driven
In a compound train of gears, as shown in Fig .the gear 1 is the driving gear mounted on
shaft A, gears 2 and 3 are compound gears which are mounted on shaft B. The gears 4 and 5
are also
compound gears which are mounted on shaft C and the gear 6 is the driven gear mounted on
shaft D.

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 Reverted gear train

When the axes of the first gear (i.e. first driver) and the last gear (i.e. last driven or follower)
are co-axial, then the gear train is known as reverted gear train as shown in Fig.
We see that gear 1 (i.e. first driver) drives the gear 2 (i.e. first driven or follower) in the
opposite direction. Since the gears 2 and 3 are mounted on the same shaft, therefore they
form a compound gear and the gear 3 will rotate in the same direction as that of gear 2. The
gear 3 (which is now the second driver) drives the gear 4 (i.e. the last driven or follower) in the
same direction as that of gear 1. Thus we see that in a reverted gear train, the motion of the
first gear and the last gear is like.

Epicyclic gear train

in an epicyclic gear train, the axes of the shafts, over which the gears are mounted, may move
relative to a fixed axis. A simple epicyclic gear train is shown in Fig., where a gear A and the

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arm C have a common axis at O 1 about which they can rotate. The gear B meshes with gear A
and has its axis on the arm at O2, about which the gear B can rotate. If the arm is fixed, the
gear train is simple and gear A can drive gear B
or vice- versa, but if gear A is fixed and the arm is rotated about the axis of gear A (i.e. O 1),
then the gear B is forced to rotate upon and around gear A. Such a motion is called epicyclic
and the gear trains arranged in such a manner that one or more of their members move upon
and around another member are known as epicyclic gear trains (epi. means upon and cyclic
means around). The epicyclic gear trains may be simple or compound. The epicyclic gear
trains are useful for transmitting high velocity ratios with gears of moderate size in a
comparatively lesser space. The epicyclic gear trains are used in the back gear of lathe,
differential gears of the automobiles, hoists, pulley blocks, wrist watches etc.

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 Module-6

Vibration of machine parts 6.1 Introduction to Vibration and related terms (Amplitude,
time period and frequency, cycle) 6.2 Classification of vibration. 6.3 Basic concept of
natural, forced & damped vibration 6.4 Torsional and Longitudinal vibration. 6.5
Causes & remedies of vibration

Introduction
When elastic bodies such as a spring, a beam and a shaft are displaced from the equilibrium
position by the application of external forces, and then released, they execute
a vibratory motion.
Classify vibrations
1-Free or natural vibrations
 Longitudinal vibrations,
 Transverse vibrations
 Torsional vibrations.
2- Forced vibrations
3-Damped vibrations.
Natural Vibration
When no external force acts on the body, after giving it an initial displacement, then the body is
said to be under free or natural vibrations. The frequency of the free vibrations is called free
or natural frequency.
 Longitudinal vibrations. When the particles of the shaft or disc moves parallel to the
axis of the shaft, as shown in Fig (a), then the vibrations are known as longitudinal
vibrations.
In this case, the shaft is elongated and shortened alternately and thus the tensile and
compressive
stresses are induced alternately in the shaft. Purely longitudinal vibration occurs when all
particles of the
body move in only
one direction.

 2. Transverse vibrations. When the particles of the shaft or disc move

approximatelyperpendicular to the axis of the shaft, as shown in Fig. (b), then the

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 vibrations are known astransverse vibrations. In this case, the shaft is straight and
bent alternately and bending stresses are induced in the shaft.
 3. Torsional vibrations. When the particles of the shaft or disc move in a circle about
the axis of the shaft, as shown in Fig.(c), then the vibrations are known as torsional
vibrations. In this case, the shaft is twisted and untwisted alternately and the torsional
shear stresses are inducedin the shaft.
2- Forced vibrations.
When the body vibrates under the influence of external force, then the body is said to be
under forced vibrations. The external force applied to the body is a periodic disturbing force
created by unbalance. The vibrations have the same frequency as the applied force.
3-Damped vibrations.
When there is a reduction in amplitude over every cycle of vibration, the motion is said to be
damped vibration. This is due to the fact that a certain amount of energy possessed by the
vibrating system is always dissipated in overcoming frictional resistances to the motion.

Define with respect to vibration

Cycle:
Amplitude:
Time Period:
1. Period of vibration or time period. It is the time interval after which the motion is repeated
itself. The period of vibration is usually expressed in seconds.
2. Cycle. It is the motion completed during one time period.
3. Frequency. It is the number of cycles described in one second. In S.I. units, the frequency
is expressed in hertz (briefly written as Hz) which is equal to one cycle per second.
State the causes of Vibration
Unbalance: This is basically in reference to the rotating bodies. The uneven distribution
of mass in a rotating body contributes to the unbalance. A good example of unbalance
related vibration would be the ―vibrating alert‖ in our mobile phones. Here a small
amount of unbalanced weight is rotated by a motor causing the vibration which makes the
mobile phone to vibrate. You would have experienced the same sort of vibration
occurring in your front loaded washing machines that tend to vibrate during
the ―spinning‖ mode.
Misalignment: This is an other major cause of vibration particularly in machines that
are driven by motors or any other prime movers.
Bent Shaft: A rotating shaft that is bent also produces the the vibrating effect since it
losses it rotation capability about its center.
Gears in the machine: The gears in the machine always tend to produce vibration,
mainly due to their meshing. Though this may be controlled to some extent, any problem
in the gearbox tends to get enhanced with ease.
Bearings: Last but not the least, here is a major contributor for vibration. In majority of
the cases every initial problem starts in the bearings and propagates to the rest of the
members of the machine. A bearing devoid of lubrication tends to wear out fast and fails

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quickly, but before this is noticed it damages the remaining components in the machine
and an initial look would seem as if something had gone wrong with the other
components leading to the bearing failure.

Effects of vibration:
(a)Bad Effects: The presence of vibration in any mechanical system produces unwanted
noise, high stresses, poor reliability, wear and premature failure of parts. Vibrations are a
great source of human discomfort in the form of physical and mental strains.
(b)Good Effects: A vibration does useful work in musical instruments, vibrating screens,
shakers, relive pain in physiotherapy

Methods of reduction of vibration:

 -unbalance is its main cause, so balancing of parts is necessary.
 using shock absorbers.
 using dynamic vibration absorbers.
 providing the screens (if noise is to be reduced)

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 Module-2

Friction Clutches
A friction clutch has its principal application in the transmission of power of shafts and
machines which must be started and stopped frequently. Its application is also found in cases
in which power is to be delivered to machines partially or fully loaded. The force of friction is
used to start the driven shaft from rest and gradually brings it up to the proper speed without
excessive slipping of the friction surfaces. In automobiles, friction clutch is used to connect the
engine to the driven shaft. In operating such a clutch, care should be taken so that the friction
surfaces engage easily and gradually brings the driven shaft up to proper speed. The proper
alignment of the bearing must be maintained and it should be located as close to the clutch as
possible. It may be noted that
1. The contact surfaces should develop a frictional force that may pick up and hold the load
with reasonably low pressure between the contact surfaces.
2. The heat of friction should be rapidly dissipated and tendency to grab should be at a
minimum.
3. The surfaces should be backed by a material stiff enough to ensure a reasonably uniform
distribution of pressure.
The friction clutches of the following types are important from the subject point of view :
1. Disc or plate clutches (single disc or multiple disc clutch),
2. Cone clutches, and
3. Centrifugal clutches.

Single Disc or Plate Clutch

A single disc or plate clutch, as shown in Fig. 10.21, consists of a clutch plate whose both
sides are faced with a friction material (usually of Ferrodo). It is mounted on the hub which is
free to move axially along the splines of the driven shaft. The pressure plate is mounted inside
the clutch body which is bolted to the flywheel. Both the pressure plate and the flywheel rotate
with the engine crankshaft or the driving shaft. The pressure plate pushes the clutch plate
towards the flywheel by a set of strong springs which are arranged radially inside the body.
The three levers (also known as release levers or fingers) are carried on pivots suspended
from the case of the body. These are arranged in such a manner so that the pressure plate
moves away from the flywheel by the inward movement of a thrust bearing. The bearing is
mounted upon a forked shaft and moves forward when the clutch pedal is pressed.
When the clutch pedal is pressed down, its linkage forces the thrust release bearing to move in
towards the flywheel and pressing the longer ends of the levers inward. The levers are forced
to turn on their suspended pivot and the pressure plate moves away from the flywheel by the
knife edges, thereby compressing the clutch springs. This action removes the pressure from
the clutch plate and thus moves back from the flywheel and the driven shaft becomes
stationary. On the other hand, when the foot is taken off from the clutch pedal, the thrust

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bearing moves back by the levers. This allows the springs to extend and thus the pressure
plate pushes the clutch plate back towards the flywheel.

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Reference
Theory Of Machine By R S Khurmi
Theory Of Machine By R K Bansal

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