Duration: 130 min Grades: 6 - 8 CCSS, NGSS

TOPIC 3.0:
CELL DIVISION
(1H Lecture + 6H Tutorial)
Duration: 130 min Grades: 6 - 8 CCSS, NGSS

TOPIC 3.0 : CELL DIVISION

3.1 : THE CELL CYCLE

3.2 : MITOSIS
3.3 : MEIOSIS

https://online.lifeliqe.com/
 3.1 THE CELL CYCLE

a) a) Show the stages of cell

b) cycle

a) b) Explain the stages in cell

b) cycle :
c) Interphase &
d) Mitotic phase

3
 LECTURE Learning outcome 3.1: The cell cycle – (a) Show the stages in cell cycle.

CELL CYCLE

2 Phases

Interphase Mitotic Phase

(M)

3 Sub-phases
2 Sub-phases

G1 G2
Phase Phase

Mitosis Cytokinesis
S
cytoplasmic
Phase nuclear division https://quizlet.com/58049152/mitosis-and-cell-cycle-diagram/
division
(karyokinesis)
4
TUTORIAL W3 HR3 Learning outcome 3.1: The cell cycle – (b) Explain the stages in cell cycle: Interphase & Mitotic phase

INTERPHASE

• The longest part of the cell cycle (90 %).

• Divided into 3 phases :

i. G1 phase (First gap phase)
ii.S phase (Synthesis phase)
G2 phase (Second gap phase)
iii.

• During interphase,the cell grows and

copies its chromosomes in
preparation for cell division during
mitotic (M) phase.
TUTORIAL W3 HR3 Learning outcome 3.1: The cell cycle – (b) Explain the stages in cell cycle: Interphase & Mitotic phase

INTERPHASE
G1 phase
1) Cell growth occurs.

2) Volume of cytoplasm increase /

increase of cell size.

3) Synthesis of new cells’ organelles.

4) Synthesis of protein
carbohydrate,lipid and ribonucleic
acid/mRNA/ tRNA occurs

Figure 3 : The cell cycle

TUTORIAL W3 HR3 Learning outcome 3.1: The cell cycle – (b) Explain the stages in cell cycle: Interphase & Mitotic phase

INTERPHASE
S phase
1) Histone protein is
synthesized.

2) DNA replication occurs

3) Each chromosome consists of

2 chromatids / chromosomes
duplicate.

Figure 4 : The cell cycle

TUTORIAL W3 HR3 Learning outcome 3.1: The cell cycle – (b) Explain the stages in cell cycle: Interphase & Mitotic phase

INTERPHASE
G2 phase
1) Energy storage increases.

2) Increase in cell organelles

(mitochondria and chloroplasts divide).

3) Spindle fiber begins to form /

Formation of microtubules.

4) Increase in size of nucleus

5) Two centrosomes have formed

Figure 5 : The cell cycle

TUTORIAL W3 HR3 Learning outcome 3.1: The cell cycle – (b) Explain the stages in cell cycle: Interphase & Mitotic phase

Chromatin on the phases of the cell cycle

1) Double 2) 3) Chromatin 4) 5) Duplicate

chain of Nucleosome in Chromatin in chromosomes
DNA. Interphase; Interphase; / sister
before S after S chromatid at
phase (blue) phase mitosis
& centromere
(red)
TUTORIAL W3 HR3 Learning outcome 3.1: The cell cycle – (b) Explain the stages in cell cycle: Interphase & Mitotic phase
Stop and Go signs
(a) G1 checkpoint

In the absence of a go-ahead signal, If a cell receives a go-ahead

a cell exits the cell cycle and enters signal, the cell continues on in
G0, a nondividing state. the cell cycle
(b) M checkpoint

The signal indicates whether

the crucial cellular processes
completed correctly or
whether the cell should
continue the cell cycle
When all chromosomes are
A cell in mitosis receives a stop
attached to spindle fibers from
signal when any of its
both poles, a go-ahead signal
chromosomes are not attached to
allows the cell to proceed into
spindle fibers.
anaphase.
LECTURE Learning outcome 3.1: The cell cycle – (b) Explain the stages in cell cycle: Interphase & Mitotic phase
TUTORIAL W3 HR3

Volume DNA increase

Cell Cycle
Cells prepare for
M phase
Volume cytoplasm increase

Daughter
Cells
Cell divides into
identical cells
LECTURE Learning outcome 3.1: The cell cycle – (b) Explain the stages in cell cycle: Interphase & Mitotic phase
TUTORIAL W3 HR3

https://biologydictionary.net/ap-biology/4-6-cell-cycle/
 3.2 MITOSIS

a) Describe the 4 stages of the

mitosis and the behaviour of
the chromosomes for each
stage

b) Describe briefly the

cytokinesis process in
animal & plant cell

c) Compare the cell division in

animal & plant https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biologyexams4u.com%2F2013%2F03%2Fmajor-events-in-
mitosis.html&psig=AOvVaw2N0GlQotA1DLWrf3E82vPJ&ust=1625149396856000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=2ahUKEwjcmqm1x7_xAhXin0sFHYqbA0cQr4kDegQIARBo
LECTURE Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.

▪ Mitosis results in all daughter cells

Prophase
having the same number of 2n = 2
chromosomes as the parent cell,
which is diploid. Metaphase

Occurs in somatic cells

Anaphase
Example :
- Plant : meristematic cell
(in shoot apex,root tips) Telophase

- Animal : liver cell, lung cell

Cytokinesis
Process of mitosis will be followed by
cytokinesis. 2n = 2 2n = 2

Mitosis
TUTORIAL W4 HR1 Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.

PROPHASE

★ Chromatin/chromosome become more tightly coiled

& folded ; continue to shorten & thicken
(condense).

★ Each chromosome exist as a pair of sister

chromatids (identical chromatid) attached
together at centromere.
TUTORIAL W4 HR1 Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.

PROPHASE
★ The mitotic spindle begins to form. (It is
composed of the centrosomes and the
microtubules that extend from them)

★ The radial arrays of shorter microtubules that

extend from the centrosomes are called asters
(“stars”).

https://www.topperlearning.com/answer/give-a-significant-difference-bw-aster-rays-and-spindle-fibresif-possible-with-diagram/mm4eriii
TUTORIAL W4 HR1 Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.

METAPHASE

★ Centrosomes are at opposite poles

of the cell.

★ Spindle fibers pull the

chromosomes until they are all
aligned along the metaphase
plate.

17
TUTORIAL W4 HR1 Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.

ANAPHASE
★ Centromeres divide.
★ Sister chromatids separate and move to the
opposite poles as kinetochore microtubule
shorten.
★ The energy for this process is provided by
mitochondria.
★ At the end of this phase, each pole contains a
complete set of chromosomes.
TUTORIAL W4 HR1 Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.

TELOPHASE

★ Chromosome distributed / reach to

the opposite pole of the cells.

★ Two daughter nuclei begin to

form in the cell.

★ Nuclear envelopes arise from the

fragments of the parent cell’s nuclear
envelope and other portions of the
endomembrane system.
★ The chromosomes become less
condensed/uncoil and lengthen
19
TUTORIAL W4 HR1 Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.

Cytokinesis in animal cell

★ Contractile ring contracts, pulling the cell

membrane inward
★ A shallow groove in the cell’s surface is
★ Occurs during anaphase or telophase formed → cleavage furrow
(Campbell et. al., 2018)
★ A ring of actin & myosin
microfilaments encircles the cell near
the equatorial region
★ Forming a contractile ring, located in
the cytoplasm just beneath the cell ★ Further contraction reduces the diameter of the
membrane ring
★ Causes cleavage furrow to deepen gradually
★ Until the parent cell is completely pinched in two
TUTORIAL W4 HR1 Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.

Cytokinesis in plants

★ During telophase, vesicles from ★ Vesicles fuse together to form a cell

Golgi body move towards the plate, which develop to form middle
equatorial region of the cell lamela
★ Cell plate expands from the center
★ It contains pectin & hemicellulose
outward or laterally towards the cell wall
★ Until its membrane fuses with the cell’s
plasma membrane
TUTORIAL W4 HR1 Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.

★ Vesicle membrane becomes part

of the cell membrane
★ 2 daughter cells are produced,
each with its own plasma
membrane ★ Place where vesicles do not fuse
form plasmodesmata
★ Cellulose & pectin is deposited
between the 2 membranes to
form new primary cell wall
TUTORIAL W4 HR1 Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.

Involve the formation of cleavage furrow Involve the formation of cell plate

Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells

TUTORIAL W4 HR1 Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.

Importance of Mitosis
★ To produce genetically identical daughter cells to the parent cell
(provide genetic stability)

Produce daughter
cells having the same
chromosome number
as the parent cell
TUTORIALLearning
W4 HR1 Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.
Outcomes :
3.2 (a) Describe the four stages of mitosis and the behavior of chromosome
Importance of Mitosis
★ To replace dead and damaged cell

Cell replacement
TUTORIAL W4 HR1 Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.

Importance of Mitosis
★ To increase the number of cells for growth and development in
multicellular organisms

Some animals can regenerate lost or

damaged body parts by producing new
cells by mitosis.
TUTORIAL W4 HR1 Learning outcome 3.2:Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behaviour of the chromosomes for each stage.

Importance of Mitosis
★ As the basis of asexual reproduction (production of new individuals of a
species by one parent / organism)
TUTORIAL W4 HR1 Learning Outcomes : 3.2 (d) Compare the cell division in animal and plant

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CELL DIVISION IN PLANT & ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

No aster is formed • Aster is formed
No centriole present Centriole present
Cell plate is formed during cytokinesis Cleavage furrow is
formed during cytokinesis
Occur mainly in meristem Occur in cells / tissues
tissue / cells throughout the body

• Cytokinesis begins from the Cytokinesis begins from

center outwards the outer inwards
 3.3 MEIOSIS

a) Define centromere, homologous

chromosome, chromatid, synapsis,
bivalent, tetrad, chiasma and crossing
over

b) State the stages of Meiosis I and

Meiosis II

c) Explain the behaviour of the

chromosome at each stage
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcomes 3.3 :(a) Define centromere, homologous chromosome, chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma and crossing over

TERMINOLOGIES
Centromere
★ A specialized constricted region where the two sister chromatids are
joined after replication
Sister chromatids

centromere

DNA replication

Unduplicated chromosome Duplicated chromosome

★ The region where spindle fiber binds to the chromosomes

★ The position of centromeres varies from the middle to the end of
chromosomes
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcomes 3.3 :(a) Define centromere, homologous chromosome, chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma and crossing over

Homologous chromosomes
⮚ A pair of chromosomes of the same
length, centromere position, and staining
pattern that possess genes for the same
characters at corresponding loci.
⮚ One homologous chromosome is inherited
from father (containing paternal genes), and
the other from mother (containing maternal
genes).
⮚ Both chromosomes of each pair carry
genes controlling the same inherited
⮚ characters.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcomes 3.3 :(a) Define centromere, homologous chromosome, chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma and crossing over

Chromatid

One of the two identical halves of a

duplicated chromosome; two chromatids
that make a chromosome are referred to as
sister chromatids
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcomes 3.3 :(a) Define centromere, homologous chromosome, chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma and crossing over

Two important events occur in Prophase I:

●Synapsis
✔Homologous chromosome come together/
close association between the homologous
chromosome results in pairing up of
homologous chromosome. The resulting
structure is called bivalent.
●Crossing over
✔An exchange of genetic material between
two non sister chromatids of homologous
chromosome/bivalents at the region called
chiasmata.
✔It will contribute into genetic variation/
genetic recombination.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcomes 3.3 :(a) Define centromere, homologous chromosome, chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma and crossing over

Homologous
chromosome
(bivalent)
● Bivalent
- A pair of homologous chromosome
that line up beside each other.
● Tetrad
1 2 3 4
- Bivalent also be referred to
the tetrad, synapsis of a pair of
homologous chromosome
(four chromatids).
- Each chromosome consists of two
chromatids & therefore each bivalent
have 4 chromatids.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcomes 3.3 :(a) Define centromere, homologous chromosome, chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma and crossing over

Tetrads Form in Prophase I

Homologous chromosomes Join to form a

(each with sister chromatids) TETRAD

Called Synapsis
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcomes 3.3 :(a) Define centromere, homologous chromosome, chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma and crossing over

● Chiasma (pl. chiasmata)

● the point at which paired homologous chromosomes remain in contact as they
begin to separate during prophase I of meiosis, forming a cross shape (X shape).
● at this point, the crossing over occurs.

biology200.gsu.edu
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (b) State the stages of Meiosis I and Meiosis II

• Meiosis I can be divided into 4 phases :

~ Prophase I
~ Metaphase I
~ Anaphase I
~ Telophase I

• Meiosis II (similar to mitosis) can de divided into 4 phases :

~ Prophase II
~ Metaphase II
~ Anaphase II
~ Telophase II
⮚ followed by cytokinesis to form 4 haploid daughter cells.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

DIPLOID
CELL (2n)

MEIOSIS I
Haploid Haploid
cell (n) cell (n)

MEIOSIS II

Haploid Haploid Haploid Haploid

cell (n) cell (n) cell (n) cell (n)

• Meiosis is a form of nuclear division in which the chromosome number is

half from the diploid number (2n) to the haploid number (n).
• Meiosis is the process by which one diploid eukaryotic cell divides to
generate four haploid cells often called gametes.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

Meiosis: Two Part Cell Division

Meiosis II
Meiosis I
“Separation of sister
“Separation of chromatids”
homologous
chromosome”
Meiosis Meiosis
I II

Diploid

Haploid
Haploid
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

Prophase I
• The longest phase (consist 5
stages) & most complex stage in
meiosis.
• All chromosomes begin to
condense/shorten and thicken
and become visible
• The centrosomes migrated away
from each other towards
opposite end of the cell.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

• This phase can be divided into 5 stages:

a.Leptotene (thin threads)
b.Zygotene (paired threads) – homologous
chromosome undergo synapsis
c.Pachytene (thick threads)
d.Diplotene (two threads)
e.Diakinesis (moving through)
• The nucleoli & nuclear envelope have
disintegrate.

• The spindle fibers form.

• Homologous chromosome undergo synapsis

• forming bivalent/tetrad
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

▪ Crossing over occur at chiasmata between non sister chromatid

▪ - exchange of genetic material occur

▪ The segment of chromatids between homologous chromosome at

the chiasmata break off & recombined.

▪ At the end of crossing over in Prophase I, sister chromatids of a

chromosome are no longer genetically identical.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

Metaphase I

☺ The pairs of homologous

chromosomes (bivalents) aligned on
metaphase plate / equator of the
spindle, which one chromosome of each
pair facing each pole.
☺ Both chromatids of the homologue are
attached to kinetochore microtubules
from one pole, those of the other
homologue are attached to kinetochore
microtubule from the opposite pole.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

Anaphase I
The microtubules start to shorten.
The paired homologous chromosomes
separate & pull to opposite poles.
Causing the chiasmata to break.
This separate the chromosomes into two
haploid sets, one set at each end of the
spindle.
Each chromosome still contains a pair of sister
chromatids.
The centromere do not divide/split.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

Telophase I
• Chromosome reach at opposite poles of the cell;
The chromosome generally decondensed into
chromatin/uncoil and lengthen
The nuclear envelope may reforms and surrounds
each haploid set of daughter nuclei.

Spindle fibers/microtubules usually disappeared

• Due to the random orientation of homologous

chromosomes on the metaphase plate// due to the
independent assortment, each pole receives
recombination/ mixture of a set of parental
chromosomes
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

• Each pole of daughter nuclei now has

haploid chromosome set, but each
chromosome still composed of two
chromatids
• **haploid set: refers to 1 set of unpaired
chromosome.
• Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously with
telophase I, forming two haploid daughter
cells.
• Cell may enter a period of rest known as
interkinesis.
• No DNA replication occurs between meiosis I
and meiosis II.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

Prophase II

• In each haploid daughter cells, the

nucleoli and nuclear envelopes
disintegrate and the chromatids
shorten and thicken again.
• Centrioles, if present move to opposite
poles of the cells and at the end of
prophase II, new spindle fibers appear.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

Metaphase II Metaphase plate

? Chromosomes align separately on

metaphase plate / the equator of the
spindle separately.
? Because of the crossing over in meiosis
I, the two sister chromatids of each
chromosome are not genetically
identical.
? The kinetochores of sister chromatids
are attached to microtubules
extending from opposite poles.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

Anaphase II
? Kinetochore microtubules/spindle fibers
begin to contract/ shorten.
? The centromeres divide/split and allow the
sister chromatids to separate and move
toward opposite poles as individual
chromosome.
? The cell elongates as the non-
kinetochore/ polar microtubules
lengthen, preparing for cytokinesis.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

Telophase II
? Nuclei form, the chromosomes begin
decondensed into chromatin/uncoil and
lengthen.
? Cytokinesis occurs.
? The meiotic division of one parent cell
produces four daughter cells, each
with haploid set of (unduplicated)
chromosomes.
? Each of the four daughter cells is
genetically distinct from one another
daughter cells and from the parent cell.
TUTORIAL W4 HR2 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

Significance of Meiosis

★ To produce haploid gametes

★ As the basis for sexual reproduction because after meiosis occurs, each
daughter cells produced has half the chromosome number of the parent
cell.
★ When haploid gametes fused during fertilization, the chromosome
number in the offspring can be maintained over generations (in sexually
reproducing organism)
★ To produce genetic variation due to crossing over between non-sister
chromatids and independent assortment

52
TUTORIAL W4 HR3 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS

No MEIOSIS MITOSIS
1. Occurs in gonad cells Occurs in somatic cell
(organ : ovaries in
females and testes in
males)
2. Chromosome number of Chromosome number of
daughter cells is halved daughter cells remain
(n) the same (2n)

53
TUTORIAL W4 HR3 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

No. MEIOSIS MITOSIS

3. Synapsis of homologous No synapsis of
chromosomes occur homologous
during prophase I to chromosomes occur to
form bivalent. form bivalent.
4. Chiasma / crossing over No chiasma / crossing
occurs between non over between non sister
sister chromatid chromatid
5. Sister chromatids Sister chromatids
separate at anaphase separate at anaphase.
II.
54
TUTORIAL W4 HR3 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

No. MEIOSIS MITOSIS

6. Daughter cells are not Daughter cells are

genetically identical to genetically identical to
the parent cell. parent cell.
7. Produce four haploid Produce two diploid
daughter cells daughter cells
8. Cytokinesis occurs twice Cytokinesis occurs
once.

55
TUTORIAL W4 HR3 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

56
TUTORIAL W4 HR3 Learning outcome 3.3: Meiosis – (c) Explain the behavior of the chromosomes a each stage

SUMMARY (Campbell et. al., 2021)

Property Mitosis occur in diploid and haploid celle Meiosis only occur in diploid celle
DNA replication Occurs during interphase, before mitosis Occurs during interphase before meiosis I but
begins not before meiosis II
Number of divisions One, including prophase, prometaphase, Two, including prophase, metaphase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase anaphase and telophase
Synapsis of homologous Does not occur Occurs during prophase I along with crossing
chromosomes over between non sister chromatids, resulting
chiasmata hold pairs together due to sister
chromatid cohesion
Number of daughter cells Two, each genetically identical to the Four, each haploid (n), genetically different
and genetic composition parent cell, with the same number of from parent cell and from each other
chromosome
Role in animals, fungi and Enable multicellular animal, fungus or plant Produces gametes (in animals) or spores (in
plants (gametophyte or sporophyte) to arise from fungi and in plant sporophytes); reduces
a single cell; produces cells for growth, number of chromosome sets by half and
repair and in some species, asexual introduces genetic variability among the
reproduction; produces gametes in the gametes or spores
plant gaetophyte
57
 Leptotene
Zygotene
Importance in living Pachytene
G1 Theory
organism Diplotene
S
Diakinesis
G2 Concept
Interphase
Mitotic Prophase I
CELL DIVISION Metaphase I
Cell Cycle
Meiosis I Anaphase I
Telophase I
Types
Prophase
Metaphase MEIOSIS
Phase Significance
Anaphase MITOSIS
Telophase
Meiosis II
Significance Comparison
Comparison
Prophase II
Metaphase II mitosis meiosis
Animal Plant Anaphase II
Telophase II
Reference

• Neil A. Campbell, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A.

Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky & Rebecca B. Orr (2021),
Campbell Biology, 12th ed., Pearson Education Limited.

• Solomon E.P., Martin,C., Martin, D.W. & Berg, L.R. (2019),

Biology, 11th ed. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

• Mader, S.S (2004).Biology, 8th ed. McGraw-Hill Companies,

Inc.