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Blood  Nutrients
 Salts (metal ions)
 The only fluid tissue in the human body
 Respiratory gases
 Classified as a connective tissue  Hormones
 Proteins
 Living cells = formed elements
 Waste products
 Non-living matrix = plasma Plasma Proteins

 Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure

 Clotting proteins – help to stem blood

loss when a blood vessel is injured

 Antibodies – help protect the body

from antigens

Formed Elements

 Erythrocytes = red blood cells

 Leukocytes = white blood cells

 Platelets = cell fragments

Physical Characteristics of Blood

 Color range

 Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red

 Oxygen-poor blood is dull red

 pH must remain between 7.35–7.45

 Blood temperature is slightly higher

than body temperature

Blood Plasma

 Composed of approximately 90 percent

water

 Includes many dissolved substances

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 These are complete cells, with a nucleus

and organelles

 Able to move into and out of blood

vessels (diapedesis)

 Can move by ameboid motion

 Can respond to chemicals released by

damaged tissues

Leukocyte Levels in the Blood

 Normal levels are between 4,000 and

11,000 calls per millimeter

 Abnormal leukocyte levels

 Leukocytosis

 Above 11,000 leukocytes/ml

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)  Generally, indicates an
 The main function is to carry oxygen infection

 Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes  Leukopenia

 Biconcave disks  Abnormally low leukocyte level

 Essentially bags of hemoglobin  Commonly caused by certain

drugs
 Anucleate (no nucleus)
Types of Leukocytes
 Contain very few organelles
 Granulocytes
 Outnumber white blood cells 1000:1
 Granules in their cytoplasm can be
Hemoglobin stained
 Iron-containing protein  Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and
basophils
 Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen

 Each hemoglobin molecule has four

oxygen binding sites

 Each erythrocyte has 250 million

hemoglobin molecules

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

 Crucial in the body’s defense against

disease
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Types of Leukocytes  Nucleus fills most of the cell

 Agranulocytes  Play an important role in the

immune response
 Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
 Monocytes
 Include lymphocytes and
monocytes  Largest of the white blood cells

 Function as macrophages

 Important in fighting chronic

infection

Platelets

 Derived from ruptured multinucleate

cells (megakaryocytes)

 Needed for the clotting process

 Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3

Hematopoiesis
Granulocytes  Blood cell formation
 Neutrophils  Occurs in red bone marrow
 Multilobed nucleus with fine  All blood cells are derived from a
granules common stem cell (hemocytoblast)
 Act as phagocytes at active sites  Hemocytoblast differentiation
of infection
 Lymphoid stem cell produces
 Eosinophils lymphocytes
 Large brick-red cytoplasmic  Myeloid stem cell produces
granules other formed elements
 Found in response to allergies Fate of Erythrocytes
and parasitic worms
 Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize
 Basophils proteins
 Have histamine-containing  Wear out in 100 to 120 days
granules
 When worn out, are eliminated by
 Initiate inflammation phagocytes in the spleen or liver
Agranulocytes  Lost cells are replaced by division of
 Lymphocytes hemocytoblasts

Control of Erythrocyte Production

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 Rate is controlled by a hormone  Anchored platelets release serotonin

(erythropoietin)
 Serotonin causes blood vessel muscles
 Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as to spasm
a response to reduced oxygen levels in
 Spasms narrow the blood vessel,
the blood
decreasing blood loss
 Homeostasis is maintained by negative
Coagulation
feedback from blood oxygen levels
 Injured tissues release thromboplastin

 PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with

thromboplastin, blood protein clotting
factors, and calcium ions to trigger a
clotting cascade

 Prothrombin activator converts

prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)

 Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into

hair-like fibrin

 Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a

clot)
Hemostasis
Blood Clotting
 Stoppage of blood flow
 Blood usually clots within 3 to 6
 Result of a break in a blood vessel minutes

 Hemostasis involves three phases  The clot remains as endothelium

regenerates
 Platelet plug formation
 The clot is broken down after tissue
 Vascular spasms
repair
 Coagulation
Undesirable Clotting
Platelet Plug Formation
 Thrombus
 Collagen fibers are exposed by a break  A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
in a blood vessel  Can be deadly in areas like the heart
 Embolus
 Platelets become “sticky” and cling to
fibers  A thrombus that breaks away and
floats freely in the bloodstream
 Anchored platelets release chemicals to
attract more platelets  Can later clog vessels in critical
areas such as the brain
 Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug Bleeding Disorders
Vascular Spasms
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 Thrombocytopenia ABO Blood Groups

 Platelet deficiency  Based on the presence or absence of two

antigens
 Even normal movements can cause
bleeding from small blood vessels that  Type A
require platelets for clotting
 Type B
 Hemophilia
 The lack of these antigens is called type O
 Hereditary bleeding disorder
Rh Blood Groups
 Normal clotting factors are missing
Blood Groups and Transfusions  Named because of the presence or
absence of one of eight Rh antigens
 Large losses of blood have serious
(agglutinogen D)
consequences
 Most Americans are Rh+
 Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes
weakness  Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood
into a body with Rh– blood
 Loss of over 30 percent causes
Rh Dangers During Pregnancy
shock, which can be fatal  Danger is only when the mother is Rh–
and the father is Rh+, and the child
 Transfusions are the only way to inherits the Rh+ factor
replace blood quickly
 The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying
 Transfused blood must be of the an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the
same blood group unborn child
Human Blood Groups
 The first pregnancy usually
 Blood contains genetically determined proceeds without problem
proteins
 The immune system is sensitized after
 A foreign protein (antigen) may be the first pregnancy
attacked by the immune system
 In a second pregnancy, the mother’s
 Blood is “typed” by using antibodies immune system produces antibodies to
that will cause blood with certain attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease
proteins to clump (agglutination) of the newborn)

 There are over 30 common red blood Blood Typing

cell antigens  Blood samples are mixed with anti-A
 The most vigorous transfusion reactions and anti-B serum
are caused by ABO and Rh blood group  Coagulation or no coagulation leads to
antigens determining blood type
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 Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in

the same manner

 Cross matching – testing for

agglutination of donor RBCs by the
recipient’s serum, and vice versa

Developmental Aspects of Blood

 Sites of blood cell formation

 The fetal liver and spleen are

early sites of blood cell
formation

 Bone marrow takes over

hematopoiesis by the seventh
month

 Fetal hemoglobin differs from

hemoglobin produced after birth