SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS

BASIC IDEAS IN SEMANTICS (SENTENCE, UTTERANCE, PROPOSITION,

REFERENCE AND SENSE)

Compiled By Group I:

AAS HANDAYANI (20400118021)

ANDI PANCAITANA BUNGA WALIE (20400118018)

NURANI (20400118039)

AL-ANSHARI (20400118003)

ACHMAD DZULIKRAMI A.P (20400118013)

RIJAL QALBI (20400118041)

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

TARBIYAH AND TEACHING SCIENCE FACULTY

ALAUDDIN STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF MAKASSAR

A. INTRODUCTION
Linguistics is a scientific study of language. Linguistics encompasses a number of subfields. An important
topical division is between the study of language structure (grammar) and the study
of meaning (semantics and pragmatics). Grammar encompasses morphology (the formation and
composition of words), syntax (the rules that determine how words combine into phrases and sentences)
and phonology (the study of sound systems and abstract sound units). Semantics is also a component of
linguistics of the same kind as grammar. It encompasses the meaning of words, sentences, and utterances;
pragmatics studies the way in which context contributes to meaning of the speaker. In this paper, we will
discuss about basic ideas of semantics such as sentence, utterance, and proposition. We are studying what is
known as semantics: how words have individual meaning, and can be used to refer to entities in the external
world (reference).
B. BASIC IDEAS IN SEMANTICS
1. About Semantics
Semantics is the study of the meaning in language.1 The word "semantics" itself denotes a range of ideas,
from the popular to the highly technical. It is often used inordinary language to denote a problem of
understanding that comes down to word selection orconnotation. This problem of understanding has been
the subject of many formal inquiries, over a long period of time, most notably in the field of formal
semantics. In linguistics, it is the study of interpretation of signs or symbols as used by agents or
communities within particular circumstances and contexts. Within this view, sounds, facial expressions,
body language, have semantic (meaningful) content, and each has several branches of study. In written
language, such things as paragraph, structure and punctuation have semantic content; in other forms of
language, there is other semantic content.
The formal study of semantics intersects with many other fields of inquiry,including
lexicon, syntax, pragmatics, etymology and others, although semantics is a well- defined field in its own
right, often with synthetic properties. Inphilosophy of language, semantics and reference are related fields.
Further related fields include philology, communication,and semiotics. The formal study of semantics
is therefore complex. Semantics is sometimes contrasted with syntax, the study of the symbols of a language
(without reference to their meaning), and pragmatics, the study of the relationships between the symbols of a
language, their meaning, and the users of the language.

1
Harimurti, Kridalaksana. Pesona Bahasa: Langkah Awal Memahami Linguistik. Jakarta: Gramedia. 2005.Hal. 114
 In linguistics, semantics is the subfield dealing with the study of meaning, as inherent at the levels of
words, phrases, sentences, and larger units of discourse (referred to as texts). The basic area of study is the
meaning of signs, and the study of relations between different linguistic units:
homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, paronyms, hypernymy, and hyponymy. A key concern is
how meaning attaches to larger chunks of text, possibly as a result of the composition from smaller units of
meaning. Traditionally, semantics has included the study of sense and denotative reference, truth
conditions, argument structure, thematic roles, discourse analysis,and the linkage of all of these to syntax.2
2. Sentence
Sentence is a grammatical construction containing a complete mind. Sentence is consist of one or
more clauses, where there is at least one independent clause. Sentence begins with a capital letter
and ends with a full stop, exclamation mark, or question mark.
Here are some kinds of sentences:
a. Simple Sentence
A simple sentence is the most basic sentence, that is consists of only one
independent clause.
Example : My sister read the book.
b. Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses connected by
a coordinate conjunction, conjunctive adverb, or semicolon.
Example : I tried to speak Chinese, and my friend tried to speak English.
c. Complex Sentence
A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent
clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after,
although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which.
Example : The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow.
3. Utterance
In this part, we will focus on both spoken language and written language. It is important to define one of
the basic ideas in semantics, the utterance. An utterance is any stretch of talk, by one person, before and after
which there issilence on the part of that person.3 An utterance is the use by particular speaker on aparticular

2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics
3
Ibid, Pg. 15
 occasion of a piece of language, such a sequence of sentences, or a single phrase,or even a single word. Let us
check some examples out below :
(a) “The plane now arriving is Garuda Airlines”.
(b) “Horses”.
(c) “Hummmpfh”’
(d) “Pxdgytguaargh”.

It is clear that we call the first sentence as utterance because it is a kind of sentenceuses by a person on a
particular occasion. It is an utterance spoken by an airport officer. Admittedly utterance sometimes consists
of single word, such as in example (2). It is simply enough to imagine a situation in which
someone say “Horses”. But even in such cases it is reasonable to treat this utterance as a sentence, but
as incomplete sentence (some grammarians refer to them as minor sentence). Give them a context, so they
can be completed. Thus horses may be a replay to “What are those animals?” and thus seen
as an incomplete version of “They are Horses.”

In example (3) we also call it as utterancebecause from it we can understand that it describes
somebody‘s feeling of tiredness. But we cannot say that example no. (4) as an utterance because this
string of sounds is not from any language. Utterances are physical events. Events are ephemeral, which
means lasting for avery short time. So that, utterances die on the wind.

Besides, many people mistakenly think that complete sentences are the norm in bothspeech and
writing.4 However, as Carter and Cornbleet (2003:3) correctly observe, “We do not set out to
speak in sentences – in fact, in informal speech we rarely do that – rather, we set out to achieve a
purpose which may or may not require full, accurate sentences”. To illustrate this point,
consider the short excerpt below taken from an actual conversation :

Speaker A: “Lots of people are rolling skating, lots of people do rollerblade”.

Speaker B: “Just running around the city”.

Speaker A: “Mainly in Golden GatePark”.

4
Charles F, Mayer. Introducing English Linguistics. Cambridge: CambrideUniversity Press. 2009. Pg. 4
 Speaker A‘s first turn contains two grammatical sentences: constructions consisting of a
subject (lots of people in both sentences) and a finite verb (are and do, respectively). In contrast,
Speaker B‘s turn and Speaker A‘s second turn do not contain sentences: B‘s turn contains a
construction centered on the verbal element running; A‘s turn is the prepositional phrase. But while
these turns do not contain complete sentences, they are meaningful.

Implied in B‘s turn, for instance, is that who are roller skating “running aroundthe city”
and in A‘s turn that they are skating “mainly in Golden GatePark.” Therefore, in when
discussing utterance in semantics, a category that includes not just sentence but any construction that is
meaningful in the context in which it occurs. To differentiate utterance and sentence we usually use
quotation mark (“…”) in written form of utterance.

4. Preposition
Proposition is that part of meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence whichdescribe some state of
affairs. The state of affairs typically involves or things referred to byexpressions in the sentence. Beside
declarative sentence, proposition also clearly invo in the meaning of interrogatives and imperatives sentences.
In uttering declarative sentence a speaker typically asserts a proposition, for example, “Could
you mind to close the door, please?”, “Close the door now!”.
In these two sentences, the speaker asserted proposition. The relation among sentences, utterances and
proposition is not direct as sense andmeaning, but there is a similarity. Both referring and uttering are acts
performed byparticular occasion. A proposition is something abstract but meaningful. It consists of
something wediscussed and some explanations or facts about an argument. It can be expressed indifferent
sentences and in parts of sentences, perhaps with differences of focus but alwayswith the same basic
meaning. Look at the example below.

Sentence Proposition

Jack‘s girl friend, Jane, who is a nurse, likes oranges. (1) Jack has a girl friend.

(2) Her name is Jane.

(3) Jane is a nurse.

(4) Jane likes oranges.

 From the example above, a sentence can has many meanings. There are some facts which we can get
from a sentence. In short, any sentences can be expressed in different utterances, produced by different
people at different times and in different places.

Proposition

Sentence Sentence Sentence

Utterance Utterance Utterance Utterance Utterance Utterance

5. Reference and Sense

The reference of a word is the relation between the linguistic expression and the entity in
the real world to which it refers. In contrast to reference, sense is defined as its relations to
other expressions in the language system. Thus, there are words that have a sense, but no
referents in the real world. Other words may differ in sense, but not necessarily in reference,
and vice versa.
The class of entities to which an expression can be applied is usually called its extension.
Consequently, the referent of a word is always a member of the class of entities that
constitutes its extension. The word's intension, on the other hand, is defined as the set of
semantic properties which define it.
The term denotation (that is also frequently used in the sense of an extensional
reference) refers to the constant, abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression.
Secondary meanings or associations the expression evokes are called connotations.
To sum up, the terms reference, extension, and denotation relate to extra-linguistic
reality, while the terms sense, intension, and connotation presuppose a language-internal
definition of meaning.
C. CONCLUSION
We shall use the term ‘proposition’, ‘sentence’, and ‘utterance’ in such a way that anything
that can be said of propositions can also be said of utterances, but not necessarily vice versa, and anything that
can be said of sentences can also be said utterances, but not only necessarily vice versa. We have already seen
an example of this when we said it wassensible to talk of a sentence being in a particular language, and also
sensible to talk of an utterance being in a particular language, although one cannot talk of a proposition being in
a particular language. According to some explanations above, we can simplify that sentence, utterance,and
proposition can be differentiated based on some characteristics below :5
Characteristics Utterances Sentences Propositions
Can be loud or quiet + _ _
Can be grammatical or not + + _
Can be true or false + + +
In a particular regional + _ _
accent
In a particular language + + _

5
Op.cit, Pg. 22