AUTOMATION OF INDOOR AGRICULTURE

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
in
Electronics and Communication Engineering
by

ASWINI TUMMALA (164N1A0422)

SIREESHA BODDUBOINA (164N1A0461)
HIMABINDHU CHINTA (164N1A0432)
VINEETHA EETHAMUKKALA (164N1A0465)
SIREESHA THODENDULA (164N1A0441)
Under the Guidance
of

Mr. GVS.BHARDWAJ M.Tech.

Asst. Professor

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

VISVODAYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,KAVALI
(Affiliated to JUNTA, Anantapuramu and Approved by AICTE)
KAVALI, SPSR Nellore (Dt.), Andhra Pradesh – 524201.

2020
 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
VISVODAYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KAVALI
(Affiliated to JUNTA, Anantapuramu and Approved by AICTE)
KAVALI, SPSR Nellore (DT.), Andhra Pradesh – 524201.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “AUTOMATION OF INDOOR

AGRICULTURE” being submitted by
ASWINI TUMMALA (164N1A0422)

SIREESHA BODDUBOINA (164N1A0461)

HIMABINDHU CHINTA (164N1A0432)

VINEETHA EETHAMUKKALA (164N1A0465)

SIREESHA THODENDULA (164N1A0441)

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor
of Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering, to the Jawaharlal
Nehru Technological University Anantapuramu, Anantapuramu is a record of bonafied
work carried out by them under my guidance and supervision.

Internal Guide Head of the Department

Mr. GVS.BHARDWAJ, Mr. V.NARAYANA REDDY,
Assistant Professor, Associate Professor,
Dept. of ECE, Dept. of ECE,
VEC,Kavali. VEC,Kavali.

External Viva Voce conducted on

External Examiner
ii
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the project entitled, “AUTOMATION OF INDOOR

AGRICULTURE” completed and written by us, has not been previously submitted
elsewhere for the award of any degree or diploma.

Place :

Date:

ASWINI TUMMALA (164N1A0422)

SIREESHA BODDUBOINA (164N1A0461)

HIMABINDHU CHINTA (164N1A0432)

VINEETHA EETHAMUKKALA (164N1A0465)
SIREESHA THODENDULA (164N1A0441)

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We consider it as our duty to express our gratitude to all those who have guided,
inspired and helped us in completion of this project work.

We acknowledge, with profound sense of gratitude, the guidance and support of our
guide Mr.GVS.Bhardwaj, Asst. Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, VEC, Kavali. His timely suggestions and co-operation, both professionally and
personally, have greatly contributed in bringing out the project successfully.
We express our heart-full thanks to Mr.V.Narayana Reddy, Assoc. Professor and
Head of the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, VEC, Kavali, for
his kind encouragement and for providing us with all required facilities for the completion of
the project work.
We also express our gratitude to the Principal Dr. T. Suresh Babu, Professor, for
providing necessary infrastructure and ambient atmosphere to complete our project work
We are indeed indebted to all my teachers who have guided us throughout our
B.Tech. course for the past four years and have imparted a sufficient knowledge and
inspiration to take us forward in our career.
Finally, we thank each and everyone who have helped us directly and indirectly in
completion of project work.
ASWINI TUMMALA (164N1A0422)
SIREESHA BODDUBOINA (164N1A0461)
HIMABINDHU CHINTA (164N1A0432)
VINEETHA EETHAMUKKALA (164N1A0465)
SIREESHA THODENDULA (164N1A0441)

i
 ABSTRACT
Agriculture is done in every country from ages. Agriculture is the science and art of
cultivating plants. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human
civilization. Agriculture is done manually from ages. As the world is trending into new
technologies and implementations it is a necessary goal to trend up with agriculture also.
IOT plays a very important role in smart agriculture. IOT sensors are capable of
providing information about agriculture fields. we have proposed an IOT and smart
agriculture system using automation. This IOT based Agriculture monitoring system
makes use of WIRED sensor. This smart agriculture using IOT system is powered by
Arduino, it consists of Thermistor sensor, Soil Moisture sensor, water pump, DC
motor, PIR sensor and RASPBERRY PI. If the temperature goes above the level, fan
starts. This all is also seen in IOT where it shows information of Humidity, Moisture and
water level with date and time, based on per minute. Temperature can be set on a
particular level& it is based on the type crops cultivated. If we want to close the water
forcefully on IOT there is button given from where water pump can be forcefully stopped.

Keywords: Internet of Things (IOT), Raspberry pi, Soil moisture sensor, Water pump, PIR
sensor

v
 CONTENTS

Chapter No. Topic Page No.

Certificates i
Declaration iii
Acknowledgements iv
Abstract v
Contents vi
List of Figures viii
List of Tables x
Abbreviations xi

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1

Introduction to Embedded Systems 1

Internet of Things 3

Chapter 2: EXISTING METHOD 8

Chapter 3: IOT BASED AUTOMATION INDOOR AGRICULTURE 9

Block Diagram 9
Schematic Diagram 10
Algorithm 10
Flow Chart 11
Chapter 4: HARDWARE MODULES 12
Arduino 12
Soil Moisture Sensor 17
Thermistor 17
PIR Sensor 24
LDR 25
Air Quality Sensor 27
Water Pump Motor 32
Raspberry Pi 32
Working of Raspberry Pi 33
Exhaust fan 33

v
 Motor Drives 34
Step Down Transformer 41
Server (Computing) 45
Regulated Power Supply 49
LED 49
Chapter 5: RESULTS 52
Project Diagrams 52
Project Output 53
Chapter 6: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 54
REFFERENCES 55

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No.
Fig.1.1 Name of the Figure Page No.

Fig.1.2 Overview of an Embedded System Architecture 2

Fig.1.3 Internet of Things 4

Wireless network 6
Fig.1.4
Example of device to cloud communication model 7
Fig.1.5
Example of device to gateway communication model 7
Fig.3.1
Block diagram of automatic irrigation system 9
Fig.3.2
Schematic Diagram 10
Fig 3.3
Flow chart 11
Fig.4.1
Arduino Uno 12
Fig.4.2
Soil Moisture Sensor 17
Fig.4.3
Thermistor Types 18
Fig.4.4
PTC thermistor 18
Fig.4.5
Temperature Vs Resistance characteristics 19
Fig.4.6
Current\Voltage characteristics 20
Fig.4.7
Current \Time characteristics 20
Fig.4.8
NTC Thermistor 21
Fig.4.9
Resistance-Temperature Characteristic 23
Fig.4.10
Current-Time Characteristics 23
Fig.4.11
Voltage-Current Characteristic 23
Fig.4.12
PIR Sensor 24
Fig.4.13
LDR Symbol 25
Fig.4.14
LDR Sensor 26
Fig.4.15
Air Quality Sensor 27
Fig.4.16
Water Pump Motor 32
Fig.4.17
Raspberry Pi 33
Fig.4.18
Exhaust fan 33
Fig.4.19
DC Motor Driver Circuit 34
Fig.4.20
Block Diagram of a Motor Driver 34
Fig.4.21
Transistor Based DC Motor Driver Circuit 36
Fig.4.22
Transistor Based H-Bridge Circuit 37
Fig.4.23
L293D 39
v
Fig:4.24 ULN2003 Pin Diagram 40
Fig:4.25 ULN2003 Logic Diagram 40
Fig:4.26 Step-Down Transformer 41
Fig:4.27 Principle of Transformer 41
Fig:4.28 Winding of Transformer 43
Fig:4.29 Server 46
Fig:4.30 Regulator 49

Fig:4.31 LED 50

Fig:4.32 Working Of Light Emitting Diode 50

Fig:5.1 Experimental Setup 52

Fig:5.2 Experimental Setup 52
Fig:5.3 Web Site For project 53

i
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Name of The Table Page No.

Table:4.1 Pin Configuration 28
Table:4.2 Alternative MQ Gas sensors 31
Table:4.3 Input Voltages for DC Motor Driver 37
Table:4.4 Motor Action for Different Inputs 38
Table:4.5 Motor Action for Different Inputs for L293D 39

x
 ABBREVIATIONS

IOT: Internet of Things

IDE: Integrated Development Environment
ICSP: In Circuit Serial Programming
USB: Universal Serial Bus
PTC: Positive Temperature Coefficient
NTC: Negative Temperature Coefficient
URL: Universal Resource Locator
PHP: Hyper Text Pre-Processor
PIR: Passive Infrared Resistor

x
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Introduction to Embedded Systems
Each day, our lives become more dependent on 'embedded systems', digital
information technology that is embedded in our environment. More than 98% of processors
applied today are in embedded systems and are no longer visible to the customer as
'computers' in the ordinary sense. An Embedded System is a special-purpose system in which
the computer is completely encapsulated by or dedicated to the device or system it controls.
Unlike a general- purpose computer, such as a personal computer, an embedded system
performs one or a few pre-defined tasks, usually with very specific requirements. Since the
system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it, reducing the size and
cost of the product. Embedded systems are often mass-produced, benefiting from economies
of scale. The increasing use of PC hardware is one of the most important developments in
high-end embedded systems in recent years. Hardware costs of high-end systems have
dropped dramatically as a result of this trend, making feasible some projects which previously
would not have been done because of the high cost of non-PC-based embedded hardware. But
software choices for the embedded PC platform are not nearly as attractive as the hardware.

Typically, an embedded system is housed on a single microprocessor board with the

programs stored in ROM. Virtually all appliances that have a digital interface -- watches,
microwaves, VCRs, cars -- utilize embedded systems. Some embedded systems include an
operating system, but many are so specialized that the entire logic can be implemented as a
single program.

Physically, Embedded Systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and
MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the
systems controlling nuclear power plants.

In terms of complexity embedded systems can range from very simple with a single
microcontroller chip, to very complex with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted
inside a large chassis or enclosure.

1
 Definition of An Embedded System

Embedded system is defined as, for a particular/specific application implementing

Software code to interact directly with that particular hardware what we built. Software is
used for providing features and flexibility, Hardware = {Processors, ASICs, Memory} is
used for Performance (& sometimessecurity)

An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system designed to perform one

or a few dedicated functions, often with real-time computing constraints. It is usually
embedded as part of a complete device including hardware and mechanical parts. In contrast,
a general- purpose computer, such as a personal computer, can do many different tasks
depending on programming.

An embedded system is a single-purpose computer built into a larger system for the
purposes of controlling and monitoring the system. A specialized computer system that is part
of a larger system or machine.

There are many definitions of embedded system but all of these can be combined into
a single concept. An embedded system is a special purpose computer system that is used for
particular task.

Overview Of An Embedded Architecture

Every Embedded system consists of a custom-built hardware built around a central

processing unit. This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the software isloaded.

Application software

Operating system

H/w

Fig: 1.1 Overview of an Embedded System Architecture

2
 The operating system runs above the hardware and the application software runs above
the operating system. The same architecture is applicable to any computer including desktop
computer. However these are significant differences. It is not compulsory to have an operating
system in every embedded system only for small applications such as remote control units, air
conditioners, toys etc.

The above figure shows the overview of an embedded architecture and it consists of a
hardware, an operating system and an application software so that we understand that the
operating system runs above the hardware and the application software runs above the
operating system. The above architecture is applicable to any computer including desktop
computers and super computers.

Internet of Things

Internet of things is defined as Things having identities and virtual personalities

operating in smart spaces using intelligent interfaces to connect and communicate within
social, environmental, and user contexts. It can be considered the Future of Internet, where
every object is connected to other objects. Every object is given a unique identity in the
network. This allows remote access of devices through the network, anytime and at any
location. IOT enabled objects communicate with each other, access information over the
Internet, and interact with users creating smart and at any location. IOT enabled objects
communicate with each other, access information over the Internet, and interact with users
creating smart, pervasive and always connected environments. IOT also enables machine to
machine (M2M) communication which allows machines being controlled by the Internet and
by other machines. This can revolutionize the way technology is used, as machine takes
control of machines overcoming his constraints that people face while communicating with
digital systems. Machines can monitor sensors all over the world to generate vast quantity of
valuable information that would take a human-years to achieve. IOT makes the concept of
pervasive computing and ubiquitous computing a reality by allowing objects of our everyday
life like cars, roadways, pacemakers, pill shaped cameras in our digestive tracks, billboards
that adjust to passersby, refrigerators and even cattle’s equipped with sensors to communicate
with humans and assisting them in every step.

3
 Fig: 1.2 Internet of Things

The Internet of Things (IOT) refers to the use of intelligently connected devices and
systems to leverage data gathered by embedded sensors and actuators in machines and other
physical objects. IOT is expected to spread rapidly over the coming years and this
convergence will unleash a new dimension of services that improve the quality of life of
consumers and productivity of enterprises, unlocking an opportunity that the GSMA refers to
as the ‘Connected Life’. For consumers, the IOT has the potential to deliver solutions that
dramatically improve energy efficiency, security, health, education and many other aspects of
daily life. For enterprises, IOT can underpin solutions that improve decision-making and
productivity in manufacturing, retail, agriculture and other sectors. Machine to Machine
(M2M) solutions - a subset of the IOT – already use wireless networks to connect devices to
each other and the Internet, with minimal direct human intervention, to deliver services that
meet the needs of a wide range of industries. In 2013, M2M connections accounted for 2.8%
of global mobile connections, indicating that the sector is still at a relatively early stage in its
development. An evolution of M2M, the IOT represents the coordination of multiple vendors’
machines, devices and appliances connected to the Internet through multiple networks. While
the potential impact of the IOT is considerable, a concerted effort is required to move beyond
this early stage. In order to optimize the development of the market, a common understanding
of the distinct nature of the opportunity is required. To date, mobile operators have identified
the following key distinctive features:

1. The Internet of Things can enable the next wave of life-enhancing services across several
fundamental sectors of the economy.

2. Meeting the needs of customers may require global distribution models and consistent
global services.

4
3. The Internet of Things presents an opportunity for new commercial models to support
mass global deployments.

4. The majority ofrevenue will arise from the provision of value-added services and mobile
operators are building new capabilities to enable these new service areas.

5. Device and application behavior will place new and varying demands on mobile.

Internet Of Things Communications Model

From an operational perspective, it is useful to think about how IOT devices connect
and communicate in terms of their technical communication models. In March 2015, the
Internet Architecture Board (IAB) released a guiding architectural document for networking
of smart objects (RFC 7452), 39 which outlines a framework of four common communication
models used by IOT devices. The discussion below presents this framework and explains key
characteristics of each model in the framework.
Device To Device Communication
The device-to-device communication model represents two or more devices that
directly connect and communicate between one another, rather than through an intermediary
application server. These devices communicate over many types of networks, including IP
networks or the Internet. Often, however these devices use protocols like Bluetooth, Z-Wave,
or ZigBee to establish direct device-to-device communications.

These device-to-device networks allow devices that adhere to a particular

communication protocol to communicate and exchange messages to achieve their function.
This communication model is commonly used in applications like home automation systems,
which typically use small data packets of information to communicate between devices with
relatively low data rate requirements. Residential IOT devices like light bulbs, light switches,
thermostats, and door locks normally send small amounts of information to each other in a
home automation scenario.

This device-to-device communication approach illustrates many of the interoperability

challenges discussed later in this paper. As an IETF Journal article describes, “these devices
often have a direct relationship, they usually have built-in security and trust [mechanisms], but
they also use device-specific data models that require redundant development efforts.

5
 Fig: 1.3 Wireless network

Device- To- Cloud Communication

In a device-to-cloud communication model, the IOT device connects directly to an

Internet cloud service like an application service provider to exchange data and control
message traffic. This approach frequently takes advantage of existing communications
mechanisms like traditional wired Ethernet or Wi-Fi connections to establish a connection
between the device and the IP network, which ultimately connects to the cloud service.

This communication model is employed by some popular consumer IOT devices like the
Nest Labs Learning Thermostat and the Samsung Smart TV. In the case of the Nest Learning
Thermostat, the device transmits data to a cloud database where the data can be used to
analyze home energy consumption. Further, this cloud connection enables the user to obtain
remote access to their thermostat via a Smartphone or Web interface, and it also supports
software updates to the thermostat. Similarly with the Samsung Smart TV technology, the
television uses an Internet connection to transmit user viewing information to Samsung for
analysis and to enable the interactive voice recognition features of the TV. In these cases, the
device to-cloud model adds value to the end user by extending the capabilities of the device
beyond its native features.

However, interoperability challenges can arise when attempting to integrate devices

made by different manufacturers. Frequently, the device and cloud service are from the same
vendor. If proprietary data protocols are used between the device and the cloud service, the
device owner or user may be tied to a specific cloud service, limiting or preventing the use
of alternative service providers.

6
 This is commonly referred to as “vendor lock-in’’, a term that encompasses other
facets of the relationship with the provider such as ownership of and access to the data.

Fig:1.4 Example of device to cloud communication model

Device-To-Gateway Model

In the device-to-gateway model, or more typically, the device-to-application-layer

gateway (ALG) model, the IOT device connects through an ALG service as a conduit to reach
a cloud service. In simpler terms, this means that there is application software operating on a
local gateway device, which acts as an intermediary between the device and the cloud service
and provides security and other functionality such as data or protocol translation.

Several forms of this model are found in consumer devices. In many cases, the local
gateway device is a Smartphone running an app to communicate with a device and relay data
to a cloud service. This is often the model employed with popular consumer items like
personal fitness trackers. These devices do not have the native ability to connect directly to a
cloud service, so they frequently rely on Smartphone app software to serve as an intermediary
gateway to connect the fitness device to the cloud.

Fig:1.5 Example of device to gateway communication model

7
 CHAPTER 2

EXISTING METHOD
In present days, in the field of agriculture farmers are facing major problems in
watering their crops. It’s because they don’t have proper idea about the availability of the
power. Even if it is available, they need to pump water and wait until the field is properly
watered, which compels them to stop doing other activities – which are also important for
them, and thus they loss their precious time and efforts. In the initial times farmers have to
wake up even in the middle of the nights to water the plants in the fields. Due to improper
inspection of farmers. Sometimes the fields will be over watered and sometimes they will be
under watered.
This causes more water then necessary to be used or for there not to be enough water
to ensure healthy crops. Overwatering causes the roots to be inundated with water for long
periods, preventing them from absorbing the oxygen needed for healthy growth and normal
cellular function. If a plant is overwatered, the roots will eventually begin to die. Plants
damaged in this way also become more susceptible to other problems, including fungal
growth. Farmers are unable to manage their crop cycles due to unavailability of water, both
surface and groundwater.

In this, soil moisture sensor, temperature sensors are placed in root of plant and
microcontroller handles the sensor information and transmits data. One algorithm was
developed to measure threshold values of temperature sensor and soil moisture sensor that
was programmed into a microcontroller to control water quantity.

A model of automatic indoor agriculture system which is based on microcontroller.

Various sensor are placed in paddy field. Sensors sense water level continuously and give the
information to farmer through cellular phone. Farmer controls the motor using cellular phone
without going in paddy field. If the water level reaches at danger level, automatically motor
will be off without conformation of farmer.

8
 CHAPTER 3
IOT BASED AUTOMATION INDOOR AGRICULTURE
The main aim of this method is to control the water management and growing plants
itself and get information by through SMS, but moisture level and temperature levels are
observed in the web page using IOT. This method does not require any manual operators. It is
designed to manage the irrigation system based on the response to the real time status of the
soil moisture. This system controls valves by using automated controller allows the farmer to
apply the right amount of water at the right time. Due to the variable atmospheric conditions
some may vary from place to place in large house, which makes very difficult to maintain the
uniformity at all the places in the farmhouse manually. For this GSM is used, it sends the
report through the android mobile. So it reduce runoff from over watering saturated soil,
avoid irrigating at the wrong time .it also helps in time and energy saving, removal of human
error in adjusting available soil moisture levels and to maximize their net profits. Use of this
technology in the field of agriculture plays important role in increasing the production as well
as in reducing the extra man power efforts.
Block Diagram

Soil moisture sensor

Thermistor Arduino board

Water pump & Motor device

PIR sensor
Air quality sensor
LDR RASPBERY PI

Fig: 3.1 Block diagram of IOT based Automatic Indoor Agriculture

This project uses a microcontroller which is programmed to receive the input signal of
varying moisture condition of the soil through the sensing arrangement. Once the controller
receives this signal, it generates an output that drives a relay for operating the water pump. An
LCD display is also interfaced to the microcontroller to display status of the soil and water
pump. The sensing arrangement is made by using two stiff metallic rods inserted into the field
at a distance. Connections from the metallic rods are interfaced to the control unit.

9
 Schematic Diagram

Fig: 3.2 Schematic Diagram

The schematic diagram consists of Soil moisture sensor, Water pump, Thermistor,
Exhausted fan, LDR Sensor, LED, PIR Sensor and Air pollution sensor. All these components
were interfaced with the Arduino board. the input to the thermistor is temperature and the
output of the thermistor is analog output .so it is connected to A0 pin in the Arduino board.
The input to the moisture sensor is moisture content and the output is analog output .so it is
connected to A3 pin in the Arduino board. The input to the LDR sensor is light intensity and
the output is analog output .so it is connected to the A1 pin in the Arduino board. The ground
pins aregiven to ground pins in the Arduino board and the power supply pins are given to
VCC in the Arduino board.
Algorithm
Step1: Start the Connection between Arduino board with Sensors & the Server.
Step2: Read all Sensors values and print serially & sent into Server.
Step3: Set a threshold value if the thermistor sensor reading exceed the threshold value then
turn the fan on; else turn the fan off.
Step4: Set a threshold value if the LDR reading exceed the threshold value then LED output
depends on LDR decreasing using PWM; else Led output displays a normal value.
Step5: Display the status of the motor and the moisture sensor readings in the webserver.
Step6: Continue upload these readings in the Web Server.

1
Flow Chart
Start

Read the values of Thermistor, PIR sensor, LDR,

Soil moisture sensor, Air quality sensor.

Print all the values in the serial port & send it to server.

Thermistor > 30

T
Fan ON

LDR < 200

T
LED OFF
LED
decreasing using pwm

Soil moisture
<0

T
Motor ON

Stop

Fig:3.3 Flow chart

1
 CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE MODULES

Arduino
Arduino is an open source physical computing platform based on simple input/output
board and a development environment that implements the Processing language. Arduino can
be used to develop standalone interactive objects or can be connected to software on your
computer. The boards can be assembled by hand or purchased preassembled; the open source
IDE can be downloaded for free from www.arduino.cc.

Introduction to Arduino Boards

Arduino is an architecture that combines Atmel microcontroller family with standard
hardware into a board with inbuilt bootloader for plug and play embedded programming.
Arduino Software comes with an IDE that helps writing, debugging and burning program into
Arduino. The IDE also comes with a Serial Communication window through which can easily
get the serial data from the board.

Arduino Uno

Fig: 4.1 Arduino Uno

The Arduino-Uno is an open-source microcontroller board based on the

Microchip ATmega328P microcontroller and developed by Arduino.cc. The board is equipped
with sets of digital and Analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to various
expansion boards (shields) and other circuits. The board has 14 digital I/O pins (six capable of
PWM output), 6 Analog I/O pins, and is programmable with the Arduino IDE (Integrated
Development Environment), via a type B USB cable. It can be powered by the USB cable or
by an external 9-volt battery, though it accepts voltages between 7 and 20 volts.

1
 It is also similar to the Arduino Nano and Leonardo. The hardware reference design is
distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and is available on
the Arduino website. Layout and production files for some versions of the hardware are also
available.

The word "uno" means "one" in Italian and was chosen to mark the initial release of
Arduino Software. The Uno board is the first in a series of USB-based Arduino boards; it and
version 1.0 of the Arduino IDE were the reference versions of Arduino, which have now
evolved to newer releases. The ATmega328 on the board comes pre-programmed with a
bootloader that allows uploading new code to it without the use of an external hardware
programmer.

While the Uno communicates using the original STK500 protocol, it differs from all
preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it uses
the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.

Fig:4.1.1 An Early Production Board

The Arduino project started at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea (IDII) in Ivrea,
Italy. At that time, the students used a BASIC Stamp microcontroller, at a cost that was
a considerable expense for many students. In 2003, Hernando Barragán created the
development platform Wiring as a Master's thesis project at IDII, under the supervision of
Massimo Banzi and Casey Reas, who are known for work on the Processing language. The
project goal was to create simple, low-cost tools for creating digital projects by non-engineers.
The Wiring platform consisted of a printed circuit board (PCB) with an ATmega168
microcontroller, an IDE based on Processing, and library functions to easily program the
microcontroller. In 2003, Massimo Banzi, with David Mellis, another IDII student, and David
Cuartielles, added support for the cheaper ATmega8 microcontroller to Wiring. But instead of
continuing the work on Wiring, they forked the project and renamed it Arduino.
Early Arduino boards used the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip and an ATmega168. The Uno

1
differed from all preceding boards by featuring the ATmega328P microcontroller and an
ATmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.

Technical specifications

 Microcontroller: Microchip ATmega328P

 Operating Voltage: 5 Volts
 Input Voltage: 7 to 20 Volts
 Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 can provide PWM output)
 Analog Input Pins: 6
 DC Current per I/O Pin: 20 mA
 DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
 Flash Memory: 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader
 SRAM: 2 KB
 EEPROM: 1 KB
 Clock Speed: 16 MHz
 Length: 68.6 mm
 Width: 53.4 mm
 Weight: 25 g

General pin functions

 LED: There is a built-in LED driven by digital pin 13. When the pin is high value, the
LED is on, when the pin is low, it is off.
 VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino/Genuino board when it is using an external power
source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source).
You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack,
access it through this pin.
 5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be
supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 20V), the USB connector (5V), or
the VIN pin of the board (7-20V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the
regulator, and can damage the board.
 3V3: A 3.3volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50
mA.
 GND: Ground pins.

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 IOREF: This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with which the
microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin voltage
and select the appropriate power source, or enable voltage translators on the outputs to
work with the 5V or 3.3V.
 RESET: Typically used to add a reset button to shields that block the one on the board.

Special pin functions

Each of the 14 digital pins and 6 Analog pins on the Uno can be used as an input or
output, under software control (using pin Mode (), digital-Write (), and digital Read ()
functions). They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive 20 mA as the
recommended operating condition and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by
default) of 20-50K ohm. A maximum of 40mA must not be exceeded on any I/O pin to avoid
permanent damage to the microcontroller. The Uno has 6 Analog inputs, label A0 through A5;
each provides 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default, they measure from
ground to 5 volts, though it is possible to change the upper end of the range using the AREF
pin and the Analog Reference () function.

In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

 Serial / UART: pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL
serial data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-
to-TTL serial chip.
 External interrupts: pins 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on
a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
 PWM (pulse-width modulation): pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Can provide 8-bit PWM
output with the Analog-Write() function.
 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface): pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), and 13 (SCK).
These pins support SPI communication using the SPI library.
 TWI (two-wire interface) / I²C: pin SDA (A4) and pin SCL (A5). Support TWI
communication using the Wire library.
 AREF (analog reference): Reference voltage for the analog inputs.

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 Communication

The Arduino/Genuino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a

computer, another Arduino/Genuino board, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328
provides UART TTL (5V) serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX)
and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the board channels this serial communication over USB and
appears as a virtual com port to software on the computer. The 16U2 firmware uses the
standard USB COM drivers, and no external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf
file is required. Arduino Software (IDE) includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual
data to be sent to and from the board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data
is being transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not
for serial communication on pins 0 and 1). A Software Serial library allows serial
communication on any of the Uno's digital pins.

Automatic (software) Reset

Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the
Arduino/Genuino Uno board is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software
running on a connected computer. One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the
ATmega8U2/16U2 is connected to the reset line of the ATmega328 via a 100 nanofarad
capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long enough to reset the
chip.

This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to a computer running
Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from software (via USB).
For the following half-second or so, the bootloader is running on the Uno. While it is
programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new code), it will
intercept the first few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is opened.

However, on Windows, a .inf file is required. Arduino Software (IDE) includes aserial
monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the board. The RX and TX
LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and
USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0 and 1). A
Software Serial library allows serial communication on any of the Uno's digital pins.

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 Soil Moisture Sensor
This moisture sensor can read the amount of moisture present in the soil surrounding
it. It's a low-tech sensor, but ideal for monitoring an urban garden, or your pet plant's water
level. This is a must have tool for a connected garden. This sensor uses the two probes to
pass current through the soil, and then it reads that resistance to get the moisture level. More
water makes the soil conduct electricity more easily, while dry soil conducts electricity poor.
This will be helpful to remind you to water your indoor plants or to monitor the soil moisture
in your garden.

Fig:4.2 Soil Moisture Sensor

A Chinese built YL-69 sensors (Figure 4.6) come with a ‘middle-man’ circuit which
allows to get two outputs: one is an analog readout ofthe resistance between the sensor’s
probes and the second is a digital output (essentially, HIGH or LOW, 5v or 0v) depending on
whether the humidity is above or below a threshold which can in turn be adjusted by a built-
in POTS. The YL-69 sensor has two pins which need to be wired to be the two pins on the
YL-38 Bridge. On the other end of the YL-38 have four pins which represent VCC, GND,
D0 and A0. VCC and GND are power pins which should set to 3.3/5V and ground
respectively. A0 is an analog output. D0 is a digital output.
Thermistor
A thermistor is a temperature sensing element composed of sintered semiconductor
material that exhibits a large change in resistance in proportion to a small change in
temperature.
A thermistor can operate over a wide temperature range and give temperature value by
its resistance change, which is formed by two words: Thermal and resistor.
The Positive temperature coefficients (PTC) and the negative temperature coefficient
(NTC) are the two major thermistor types that are used for temperature sensing applications.

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 Fig:4.3 Thermistor Types
Thermistors are easy to use, inexpensive, and sturdy and respond predictably to a
change in temperature. Thermistors are mostly used in digital thermometers and household
appliances, such as ovens and refrigerators, and so on. Stability, sensitivity and time constant
are the general properties of thermistor that make these thermistors durable, portable, cost-
effective, highly sensitive and best for measuring single-point temperature.
Thermistors are of two types:
1. Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor
2. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor
PTC Thermistor

PTC thermistors are resistors with a positive temperature coefficient, in which the
resistance increases in proportion with the temperature. These thermistors are differentiated
into two groups based on their structure and the manufacturing process. The first group of
thermistor comprises selectors that make use of silicon as a semi-conductor material. These
thermistors can be used as PTC temperature sensors due to their linear characteristics.

Fig: 4.4 PTC thermistor

Switching type thermistor is the second group of PTC thermistor that is used in
heaters, and also the polymer thermistors come under this group which are made up of plastic
and are often used as resettable fuses.

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 Types of PTC Thermistor
PTC thermistors are classified based on the temperature level they measure. These
types depend on the following.
 Elements: These are of disk, plate and cylinder types of thermistors.
 Lead, Dip type: These thermistors are of two kinds, viz. painted and non-painted. These
have high temperature coatings for mechanical protection, environmental stability and
electrical insulation.
 Case type: These can be plastic or ceramic cases that are used based on the application
requirement.
 Assembly type: This is unit product due to its construction and shapes.

Typical Characteristics of PTC Thermistor

The following characteristics of thermistors show the relationship between the various
parameters like temperature, resistance, current, voltage and time.
i. Temperature Vs Resistance
In the below figure, we can observe how fast the resistance varies with temperature,
i.e., an abrupt rise in resistance with little changes in temperature. PTC exhibits a slight
negative temperature coefficient over the normal temperature rise, but at higher temperatures
and Curie point, there is a sharp resistance change.

Fig: 4.5 Temperature Vs Resistance characteristics

ii. Current vs Voltage Characteristics

This characteristic shows relationship between voltage and current in a thermal
equilibrium state, as shown in the figure. When the voltage increases from zero, the current
and temperature also rise until the thermistor reaches a switch point. Further increasing the
voltage leads to decrease in the current over an area of constant power.

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 Fig: 4.6 Current\Voltage characteristics
iii. Current Vs Time Characteristics
This tells the reliability required for solid state switches in heating and protection
against the high-current applications. When more than given voltage is applied to a PTC
thermistor, large amount of current flows in the instant of voltage application due to low
resistance.

Fig: 4.7 Current \Time characteristics

Applications of PTC Thermistor

1. Time delay: Time delay in a circuit provides the time needed for a PTC thermistor for
sufficient heating to switch from a low-resistance state to a high-resistance state. Time delay
is dependent upon the size, temperature and the voltage to which it is connected as well as to
the circuit employed in. These applications include delayed switching relays, timers, electric
fans, etc.

2. Motor starting: Some electrical motors have a start-up winding that needs to be powered
only when the motor starts up. When the circuit is turned on, the PTC thermistor has less
amount of resistance, allowing current to pass through the start-up winding. As the motor
starts, the Positive Temperature Coefficient thermistor heats up, and – at one point, switches
to a high- resistance state, and then it terminates that winding from the mains power. The time
needed for this to occur is based on the required motor start up.

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3. Self-regulating heaters
If there is a current passing through a switching Positive Temperature Coefficient
thermistor, then it will stabilize at a certain temperature. It means that if the temperature
decreases, in proportion to the resistance, allowing more current to flow, then the device gets
heated. If the temperature increases to a level that limits the current passing through the
device, the device gets cooled.
PTC thermistors are used as timers in the degaussing coil circuit of CRT displays. A
degaussing circuit using PTC thermistor is simple reliable and inexpensive.
NTC Thermistor
A thermistor with a negative temperature coefficient means that the resistance
decreases with a rise in temperature. These thermistors are made from a cast chip of
semiconductor material such as a sintered metal oxide.

Fig:4.8 NTC Thermistor

Most commonly used oxides for these thermistors are manganese, nickel, cobalt, iron,
copper and titanium. These thermistors are classified into two groups depending upon the
method by which the electrodes are attached to the ceramic body. They are:
1. Bead type thermistors
Bead type thermistors are made of platinum alloy, and lead wires that are directly
sintered into the ceramic body. Bead-type thermistors offer high stability, reliability; fast
response times and operates at high temperatures. These thermistors are available in small
sizes and exhibits comparatively low dissipation constants. These thermistors are normally
achieved by connecting them in series or parallel circuits. Bead type thermistors include the
following types:

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  Bare Beads
 Glass Coated Beads
 Ruggedized Beads
 Miniature Glass Beads
 Glass Probes
 Glass Rods
 Bead in Glass Enclosures
2. Metalized surface contacts
The second group of thermistors has metalized surface contacts that are made available
with the radial or axial leads as well as without the leads for mounting – by means of spring
contacts. A variety of coatings are available for these thermistors.
The metalized surface contact can be applied by painting, spraying ordipping as required
and the contact is fixed into a ceramic body. These thermistors include the following types:
 Disks
 Chips
 Surface mounts
 Flakes
 Rods
 Washers
Typical Characteristics of NTC Thermistor
There are three electrical characteristics that are taken into account for all the
applications in which NTC thermistors are used.
 Resistance-Temperature characteristic
 Current-Time characteristic
 Voltage-Current characteristic
1. Resistance-Temperature Characteristics
NTC thermistor exhibits the negative temperature characteristics when the resistance
increases with the slight decrease in temperature, as shown in the figure.

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 Fig: 4.9 Resistance-Temperature Characteristic
2. Current-Time Characteristics
The rate change of current is low due to the high resistance of the thermistor. Finally,
as the device approaches an equilibrium condition, the rate of the current change willdecrease
as it reaches the final value of time which is shown below, in the figure.

Fig: 4.10 Current-Time Characteristics

3. Voltage-Current Characteristic
Once a self-heated thermistor reaches to an equilibrium condition, the rate of heat loss
from the device is equal to the power supplied. In the below figure, we can observe these two
parameters’ relationship wherein, we can observe a decrease in voltage at 0.01 MA current
and again the voltage increases at a peak current of 1.0 MA, and then decrease at the current
value of 100 MA.

Fig:4.11 Voltage-Current Characteristic

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 Applications of NTC Thermistor

1. Surge Protection: When a NTC thermistor is turned on, it absorbs the surge current across
the equipment and protects it by changing its resistance.
2. Temperature Control and Alarm: NTC thermistor can be used as a temperature control
system or temperature alarm system. When the temperature increases, and the resistance of
the thermistor decreases – the current becomes high and gives alarm or switches the heating
system on. These are the two major thermistor types used for different temperature sensing
applications. Hope that the thermistor characteristics and applications, in addition to the types,
might have given you a better & wholesome understanding of the topic or electrical and
electronic projects.
PIR Sensor
A passive infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic sensor that measures
infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view. They are most often used in PIR-
based motion detectors. PIR sensors are commonly used in security alarms and automatic
lighting applications.

Fig:4.12 PIR sensor

PIR sensors detect general movement, but do not give information on who or what
moved. For that purpose, an active sensors is required.

PIR sensors are commonly called simply "PIR", or sometimes "PID", for "passive
infrared detector". The term passive refers to the fact that PIR devices do not radiate energy
for detection purposes. They work entirely by detecting infrared radiation (radiant heat)
emitted by or reflected from objects.

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 LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or a photo resistor is a device whose resistivity is a
function of the incident electromagnetic radiation. Hence, they are light sensitive devices.
They are also called as photo conductors, photo conductive cells or simply photocells. They
are made up of semiconductor materials having high resistance. There are many different
symbols used to indicate LDR, one of the most commonly used & is shown in the figure
below. The arrow indicates light falling on it.

Fig:4.13 LDR symbol

An LDR (Light dependent resistor), as its name suggests, offers resistance in response
to the ambient light. The resistance decreases as the intensity of incident light increases, and
vice versa. In the absence of light, LDR exhibits a resistance of the order of mega-ohms
which decreases to few hundred ohms in the presence of light. It can act as a sensor, since a
varying voltage drop can be obtained in accordance with the varying light. It is made up of
cadmium sulphide (CdS). An LDR has a zigzag cadmium sulphide track. It is a bilateral
device, i.e., conducts in both directions in same fashion.

Working Principal of LDR

A light dependent resistor works on the principle of photo conductivity. Photo
conductivity is an optical phenomenon in which the materials conductivity is increased when
light is absorbed by the material. When light falls i.e. when the photons fall on the device, the
electrons in the valence band of the semiconductor material are excited to the conduction
band. These photons in the incident light should have energy greater than the band gap of the
semiconductor material to make the electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction
band. Hence when light having enough energy strikes on the device, more and more electrons
are excited to the conduction band which results in large number of charge carriers. The result
of this process is more and more current starts flowing through the device when the circuit is
closed and hence it is said that the resistance of the device has been decreased.

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 Types of Light Dependent Resistors
Based on the materials used they are classified as:
Intrinsic photo resistors (Un doped semiconductor): These are made of pure
semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium. Electrons get excited from valance
band to conduction band when photons of enough energy fall on it and number charge
carriers is increased. Extrinsic photo resistors: These are semiconductor materials doped
with impurities which are called as dopants. Theses dopants create new energy bands above
the valence band which are filled with electrons. Hence this reduces the band gap and less
energy is required in exciting them. Extrinsic photo resistors are generally used for long
wavelengths.

Fig: 4.14 LDR Sensor

Applications of LDR

LDR’s have low cost and simple structure. They are often used as light sensors. They
are used when there is a need to detect absences or presences of light like in a camera light
meter. Used in street lamps, alarm clock, burglar alarm circuits, light intensity meters, for
counting the packages moving on a conveyor belt, etc.
The dominant of street lights, outside lights, a number of indoor home appliances,
and so on are typically operated and maintained manually on many occasions. This is not
only risky, however additionally leads to wastage of power with the negligence of
personnel or uncommon circumstances in controlling these electrical appliances ON and
OFF. Hence, we can utilize the light sensor circuit for automatic switch OFF the loads
based on daylight’s intensity by employing a light sensor. This article discusses in brief
about what is a light dependent resistor, how to make a light dependent resistor circuit and
its applications.

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 Air Quality Sensor
MQ135 Gas Sensor module for Air Quality having Digital as well as Analog output.
Sensitive material of MQ135 gas sensor is SnO2, which with lower conductivity in clean
air. When the target combustible gas exist. Sensor conductivity is more-high along with the
gas concentration rising. MQ135 gas sensor has high sensitivity to Ammonia, Sulphide and
also sensitive to smoke and other harmful gases like CO (Carbon Mono Oxide) etc. It is
with low cost and suitable for different application.

Fig: 4.15 Air Quality Sensor

Used for family, surrounding-environment noxious gas detection device, Apply to
ammonia, aromatics, sulphur, benzene vapor, and other harmful gases/smoke, gas detection,
tested concentration range: 10 to 1000 ppm.
Specifications of MQ135 Gas Sensor Module

 Wide detecting scope

 Fast response and High sensitivity
 Stable and long life
 Operating Voltage is +5V
 Detect/Measure NH3, NOx, alcohol, Benzene, smoke, Carbon Mono-Oxide, etc.
 Analog output voltage: 0V to 5V
 Digital output voltage: 0V or 5V (TTL Logic)
 Preheat duration 20 seconds
 Can be used as a Digital or analog sensor
 The Sensitivity of Digital pin can be varied using the potentiometer

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Pin Configuration
Table:4.1 Pin Configuration

Pin No: Pin Name: Description

For Module

1 Vcc Used to power the sensor, Generally the operating voltage is +5V.

2 Ground Used to connect the module to system ground.

3 Digital You can also use this sensor to get digital output from this pin, by setting
Out a threshold value using the potentiometer.

4 Analog This pin outputs 0-5V analog voltage based on the intensity of the gas.
Out

For Sensor

1 H -Pins Out of the two H pins, one pin is connected to supply and the other to
ground

2 A-Pins The A pins and B pins are interchangeable. These pins will be tied to the
Supply voltage.

3 B-Pins A pins and B pins are interchangeable. One pin will act as output while
the other will be pulled to ground.

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 Selecting between Sensor and Module

When it comes to measuring or detecting a particular Gas the MQ series Gas sensors
are the most inexpensive and commonly used ones. MQ135 is available as a module or as just
the sensor alone. If you are trying to only detect (not measuring PPM) the presence of a gas
then you can buy it as a module since it comes with an op-amp comparator and a digital
output pin. But if you planning to measure the PPM of a gas it is recommend buying the
sensor alone without module.

The MQ-135 Gas sensors are used in air quality control equipment’s and are suitable
for detecting or measuring of NH3, NOx, Alcohol, Benzene, Smoke, CO2. The MQ-135
sensor module comes with a Digital Pin which makes this sensor to operate even without a
microcontroller and that comes in handy when you are only trying to detect one particular gas.
If you need to measure the gases in PPM the Analog pin need to be used. The Analog pin is
TTL driven and works on 5V and so can be used with most common microcontrollers.

If you are looking for a sensor to detect or measure common air quality gases such as
CO2, Smoke, NH3, NOx, Alcohol, Benzene then this sensor might be the right choice for
you.

How to use MQ-135 Sensors to detect gases

You can either use the digital pin or the Analog pin to do this. Simply power the
module with 5V and you should notice the power LED on the module to glow and when no
gas it detected the output LED will remain turned off meaning the digital output pin will be
0V. Remember that these sensors have to be kept on for pre-heating time (mentioned in
features above) before you can actually work with it. Now, introduce the sensor to the gas you
want to detect and you should see the output LED to go high along with the digital pin, if not
use the potentiometer until the output gets high. Now every time your sensor gets introduced
to this gas at this particular concentration the digital pin will go high (5V) else will remain
low(0V).

You can also use the Analog pin to achieve the same thing. Read the Analog values
(0- 5V) using a microcontroller, this value will be directly proportional to the concentration of
the gas to which the sensor detects. You can experiment with this value and check how the
sensor reacts to different concentration of gas and develop your program accordingly.

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 How to use MQ-135 sensor to measure PPM

MQ-135 gas sensor applies SnO2 which has a higher resistance in the clear air as a
gas- sensing material. When there is an increase in polluting gases, the resistance of the gas
sensor decreases along with that. To measure PPM using MQ-135 sensor we need to look into
the (Rs/Ro) v/s PPM graph taken from the MQ135 datasheet.

Fig: 4.15.1 Typical sensitivity characteristics of the MQ-135 for several gases

The above figure shows the typical sensitivity characteristics of the MQ-135 for
several gases. in their: Temp: 20, Humidity: 65%, O2 concentration 21%, RL=20kΩ,

Ro: Sensor resistance at 100ppm of NH3 in the clean air.

Rs: Sensor resistance at various concentrations of gases.

The value of Ro is the value of resistance in fresh air (or the air with we are
comparing) and the value of Rs is the value of resistance in Gas concentration. First you
should calibrate the sensor by finding the values of Ro in fresh air and then use that value to
find Rs using the below formula:
Resistance of Sensor(RS):RS=(VC/VRL-1)*RL (4.1)

Once we calculate Rs and Ro we can find the ratio and then using the graph shown
above we can calculate the equivalent value of PPM for that particular gas.

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 Table:4.2 Alternative MQ Gas sensors

Sensor Name Gas to measure

MQ-2 Methane, Butane, LPG, Smoke

MQ-3 Alcohol, Ethanol, Smoke

MQ-4 Methane, CNG Gas

MQ-5 Natural gas, LPG

MQ-6 LPG, butane

MQ-7 Carbon Monoxide

MQ-8 Hydrogen Gas

MQ-9 Carbon Monoxide, flammable gasses

MQ131 Ozone

MQ135 Air Quality

MQ136 Hydrogen Sulphide gas

MQ137 Ammonia

MQ138 Benzene, Toluene, Alcohol, Propane, Formaldehyde gas, Hydrogen

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 MQ214 Methane, Natural Gas

MQ216 Natural gas, Coal Gas

MQ303A Alcohol, Ethanol, smoke

MQ306A LPG, butane

Water Pump Motor

This is a low cost, small size Submersible Pump Motor which can be operated from a
3 ~ 6V power supply.

Fig:4.16 Water Pump Motor

Specifications
1. Operating Current: 130 ~ 220mA
2. Maximum Lift: 40 ~ 110 mm
3. Continuous Working Life: 500 hours
Raspberry Pi
The Raspberry Pi is a low cost, credit-card sized computer that plugs into a computer
monitor or TV, and uses a standard keyboard and mouse. It is a capable little device that
enables people of all ages to explore computing, and to learn how to program in languages
like Scratch and Python.

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 Fig:4.17 Raspberry Pi

Working Of Raspberry Pi
An SD card inserted into the slot on the board acts as the hard drive for the Raspberry
Pi. It is powered by USB and the video output can be hooked up to a traditional RCA TV set,
a more modern monitor, or even a TV using the HDMI port. This gives you all of the basic
abilities of a normal computer. It also has an extremely low power consumption of about 3
watts. To put this power consumption in perspective, you could run over 30 Raspberry Pi’s in
place of a standard light bulb.
Exhaust Fan

Fig:4.18 Exhaust fan

Exhaust fans pull odors, fumes, and moisture from an area of the home, venting them
outdoors for removal. The fan uses a motor to turn its blades, which function to pull air out of
the space. The stale, humid, or contaminated air is propelled through the exhaust vent, exiting
the home.

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 Motor Driver

Fig 4.19 DC Motor Driver Circuit

Motor Drives

Motor drives are circuits used to run a motor. In other words, they are commonly used
for motor interfacing. These drive circuits can be easily interfaced with the motor and their
selection depends upon the type of motor being used and their ratings (current, voltage).

Fig:4.20 Block Diagram of a Motor Driver

For DC Motors
The major motor drive components for DC motors are: a controller, a motor driver IC or
a motor driver circuit, the desired DC motor being used, power supply unit and the necessary
connections to the motor.

3
 1. Controller: The controller can be a microprocessor or a microcontroller.

2. Motor Driver IC or Motor Driver Circuits: They are basically current amplifiers which
accept the low current signal from the controller and convert it into a high current signal
which helps to drive the motor.

3. Motor: Motor is defined as an electric or mechanic device that can create a motion.
While interfacing with the controller; some of the motors like DC motor, stepper
motor and brushless dc motor may require a driver IC or driver circuit. DC motor is a
type ofmotor that can convert DC into a mechanical power. In a brushless DC motor, it
consists of a DC power source, an inverter producing an AC signal to drive the motor.
While stepper motor is a brushless DC electric motor that converts electrical pulses into
discrete mechanical motions.

4. Power Supply Unit: Provides the required power to the motor drive.

For servo motor

Servo motor is a type of actuator device that consists of a motor and a sensor tocontrol
velocity, acceleration etc. The major motor drive components for a servo motor are a
controller, power supply unit, servo motor and the necessary connections with the motor.
Commonly, motor drive for a servo motor is also known as Servo motor controller or
Servo Motor Driver. Usually, 8051 controllers are used for controlling a servo motor driver
with a single servo motor. If there are multiple servo motors; then PIC, ATMEGA etc. canbe
used.

DC Motor Driver Circuits

Motor Driver circuits are current amplifiers. They act as a bridge between the
controller and the motor in a motor drive. Motor drivers are made from discrete components
which are integrated inside an IC. The input to the motor driver IC or motor driver circuit is a
low current signal. The function of the circuit is to convert the low current signal to a high
current signal. This high current signal is then given to the motor. The motor can be a
brushless DC motor, brushed DC motor, stepper motor, other DC motors etc.

3
 Features

 High level functionality.

 Better performance.
 Provides high voltage.
 Provides high current drive.
 Includes protection schemes to prevent the failure of motors due to any faults.

Need for Motor Driver Circuits/ICs

In motor interfacing with controllers, primary requirement for the operation of the
controller is low voltage and small amount of current. But the motors require a high voltage
and current for its operation. In other words we can say the output of the controller or
processor is not enough to drive a motor. In such a case direct interfacing of controllers to the
motor is not possible. So we use a Motor Driver Circuit or Motor Driver IC.

Not only in the case of controllers, while connecting motors with 555 timer ICs or 74
series ICs; they also cannot provide the large current required by the motor. If direct
connection is given, there might be a chance of damage to the IC.

Types of DC Motor Driver Circuits

Transistor Based DC Motor Driver Circuit

Fig:4.21 Transistor Based DC Motor Driver Circuit

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 Transistor based DC motor driver circuit is one of the simple DC motor driver
circuit. It uses a power transistor (D880), DC motor and a resistor for its operation. Let IN
be the input to the base of the transistor. To the collector of the transistor, the DC motor is
connected. Emitter of the transistor is placed to ground. Normal Vcc given to the circuit is
12volt.
Here the main point to note is that, check the DC motor being used. While choosing the
transistor and the DC motor; the current rating must be noted. Always the current rating ofthe
DC motor must be smaller than that of the transistor being used. Application of this motor
driver circuit is for single direction control of the motor; e.g. Line following Robot.
Table:4.3 Input Voltages for DC Motor Driver
Input (IN) Motor Action

0 volt Motor Stops

5V Motor is in Action

H Bridge Circuit
H bridge circuit is one of the other commonly used motor driver circuit. In robotic
applications, were the DC motor has to run in backward and forward direction; H bridge
circuits play a major role. The name H Bridge is used because of the diagrammatic
representation of the circuit.

Usually the H bridge circuit contains 4 switches S1, S2, S3 and S4. These switches
can be relays, or P channel and N channel BJTs, MOSFETs, or they can be N channel
MOSFETs only. Here a basic H bridge circuit is shown in the figure below were NPN
transistors are placed at the high voltage and PNP transistors to the low voltage.

Fig:4.22 Transistor Based H-Bridge Circuit

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4.11.7.2 Components
The components used in the circuit are NPN and PNP power transistors, resistors,
diodes, a DC motor, and a power supply of about 12V.
 Input
Input 1 and Input 2 are the inputs to the H bridge circuit.
 Operation
Table:4.4 Motor Action For Different Inputs
IN1 IN2 A B Motor Action

0 0 0 0 Stop

0 1 0 Vcc Anticlockwise

1 (5V) 0 Vcc 0 Clockwise

1 1 Vcc Vcc Brake

1. Using L293D

L293D is a dual H bridge motor driver IC. This 16 pin motor driver IC can drive the
motors in anti-clockwise and clockwise direction. The connection of the DC motors to L293D
IC is given below.

Pin Description of L293D

 1 and 9 are Enable Pins.

 2, 7, 10, 15 are Input pins.
 3,6,11,14 are output pins
 4, 5, 12, 13 are the Ground pins.
 8 and 16 pins are for Vcc.

3
 Fig:4.23 L293D

Operation of L293D controlling two DC motors

 Enable pins should be connected to +5v for the motor driver to start its operation. If these
pins are connected to GND then the motors will stop its operation. Enable 1, 2 drives the
H bridge circuit on the left side while the Enable 3, 4 drives the H Bridge on the right
side.
 Consider the motor placed at the left (to pin 3 and 6). The operation is described in the
table below. Its enable pin is Pin1. Input pins are pin2 and pin7.
Table:4.5 Motor Action For Different Inputs For L293D

Pin1 Pin2 Pin7 Action of Motor

+5 volt 0 volt 0 volt Stop

+5 volt 0 volt +5 volt Clockwise

+5 volt +5 volt 0 volt Anti-clockwise

+5 volt +5 volt +5 volt Stop

0 volt - - -

 The same operation takes place while controlling the motor placed at the right side (pin11
and 14). Here the enable pin will be pin9; input pins are pin 10 and 15.
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2. Using ULN2003

Fig:4.24 ULN2003 Pin Diagram

Fig:4.25 ULN2003 Logic Diagram

ULN2003 can be used as a motor driver IC. It contains high current and voltage
Darlington arrays. This driver IC can be used for driving stepper motors. This is because
stepper motor needs more current for its operation in the motor drives. The circuit below
shows the ULN2003 with a stepper motor. The input to ULN2003 are K={0011, 0110, 1100,
1001}; and L= {1001, 1100, 0110, 0011}. These input sequences will energize the two
adjacent phases of the stepper motor.

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 Step Down Transformer

Transformer is a static apparatus, with no moving parts, which transforms electrical

power from one circuit to another with changes in voltage and current and no change in
frequency. There are two types of transformers classified by their function: Step up
Transformer and Step-down Transformer.

Fig:4.26 Step Down Transformer

Principle of Working of a Transformer

An electrical transformer works on the principle of Mutual Induction, which states that
a uniform change in current in a coil will induce an E.M.F in the other coil which is
inductively coupled to the first coil. In its basic form, a transformer consists of two coils with
high mutual inductance that are electrically separated but have common magnetic circuit. The
following image shows the basic construction of a Transformer.

Fig:4.27 Principle of Transformer

41
 How Transformer Works?

The first set of the coil, which is called as the Primary Coil or Primary Winding, is
connected to an alternating voltage source called Primary Voltage.
The other coil, which is called as Secondary Coil or Secondary Winding, is connected
to the load and the load draws the resulting alternating voltage (stepped up or stepped down
voltage).
The alternating voltage at the input excites the Primary Winding, an alternating current
circulates the winding. The alternating current will result in an alternating magnetic flux,
which passes through the iron magnetic core and completes its path.
Since the secondary winding is also linked to the alternating magnetic flux, according
to Faraday’s Law, an E.M.F is induced in the secondary winding. The strength of the voltage
at the secondary winding is dependent on the number of windings through which the flux gets
passed through.
Thus, without making an electrical contact, the alternating voltage in the primary
winding is transferred to the secondary winding.
Note: Depending on the construction of the transformer, the voltage at the secondary of the
transformer may be equal, higher or lower than that at the primary of the transformer but the
time period of the voltage i.e. its frequency will not change.
Relation Between Voltage and Turns
Let NP be the number of turns of the coil in the Primary Winding and N S be the
number of turns of the coil in the Secondary Winding. If the alternating voltage at the primary
side of the transformer is VP and the alternating voltage at the secondary side of the
transformer is VS, then the relation between the voltages at primary and secondary and
number of turns of the coil in primary and secondary is given as follows.

VP/VS = NP/NS (4.2)

Since the secondary winding is also linked to the alternating magnetic flux, according
Faraday’s Law, an E.M.F is induced in the secondary winding. The strength of the voltage at
the secondary winding is dependent on the number of windings through which the flux gets
passed through.

4
 Step Down Transformer

A Step-down Transformer is a type of transformer, which converts a high voltage at

the primary side to a low voltage at the secondary side. If we speak in terms of the coil
windings, the primary winding of a Step-down Transformer has more turns than the
secondary winding. The following image shows a typical step-down transformer.

Fig: 4.28 Winding of Transformer

Example of Step-Down Transformer

For example, consider the following situation. The number of turns in the primary
winding of a transformer is 3000 and that in the secondary winding is 150. If the alternating
voltage at the primary of the transformer is 240V, then the voltage at the secondary of the
transformer can be calculated using VP/VS = NP/NS.

Here, NP is primary winding turns = 30000

NS is secondary winding turns = 150
VP is voltage at the primary winding of the transformer = 240V
VS is the voltage at the secondary of the transformer =?

Using the above equation, VS = (VP * NS)/NP = 240*150/3000 = 12V

Hence, the voltage at the secondary winding of the transformer is 12V, which is less
than that at the primary. Therefore, the transformer in this subject is a Step down
Transformer.

4
 Power in Step down Transformer

The power in a transformer is measured using the product of voltage and current. The
power in a transformer is rated in Volt – Amps VA (or Kilo Volt – Amps kVA for larger
transformers).
Ideally, the power in any transformer is constant i.e. the power available at the
secondary of the transformer is same as the power at the primary of the transformer.
This is even applicable to a stepdown transformer. But, since the voltage at the
secondary of a stepdown transformer is lesser than that at the primary, the current at the
secondary will be increased in order to balance the total power in the transformer.

Current and Voltage Relation in Step Down Transformer

We will now see how this works. Let V P be the voltage at the primary, IP be thecurrent
at the primary and PP be the power at the primary side of the transformer.
We know that the power can be calculated by simply multiplying the voltage and
current. Hence, the power at the primary side of the transformer is given by
PP = VP * IP (4.3)
Similarly, let VS be the voltage at the secondary, IS be the current at the secondary and
PS be the power at the secondary side of the transformer. The power at the secondary of the
transformer is given by PS = VS * IS. Since, the power in a transformer is constant, P P = PS,
Which-means,
VP * IP = VS * IS. (4.4)
As VS is less than VP in a stepdown transformer, IS has to be more than IP. Hence, the
output voltage in a stepdown transformer is less than that of the primary voltage and the
output current is more than the input current.
Over a network to a server on a different device. Typical servers are database servers,
file servers, mail servers, print servers, web servers, game servers, and application servers.
Client–server systems are today most frequently implemented by (and often identified with)
the request–response model: a client sends a request to the server, which performs some
action and sends a response back to the client, typically with a result or acknowledgement.
Designating a computer as "server-class hardware" implies that it is specialized for running
servers on it.

4
 From the above analysis, we can define a Stepdown transformer as a device which
converts a High Voltage and Low Current alternating source to a Low Voltage and High
Current alternating supply.
Note: The above power calculation is for an ideal transformer where there are no loses.
Practically, there will loses in the form of iron losses and copper losses that should be taken
in to consideration (even though the losses are small).

Where Step down Transformer is used?

All the street transformers which we see near our homes are step down transformers.
They take a 11kV alternating voltage at the primary and convert it to 230V for distributing it
to our homes. Before the wide usage of switching power supplies, almost all low voltage
wall adapters use step down transformers.

Server (computing)
In computing, a server is a computer program or a device that provides functionality
for other programs or devices, called "clients". This architecture is called the client– server
model, and a single overall computation is distributed across multiple processes or devices.
Servers can provide various functionalities, often called "services", such as sharing data or
resources among multiple clients, or performing computation for a client. A single server
can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use multiple servers.
Over a network to a server on a different device. Typical servers are database
servers, file servers, mail servers, print servers, web servers, game servers, and application
servers. Client–server systems are today most frequently implemented by (and often
identified with) the request–response model: a client sends a request to the server, which
performs some action and sends a response back to the client, typically with a result or
acknowledgement. Designating a computer as "server-class hardware" implies that it is
specialized for running servers on it. This often implies that it is more powerful and reliable
than standard personal computers, but alternatively, large computing clusters may be
composed of many relatively simple, replaceable server components.

4
 Fig:4.29 Server
Operation
Strictly speaking, the term server refers to a computer program or process (running
program). Through metonymy, it refers to a device used for (or a device dedicated to) running
one or several server programs. On a network, such a device is called a host. In addition to
server, the words serve and service (as noun and as verb) are frequently used, though servicer
and servant are not. The word service (noun) may refer to either the abstract form of
functionality,
e.g. Web service. Alternatively, it may refer to a computer program that turns a computer into
a server, e.g. Windows service. Originally used as "servers serve users", in the sense of
"obey", today one often says that "servers serve data", in the same sense as "give". For
instance, web servers "serve [up] web pages to users" or "service their requests". The server is
part of the client–server model; in this model, a server serves data for clients. The nature of
communication between a client and server is request and response. This is in contrast with
peer-to-peer model in which the relationship is on demand reciprocation. In principle, any
computerized process that can be used or called by another process (particularly remotely,
particularly to share a resource) is a server, and the calling process or processes is a client.
Thus any general purpose computer connected to a network can host servers. For example, if
files on a device are shared by some process, that process is a file server. Similarly, web
server software can run on any capable computer, and so a laptop or a personal computer can
host a web server. While request–response is the most common client–server design, there are
others, such as the publish–subscribe pattern. In the publish–subscribe pattern, clients register
with a pub–sub server, subscribing to specified types of messages; this initial registration may
be done by request–response. Thereafter, the pub–sub server forwards matching messages to
the clients without any further requests: the server pushes messages to the client, rather than
the client pulling messages from the server as in request–response.

4
 Types of server
A Server is a computer or device on a network that manages network resources. For
example, a file server is a computer and storage device dedicated to storing files Any user on
the network can store files on the server. A print server is a computer that manages one or
more printers and a network server is a computer that manages network traffic. Servers are
often dedicated, meaning that they perform no other tasks besides their server tasks. On
multiprocessing operating systems however, a single computer can execute several programs
at once. A server in this case could refer to the program that is managing resources rather than
the entire compute.
1. Application Servers
Sometimes referred to as a type of middleware, application servers occupy a large
chunk of computing territory between database servers and the end user, and they often
connect the two. Middleware is a software that connects two otherwise separate applications
For example, there are a number of middleware products that link a database system to a Web
server This allows users to request data from the database using forms displayed on a Web
browser and it enables the Web server to return dynamic Web pages based on the user's
requests and profile. The term middleware is used to describe separate products that serve as
the glue between two applications. It is, therefore, distinct from import and export features
that may be built into one of the applications.
Middleware is sometimes called plumbing because it connects two sides of an
application and passes data between them.
Common middleware categories include:
 TP monitors
 DCE environments
 RPC systems
 Object Request Brokers (ORBs)
 Database access systems
 Message Passing
2. Audio/Video Servers
Audio/Video servers bring multimedia capabilities to Web sites by enabling them to
broadcast streaming multimedia content. Streaming is a technique for transferring data such
that it can be processed as a steady and continuous stream. Streaming technologies are
becoming increasingly important with the growth of the Internet because most users do not

4
have fast enough access to download large multimedia files quickly. With streaming, the
client browser or plug-in can starts displaying the data before the entire file has been
transmitted.
For streaming to work, the client side receiving the data must be able to collect the
data and send it as a steady stream to the application that is processing the data and converting
it to sound or pictures. This means that if the streaming client receives the data more quickly
than required, it needs to save the excess data in a buffer If the data doesn't come quickly
enough, however, the presentation of the data will not be smooth.
There are a number of competing streaming technologies emerging. For audio data on the
Internet, the de facto standard is Progressive Network's RealAudio.
3. Chat Servers
Chat servers enable a large number of users to exchange information in an
environment similar to Internet newsgroups that offer real-time discussion capabilities. Real
time means occurring immediately. The term is used to describe a number of different
computer features. For example, real-time operating systems are systems that respond to input
immediately. They are used for such tasks as navigation, in which the computer must react to
a steady flow of new information without interruption. Most general-purpose operating
systems are not real-time because they can take a few seconds, or even minutes, to react.
Real time can also refer to events simulated by a computer at the same speed that they would
occur in real life. In graphics animation, for example, a real-time program would display
objects moving across the screen at the same speed that they would actually move.
4. Fax Servers
A fax server is an ideal solution for organizations looking to reduce incoming and
outgoing telephone resources but that need to fax actual documents. FTP Servers One of the
oldest of the Internet services, File Transfer Protocol makes it possible to move one or more
files securely between computers while providing file security and organization as well as
transfer control.
5. Groupware Servers
A GroupWare server is software designed to enable users to collaborate, regardless
of location, via the Internet or a corporate Intranet and to work together in a virtual
atmosphere.
6. IRC Servers
An option for those seeking real-time capabilities, Internet Relay Chat consists of
various separate networks (or "nets") of servers that allow users to connect to each other via
an IRC networ
4
 Regulated power supply

A regulated power supply is an embedded circuit; it converts unregulated AC

(Alternating Current) into a constant DC. With the help of a rectifier it converts AC supply into
DC. Its function is to supply a stable voltage (or less often current), to a circuit or device that
must be operated within certain power supply limits. The output from the regulated power
supply may be alternating or unidirectional, but is nearly always DC (Direct Current).

Fig:4.30 Regulator

The type of stabilization used may be restricted to ensuring that the output remains
within certain limits under various load conditions, or it may also include compensation for
variations in its own supply source. The latter is much more common today.

This Module is DC-DC Step Down Module. It converts the 9-38V to 5V Input:9-38V,
Output: 5V/5A, Efficiency: 95% Max, Working temperature:40°-+85°, Load capacity: 5A.
Using this module, we can use in the mobile power, mobile phones, tablet, USB5V power
supply equipment.

To reduce a 12V circuit to 9V, place two resistors in series within the circuit. Find the
difference between the two voltages (12V - 9V = 3V) to determine the total amount of
resistance needed.

LED
The Light emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. In 1962, Nick
Holonyak has come up with an idea of light emitting diode, and he was working for the
general electric company. The LED is a special type of diode and they have similar electrical
characteristics of a PN junction diode.

4
 Fig: 4.31 Light Emitting Diode

Hence the LED allows the flow of current in the forward direction and blocks the
current in the reverse direction. The LED occupies the small area which is less than the 1
mm2. The applications of LEDs used to make various electrical and electronic projects. In this
article, we will discuss the working principle of the LED and its applications.

The light emitting diode simply, we know as a diode. When the diode is forward biased,
then the electrons & holes are moving fast across the junction and they are combining
constantly, removing one another out. Soon after the electrons are moving from the n-type to
the p-type silicon, it combines with the holes, then it disappears. Hence it makes the complete
atom & more stable and it gives the little burst of energy in the form of a tiny packet or photon
of light.

Fig: 4.32 Working of Light Emitting Diode

5
The above diagram shows how the light emitting diode works and the step by step process of the
diagram.
 From the diagram, we can observe that the N-type silicon is in red color and it
contains the electrons, they are indicated by the black circles.
 The P- type silicon is in the blue color and it contains holes, they are indicated by
the white circles.
 The power supply across the p-n junction makes the diode forward biased and pushing
the electrons from n-type to p-type. Pushing the holes in the opposite direction.
 Electron and holes at the junction are combined.
 The photons are given off as the electrons and holes are recombination.

Types of Light Emitting Diodes

There are different types of light emitting diodes present and some of them are mentioned below.
 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red
 Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
 Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness red, orange and
yellow.
 Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
 Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
 Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green
 Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
 Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate
 Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
 Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet

5
 CHAPTER 5
RESULTS
5.1 Project Diagrams

Fig:5.1 Experimental Setup

Fig:5.2 Experimental Setup

5
 Project Output
The webpage URL is “myiot.co.in/wm.php” .URL can be opened in any mobile or pc
which contains the browsing application.

Fig:5.3 Web site for project

5
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
In future scope we can use ARM controller to minimize the delay. Currently we are
using this technology with the help of web page. In the future we are going to use this
technology with the help of an Android app.
Agriculture is done in every country from ages. Agriculture is the science and art of
cultivating plants. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human
civilization. As the world is trending into new technologies and implementations it is a
necessary goal to trend up with agriculture also. IOT plays a very important role in smart
agriculture. IOT sensors are capable of providing information about agriculture fields. we
have proposed an IOT and smart agriculture system using automation. This IOT based
Agriculture monitoring system makes use of WIRED sensor.
This smart agriculture using IOT system is powered by Arduino, it consists of
Temperature sensor, Soil Moisture sensor, water pump sensor, DC motor, PIR sensor and
RASPBERRY PI3. If the temperature goes above the level, fan starts. This all is also seen in
IOT where it shows information of Humidity, Moisture and water level with date and time,
based on per minute. Temperature can be set on a particular level& it is based on the type
crops cultivated. If we want to close the water forcefully on IOT there is button given from
where water pump can be forcefully stopped.

5
 REFERENCES
 https://www.arduino.cc/en/reference/extended.
 www.ele.uri.edu/courses/ele205/ELE205Lab/...Lab.../Arduino%20%20Reference.pdf
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino.
 https://circuitdigest.com/microcontroller.../arduino-automatic-plant-watering-system.
 https://www.researchgate.net/.../309251140_Design_and_implementation_of_autom.
 Nikesh Gondchawar, Prof. Dr. R. S. Kawitkar, “IoT based Smart Agriculture” International
Journal of Advanced Research in Computer and Communication Engineering Vol. 5, Issue
6, ISSN (Online) 2278-1021 ISSN (Print) 2319 5940, June 2016.
 Rajalakshmi.P, Mrs.S.Devi, Mahalakshmi “IOT Based Crop-Field Monitoring And Irrigation
Automation” 10th International conference on Intelligent systems and control (ISCO), 7-8
Jan 2016 published in IEEE Xplore Nov 2016.
 Tanmay Baranwal, Nitika , Pushpendra Kumar Pateriya “Development of IoT based Smart
Security and Monitoring Devices for Agriculture” 6th International Conference - Cloud
System and Big Data Engineering, 978-1-4673-8203- 8/16, 2016 IEEE.
 Nelson Sales, Artur Arsenio, “Wireless Sensor and Actuator System for Smart Irrigation on
the Cloud” 978-1-5090- 03662/15, 2nd World forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT) Dec
2015, published in IEEE Xplore jan 2016.