CHAPTER - 2

SUGAR MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Abstract
This chapter explains History of sugarcane and sugar. Also the details of
aim of clarification, different types of clarification process for the manufacturing
of a variety of sugars. Different types of defecation process used in Raw sugar
manufacturing are discussed. In India about 95% of total production of sugar is
produced by double sulphitation process. Hence, unit operations of the double
sulphitation process of sugar manufacture are discussed in detail.

2.1 HISTORY OF SUGARCANE AND SUGAR:

Sugarcane, known to India since times immemorial, is one of the most

abundantly grown crops on the earth, forming major source of crystal sugar and
other sweetening agents for human consumption. The earliest record of sugar
cane in world literature is found in 'Atharva Ved' one of the sacred Hindu
Scriptures supposed to have been composed 1000-5000 years before the
Christian Era while the first reference to 'sugar' is observed in an Ancient Indian
treatise 'Pratimoksha' dealing with Buddhists' code of conduct written two
thousand six hundred years back. The ancient Sanskrit literature produced
thereafter is replete with references to sugarcane and production of sugar
therefrom. In the legendary paradise created by sage Vishvamitra for the King
Trishanku, sugarcane was one of the plants grown, which was later thrown down
on earth as gift to mortals. Charak and Sushrut Samhitas the standard works on
the Hindu science of medicine 'Ayurved' dating back to 2nd or 3rd Century B.C.
mention besides sugarcane and its product sugar, the medicinal usage of sugar.
India is thus home of sugar where the cultivation of sugarcane and the science of
manufacturing sugar were developed in ancient times and from where it spread
to different parts of the world.

• The words for sugar in most languages of world are derived from the
Sanskrit word "Sharkara". It is from India that the knowledge of
sugarcane cultivation, production and use of sugar spread to different
parts of the world.
• During Alexander's invasion of India, Greeks learnt about sugarcane and
sugar in 325 B.C. In 600 A.D. Chinese learnt the art of sugar manufacture
from Indians. The cultivation of sugarcane was introduced to Western
World by the Spanish and Portuguese in 16th century.

• After establishment of East India company in 1600 AD, sugar was

exported to other countries from India.

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 • There are about 140 types of sugars. Among these, there is a family of
sugar with name having the suffix 'OSE' is associated, for example,
sucrose, dextrose, glucose, fructose, maltose, mannose, etc. The suffix
indicates that the whole family is built up from components of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen in different proportions. In this family of
carbohydrate composition of sugars, the chemical name of ordinary sugar
is sucrose with which we are concerned in sugar factories,

2.2 CLARIFICATION PROCESSES OF SUGAR CANE JUICE

Sugarcane juice as received from mill is opaque and turbid liquid

containing a lot of impurities in dissolved, suspended and colloidal state.
The aim of clarification technique is to remove these non-sugar impurities
from raw juice.

2.2.1 TYPES OF CLARIFICATION

Mainly three types of sugar is manufactured from sugar cane. They

are
1) Raw sugar
2) Direct consumption plantation white sugar.
3) Refined sugar.
There are many processes of clarification followed in the sugar
industry but the three most commonly used are as follows.

Type of sugar Clarification Process followed

Raw sugar Defecation

fM

Plantation white sugar a) Double sulphitation process.

b) Double carbonation process.
fO

Refined sugar-Raw melt

clarification by: a) Carbonation process.
b) Phosphotation process

2.2.3 AIM OF CLARIFICATION:

The object of clarification of sugar cane juice is to:
a) Maximum removal of non-sugars
b) Elimination of suspended and colloidal impurities
c) Removal of colour forming compounds
d) Obtain brilliant, light coloured, transparent clear juice free from any
suspended impurities.

Removal of nonsugar impurities helps the following in the process:

a) Better crystallization of sugar

17
 b) Production of white sugar free from impurities
c) Reduce the loss of sugar in final molasses
2.2.4 Essential requirements of clarification:
For good clarification, the following essential requirements must be
taken care of.
a) Sucrose should remain intact during clarification.
b) There should be adequate rise in purity from mixed juice to clarified
juice.
c) Reducing sugars should neither form afresh nor destroyed during
clarification.
d) Increase in inorganic salts like silica, iron, sulphites should be avoided.
e) Calcium content in the clarified juice should be as low as possible.
f) There should not be development of colour in the clarified juice.

2.2.5 Action of lime on cane juice in the defecation process

i. It eliminates free organic acids (oxalic, tartaric, etc.) present in
cane juice as the lime salts of the same are insoluble and
eliminated during clarification.
ii. The following non-sugars also get eliminated.
a) Albumen
b) Acid phosphates as tri-basic phosphates
c) Colouring substances - anthocyanin, etc.
d) Nitrogenous compounds
e) Pectins
The precipitate formed readily entraps the suspended
impurities and brings them down.

2.2.6 Raw Sugar

Unwashed centrifugal sugar with a minimum polarization of 96.5°z,
surrounded by the original film of molasses derived from sugarcane or
sugar beet, to be further refined or reprocessed for making it suitable for
direct consumption sugar.

Process of manufacture
Raw sugar is manufactured from sugar cane juice. The cane juice
is clarified by simple defection process.

In this process lime & heat are two basic agents. This is the oldest
method of juice clarification and also the most effective means of
purification. The lime and heat treatment forms a heavy precipitate of
complex composition, part lighter and part heavier than the juice, which
contains in-soluble lime salts, coagulated albumin, and varying proportion

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 of the fats, waxes and gums. Phosphoric acid is added to increase P205
content of juice to 300 ppm. Then lime is added to neutralize organic
acids, besides formation of insoluble tricalcium phosphate [Ca3(P04)2],
which occludes colloids & suspended impurities.

2.2.7 DIFFERENT TYPES OF DEFECATION PROCESSES USED IN

RAW SUGAR MANUFACTURING:
1. Defecation Process:- It is the oldest method. In this method optimum
P205 level in juice should be 300 ppm. The lime reacts with phosphate
and forms tricalcium phosphate Ca3(P04)2 precipitate which occludes
colloids & suspended impurities. Methods of liming are as described
below. Defecation process comprises following steps.
a) Changing the acidic nature of M.J. to slightly alkaline with
measured adequate dosing of lime solution.
b) Heating the juice to just above boiling point.
c) Settling the treated juice.
d) Decanting supernatant juice which has quality much superior to the
sulphited juice.
e) Filtering the muddy juice in suitable fitter to recover maximum
possible sugar from the precipitate.

In defecation process clarification of juice is done by the following

three methods according to the manner lime and heat are used to
manufacture raw sugar from sugar cane/sugar beet

Different defecation processes in short:

(1) (a) Cold Liming

Lime solution is added to the cold raw Juice to a pH of 7.8 to 8.2.
The juice is then heated to 103 to 105°C. The heated juice then
sent to clarifier. A drop in pH always occurs during heating and
settling. The change is a function of the amount of P205 in the
juice, higher the phosphate content, the more marked the
difference in pH before and after heating.

The disadvantage of this process is that there is a growth of

dextran gel, which causes choking of pipelines. When the juices
are difficult to treat, the pH is to be increased to 8.3.

In, this method, growth of Leuconestoc mecentiraides &

then 'Dextran get' is formed. This is often called as 'Fron -
Soawn'which blocks the pipes, & pumps & even complete fill up of
limed juice tank.

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(1) (b) Hot liming

Raw juice is heated to 70°C & then lime solution is added up

to 7.4 - 7.8 pH, so as to obtain clear juice having a pH of 6.8 to
7.1. This limed juice is heated up to 103-105°C, then sent to
subsider for settling. In the hot liming process, heating prior to
liming has advantage of coagulating the colloids like albumin,
siliceous etc. Also there is constant difference in pH between
limed juice & clear juice. Hot liming requires 15 to 20% less lime.
When juices are difficult and cold liming does not give satisfactory
clarification, then hot liming is followed.

(1) (c) Fractional Liming & Double heating

This process is intended to treat refractory juices when ordinary

liming becomes ineffective. In this system lime is added in two
fractions and juice also heated twice.

Addition of lime solution to raw juice to a pH of 6.2 to 6.4

P
NJ

Heating of limed juice to a temperature of 72 °C.

Then addition of lime solution in second stage up to pH 7.4 to 7.6 &
U

heating of alkaline juice to the temperature of 103 to 105°C before

sending to clarifier for settling.
Advantage - Better settling rate with higher rise in purity.
Less scum is obtained; clarified juice is much more brilliant, improved
mud filters performance giving dry and porous cake. The nitrogenous
colloids are separated to much greater extent i.e. 80% instead of
50%. Waxes are eliminated in still greater proportion i.e. 90%
instead of 70%.

(1) (e) Compound Clarification :

Primary juice is cold limed separately from secondary juice of all

remaining mills. Settling from primary juice is added to secondary juice.
Clarified secondary juice is mixed with raw primary juice before liming.
The secondary juice therefore receives treatment twice.

Consequences of Defecation Process :

(a) Apparent purity rise of 0.80 & sucrose purity rise up to 0.50.
(b) R.S. destruction of about 3 - 5%
(c) CaO content rise from raw to clear juice in the range of 200 - 300
mg/I
(d) No removal of colour
(e) Aconitic Acid is removed during raw juice liming at pH 8.5
(f) Proteins & waxes are removed with calcium in filter mud.

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2.3 DOUBLE SULPHITATION PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURE OF
PLANTATION WHITE SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE.

2.3.1 Manufacture of Plantation White Sugar

The sugar commonly used is white crystalline in shape. Flow
diagram and various manufacturing operations are given in the process
flow chart. The present system of sugar manufacture is subdivided into
following stages.

■ Weighment of sugar cane

■ Extraction of juice from sugarcane by milling
■ Clarification of juice
■ Concentration of juice by evaporation of water to syrup
■ Crystallization of sucrose by vacuum pan boiling
■ Centrifugal separation of sugar crystals and molasses from the
massecuites
■ Drying and cooling of sugar
■ Sugar grading weighing and packing.
■ Storage in warehouse and dispatch

2.3.2 SUGARCANE MILLING

Sugarcane received at the factory is weighed on platform weigh
bridge and unloaded into cane carrier by mechanical devices such as
mechanical unloaders of grab type or sling type with feeder table or
tippler arrangement etc. During its travel to milling, the cane is prepared
for crushing by the preparatory devices.

The preparatory devices consist of a kicker, leveller and a cutter

and Fibrizer or Shredder. The extent of cane preparation has a very
significant role in the capacity and efficiency of the milling tandem. The
milling plant usually consists of four/five mills each of 3 rollers which are
hydraulically loaded. The prepared cane passes through these mills where
it is subjected to repeated application of high pressure through the mill
roller. The cane which is discharged from the last mill is called bagasse,
and juice is collected in the trough of the mills and pumped to the boiling
house for processing. Presently TRPF and GRPF are installed on the milling
tandem with Donnelley chutes to achieve higher extraction.

In the process of milling, hot water is applied on the last mill to

increase the extraction of sugar. Compound maceration system is followed
by application of dilute juice on penultimate mill.

Milling in this manner gives about 95% extraction. The discharged

bagasse from the last mill contains fibre, sugar and about 50% moisture.

21
 This bagasse is elevated by bagasse elevator to a height convenient for
being feed into boiler furnace for burning and excess is stored outside in
the bagasse yard. Heat is utilized to generate steam at required pressure
and temperature. The steam produced is used for generation of power
and to drive prime movers. The exhaust steam available from the prime
movers is utilized for process i.e. heating and evaporation of juice, etc.

2.3.3 CLARIFICATION OF SUGARCANE JUICE:

The juice extracted out of cane is composed of primary juice
expressed by first crushing unit called 1st mill and diluted juice from
second crushing unit called as secondary juice. Both these juices are
combined together and termed as mixed juice. The mixed juice is a sugar
solution which consists of about 84% water, 13% sucrose, 3% non-sugar
(impurities). The principal non-sugars are invert sugar (1.5%) and
inorganic ash 0.5%. The mixed juice when sent for processing is termed
as raw juice and its pH ranges from 4.7 to 5.7. At this pH, the juice is
prone to microbial as well as chemical inversion. It is advisable to process
the juice as quickly as possible to prevent loss of crystallisable sugar, and
to avoid oxidation which causes colouration. In order to achieve the
maximum recovery of sugar, it is essential that the juice must be free
from all non-sucrose solids. The presence of each part of non-sugar in
juice causes 0.4 part of sucrose to be non crystallizable. Lower the
reducing sugars in the juice, larger is the amount of sucrose lost in final
molasses. To get rid of the impurities, the juice is subjected to clarification
treatment.

Essentially, the good clarification process to be adopted is the one

that enables maximum removal of impurities.

The raw juice is strained at the mills by the DSM screen or rotary
filter and sent to the juice weighing scales where juice is weighed and its
weight recorded or online measurement of juice flow is done.

There are three different types of clarification processes for

sugarcane juice (a) Defecation, (b) Sulphitation and (c) Carbonation.

The first type of process is often used for producing raw sugar for
subsequent refining of the same, while the other two are generally used
when it is desired to make direct consumption or plantation white sugar.
Essentially, the treatment of cane juice in any of these methods aims at
neutralizing the natural acidity and precipitating as much non-sugars as
possible out of it to obtain a neutral, clear amber coloured juice. Many
different products like phosphates, magnesia were tried for clarification of
raw cane juice, but still lime remains the most economical agent for juice

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 clarification. Sugar mills in India mostly follow sulphitation process as
described below:

Sulphitation process is the standard and conventional process

followed with various modifications such as pre-sulphitation, pre-liming for
obtaining good quality white sugar. The juice is heated to 70°C after
making up its P205 level to 300 ppm. Predetermined dose of milk of lime
is added and sulphur dioxide gas is simultaneously bubbled to bring down
the pH to 7.0. During this process, phosphate and calcium salts are
formed and the floes absorb the impurities and colour.

The sulphited juice is again heated to 102°C in the secondary juice

heaters and is allowed to settle in the continuous clarifier. The effect of
heat and precipitation of CaSOs results in settling of most of the
impurities. The clarified juice is drawn out from the clarifier and the mud
is filtered in the continuous rotary vacuum filters. The consumption of
lime, and sulphur on cane is 0.11 to 0.20 % and 0.04 to 0.08%,
respectively.

2.3.4 EVAPORATION OF CLARIFIED JUICE:

The juice as received from clarification station contains sucrose
together with water added at the mills for the purpose of maceration and
water used for washing the filter cake at vacuum filter. The clear juice is
about 100% on cane with solids about 15%. The clear juice is collected in
a clear juice receiving column/tank from where it is pumped to the
evaporator first body through pre-heater i.e. clear juice heater.

The function of preheater is to raise the temperature of clear juice

to boiling point of the juice in the first vessel to achieve flash gain. In this
way, preheater plays an important role in augmenting evaporator
capacity. Otherwise, the initial heating has to take place in the lower part
of the tubes of the first vessel of evaporator whereby losing some heating
surface for heating the clear juice.

The evaporation is carried out in Multiple-effect Evaporators. All

modern multiple effects are vertical tube evaporators based on Rillieux's
Principles. The saturated steam (exhaust of the prime movers) is admitted
in the calandria (steam space) of the first vessel where it parts with its
latent heat to the juice inside the vertical tubes and gets condensed. The
condensates and NOX gases are continuously removed and fresh steam
intake continues. The juice inside the tube which is already at boiling point
absorbs the latent heat from the steam and evaporates. The juice is
evaporated for the second time by the vapour from the preceding vessel
i.e. by its own vapour. The process is repeated in subsequent vessels

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 generally comprising of four/five effects thus known as
Quadruple/quintuple effects.

The vapour space of the last vessel of quadruple/quintuple effect is

connected to the condenser where vapours are condensed by bringing
them into intimate contact with cold water. The non-condensable gases
are removed from the calandria under vacuum.

The condensate of the first calandria which has higher temperature

and free from sugar traces is sent to the boiler feed water tank through
the pump. The condensates from the 2nd, 3rd and 4th calandria are
removed by means of pump through vacuum equalizing system, since
these calandrias work under vacuum. The second condensates may at
times possible to contain some sugar traces and as such used for process
and maceration. The high density (60° brix) syrup available in the last
vessel is evacuated under vacuum by means of a pump and is sent to the
pan supply tanks on the pan floor after sulphitation.

Recently modern steam saving devices such as DCH, condensate

cigar, condensate water heater, molasses conditioners with non­
condensable gases for heating the molasses, etc. are used to achieve
better steam economy.

2.3.5 CRYSTALLIZATION - PAN BOILING:

The sulphited syrup is subjected to boiling in the Vacuum pans
where its further concentration leads to the super-saturation zone and
formation of sugar crystals. A three or four stage boiling scheme is
selected keeping in view of the syrup purity and size of sugar crystals
desired and the exhaustion of the mother liquor. A typical 3 Boiling
scheme is generally adopted in most of the sugar factories.

Massecuites i.e. A, B, C after boiling in the PANS discharged into

crystallizers and treatment of massecuite where residual salting out of
sugar to exhaust the mother liquor takes place. Three or four stages
exhaustion minimizes the sugar loss in last or final mother liquor which is
called final molasses and is sent out to storage and disposal.

The method based on colour and solid content of the product is

more precise as compared to the conventional method5.

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2.3.6 CENTRIFUGING:
Curing of A, B & C massecuites is done in centrifugals to separate
the respective molasses from sugar crystals. A-massecuite, wherefrom
commercial sugar obtained, is cured in vertical batch type machines with
automation and recycling controls, sugar in the basket is washed with
super-heated wash water and/or steam and molasses is fractionated into
heavy and light fractions.

B Massecuite is cured in vertical continuous machines where B

heavy molasses is separated.

B Sugar is magmised to be used as footing for A or melted and

melt is used for building A Massecuite.

C Massecuite is also cured in continuous centrifugals, normally in

two stages. In the first stage final molasses is obtained, which is sent
out; C- Light molasses is obtained back for reboiling in the second stage,
C- sugar is melted and used for A boiling.

2.3.7 DRYING, COOLING

The sugar as discharged from the centrifugal machines contains
high moisture and temperature. Sugar conditioning meant reducing the
moisture content of sugar to 0.02 to 0.05% and to cool down the sugar
on hopper or rotary drier before packing. This drier/hopper discharges the
sugar in the foot of sugar elevator which delivers it into the graders.

2.3.8 Sugar Grading

Sugar discharged from the elevators is fed to the graders where it
is screened into different size grades before packing and storage in
godowns. There are two types of vibrating screens in use for this purpose;
in one type, the vibrating frame is mounted on the springs and the belt
driven rotating shaft is mounted on the vibrating frame. The desired
magnitude of vibrations is achieved by means of the eccentric shaft. In
another type, vibration is achieved by means of electro-magnetic device.
In this type, the frame is kept rigid and screen is vibrated by the solenoid
whose core is fastened to the center of screen. The core of solenoid works
against adjustable spring tension due to which the vibration of desired
magnitude can be achieved. Both the types of units are composed of four
to six decks. In each deck, the wire screen of desired opening is held in
position under tension by clamp at the slope of 35° to the horizontal. The
sugar obtained from the grader is collected in bags from different spouts
for different sizes.

Recently gravity type grading system with six deck efficient grader,
sugar bins with load cell and auto weighing&stitching system are in use.

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2.3.9 Storage
The sugar packed in 50 kg gunny/PP bags is stacked in the sugar
godowns. To prevent its deterioration in storage, the godown should be
constructed in such a way to provide storage facilities with controlled
humidity of 60 - 65% to prevent the sugar from absorbing moisture.

PROCESS FLOWCHART

PLANTATION WHITE SUGAR MANUFACTURING - DOUBLE SULPITATION

SUGAR CANE (FROM FIELDS)

CANE HARVESTING (MATURITY WISE)

CANE TRANSPORTATION (BULLOCK CARTS/TRUCKS)

CANE YARD
I
CANE WEIGHMENT (WEIGH BRIDGE)

CANE UNLOADING

FEEDER TABLE

CANE CARRIER

CANE PREPARATORY DEVICES (KICKER, LEVELLER, FIBRIZOR/ SHREDDER)

MILLING TANDOM (4,st)R 6 MILLS)

_________ I____________
{ J }
PRIMARY JUICE SECONDARY JUICE BAGASSE
I I
BAGASSE
ELEVATOR
BOILERS

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RAW JUICE OR MIXED JUICE (pH 5.0 to 5.2, TEMP. 35 to 38°C)
I
MIXED JUICE WEIGHING TANK
PHOSPHATE /sjpDmON (300-350 ppm)

*MIXED Jl^ICE RECEIVING TANK

RAW JUICE HEATING (72 - 75°C)

MILK OF LIME- 502 GAS

JUICE REACTION TANK (J^JICE SULPHITOR)

SULPHITED JUICE (PH 6.9 T(j7.1, TEMP. 68-72°C)

SULPHITED JUICE HEATING flST STAGE: 72-95°C)

SULPHITED JUICE HEATING (2nd STAGE: 95-104°C)

FLASH TANK (REMOVE UNWANTED GASES / VAPOURS)

CLARIFIER* (SUBSIDER)

I
MUDDY JUICE CLEAR JUICE (BRIX 15-17°, pH
I 6.9, TEMP. 95-97°C)
CLEAR JUICE^HEATER (105°C)
MUD MIXER
I
ROTARY FILTER (VACUUM FILTER) EVAPORATOR
i
FILTRATE (L/H) PRESSMUD UNSULPHURED SYRUP (BRIX - 60°)

1 ----------- S02
V GAS
ADDITION

27
SYRUP SULPHITATION TANK (SYRUP SULPHITER) pH - 4.8 to 5.2, BRIX - 60°

SULPHURED SYRUP
I
VACUUM PAN

CRYSTALLIZER

DISTILLERYs- -FINAL MOLASSES- CENTRIFUGALS

HOPPER

GIRDER

BAGGING

WEIGHING
STITCHING

i
GODOWNS

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