Tuguegarao Archdiocesan Schools System

LYCEUM OF TUAO
Centro 02, Tuao, Cagayan, 3528
Email address: lyceumoftuao1965@yahoo.com.ph
SUBJECT: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
MODULE TITLE: COLLISION THEORY
CATALYST
LIMITING REACTANT AND PERCENT YIELD
NAME OF TEACHER: GRETHEN S. COLLADO
CP NO: 09676424833
MODULE NO: 3 (2 weeks)- SECOND SEMESTER

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
The learners are expected to:
a) use simple collision theory to explain the effects of concentration temperature, and particle size on
the rate of reaction,
b) define catalyst and describe how it affects reaction rate; and
c) determine the limiting reactant in a reaction and calculate the amount of product formed.

LESSON 1: COLLISION THEORY

Chemical Kinetics and the Rates of Chemical Reactions
Atoms combine in definite ratios to form molecules. These combinations are the simplest examples of
chemical reactions. But how can one describe the actual process? How do the reactants combine to form
the desired products? And how fast do these reactions occur?

Chemical kinetics is a branch of Chemistry that deals with the mechanism and rates of chemical
reactions. It can describe reaction mechanisms that explain how atoms or units of molecules combine to
form products. It can also identify the formation of reaction intermediates that form along the reaction
course but are used up before the reaction is completely finished. Chemical kinetics can also tell how fast
does the whole series of reactions occur. Chemical kinetics is highly empirical . It relies heavily on
experimental data and results. The discussions on this unit are all based on experiments and empirical
data.

Kinetic studies are very important in optimizing commercial processes in the industry as well as in
understanding catalyzed biological phenomenon. Nowadays, kinetic studies have also been extensively
utilized to address atmospheric and environmental issues.

The Collision Theory

One of the first theories that explain reaction mechanisms and reaction rates is the collision theory. The
collision theory established how chemical changes initiate. This theory was separately proposed by the
German chemist Max Trautz and the British physical chemist William Cudmore McCullagh Lewis in 1916
and 1918, respectively.

The collision theory is adapted from the kinetic molecular theory of gases, and is only applicable to
reactions that involve gaseous reactants. The reactants are assumed to behave according to the ideal gas
law.

According to the collision theory, a chemical reaction can only occur upon following a specific set of
conditions. There are three conditions needed to be met, known as the theory’s basic principles, namely:
1. the molecules should collide in order to react;
2. the collision of molecules should be in the proper orientation; and
3. the colliding molecules should have enough energy to react.

Collision Requirement
All molecules are moving which in turn causes them to eventually collide with each other. Solids vibrate in
place, liquids slide past each other, and gases are basically free to move in random directions.

According to the collision theory, for a certain chemical reaction to occur, the molecules of the reacting
species should be colliding with one another. This collision may involve two or more kinds of molecules (or

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LYCEUM OF TUAO
Centro 02, Tuao, Cagayan, 3528
Email address: lyceumoftuao1965@yahoo.com.ph
atoms) to complete a reaction but it can even be a single compound reacting with like molecules to form a
new product.

Molecules or atoms that are very mobile have higher chances of colliding with other molecules. The
number of participating molecules or atoms is also a factor that affects collision; the higher the number of
participating units is, the greater is the chance of successful collisions.

Orientation Requirement
The orientation of a molecule is very important for a chemical reaction to take place. As moving molecules
bounce off from walls of its container or from an inert collision with other molecules, their orientation may
change.

For example, when a molecule of nitrogen monoxide (NO) collides with a molecule of ozone (O3) with
incorrect orientation, the reaction between the two reacting species may not occur.

But when the orientations between the two reacting species are correct, with the right amount of energy
requirement, the chemical reaction will take place.

Energy Requirement
The energy of molecules involved in a chemical reaction is as important as their collision for a successful
chemical reaction to take place. Chemical reactions need a minimum energy requirement for them to
proceed, known as activation energy (E a ) .

The activation energy serves as the threshold for a chemical reaction to occur. If two reacting molecules
collide with one another and the energy of the collision is less than the activation energy, then, the chemical
reaction will not take place. Collisions with the incorrect orientation and with less than the required amount
of energy are called ineffective collisions. Chemical reactions do not happen when there is an ineffective
collision.

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LYCEUM OF TUAO
Centro 02, Tuao, Cagayan, 3528
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However, if two reacting

molecules collide with one another and the energy of the collision is equal to or greater than the activation
energy, then, the chemical reaction will take place. Collisions with the correct orientation and with the right
amount of energy are called effective collisions. Chemical reactions happen when molecules or atoms
undergo effective collisions.

Fig. 4. shows the activation energy of

general reactions in an energy diagram. The figure on the left shows that the energy of the reactants is less
than the energy of the products in the chemical reaction. This means that energy is absorbed in the
formation of the products, which makes this an example of an endothermic reaction.

Meanwhile, the figure on the right shows that the energy of the reactants is greater than the energy of the
products of the chemical reaction. This means that energy is released in the formation of the products. This
is an example of an exothermic reaction.

The activation energy of a chemical reaction is greatly reduced when a catalyst is used. Catalysts and
catalysis will be discussed in the last chapter.

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LYCEUM OF TUAO
Centro 02, Tuao, Cagayan, 3528
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Transition State Theory

After two decades, a more mathematical theory came up which explains chemical reactions and reaction
mechanisms better. The transition state theory proposed that chemical reactions resulting from molecular
collisions undergo an intermediary process to produce what is known as the transition state. This theory
was proposed by Henry Eyring in 1935 and was refined by Merrideth Evans and Michael Polanyi.

The transition state is a high-energy, short-lived theoretical intermediary form of the reactants that
undergo simultaneous bond-breaking and bond-forming processes. For example, study the given reaction
below.

For the reaction to proceed, it still needs to break the activation energy barrier. According to the transition
state theory, bond-breaking processes result in endothermic reactions. Energy is needed to break bonds,
just like the energy needed to break sticks. On the other hand, bond-forming processes release energy,
resulting in exothermic reactions.

LESSON 2: MEASUREMENT OF REACTION RATES

Measuring Reaction Rates
Reaction rates tell how fast or slow certain chemical reactions occur. There are two factors that can be
used to determine reaction rates: concentration and rate constant .

Reaction rates can simply be determined by measuring the changes in the concentrations of the reactants
or products within a particular time frame. Generally, a chemical reaction is represented in the following
format.

This chemical equation tells us that as the chemical reaction takes place, the
amount of the reactants decrease as the amount of the products increase. Now, consider the conversion of
substance A to substance B in the chemical reaction below:

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Similar to our physical concept of speed, the speed of a chemical reaction, called the reaction rate, is
defined as the change in the amount (or concentration) of the reactants or products over a range of time. It
is often expressed in the units of molarity per second (M/s).

Reaction rates are always positive. If you express a reaction rate in terms of the appearance of a certain
product in the chemical reaction, the expression used to calculate the reaction rate remains positive since
the change in product concentration is positive. The case is opposite for reactants, hence the expression is
appended by a negative sign.

This explains the negative sign written in the rate expression in terms of the reactant A. The rate for the
change in the concentration of is negative because it is the one being consumed or decreasing over a
period of time. On the other hand, is positive since it is the one that is being produced or increasing
over a period of time. This is done so that the values of the rates will be the same regardless of which
component is used in the computation.

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LYCEUM OF TUAO
Centro 02, Tuao, Cagayan, 3528
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Now if the chemical reactions were not unimolecular, such as for a chemical equation that needs to be
balanced, the rates of the reaction would make use of the stoichiometric coefficients of your components.
For example, consider the conversion of substance to substance in the chemical reaction below:

If we are going to express the rate for the given equation, it will be

The equations above indicate that as 2 molecules of A disappear, 1 molecule of B is formed. With this,
following the general equation is:

The rate expression can be written as:

The Rate Law

Another factor that affects the rate of reaction is the rate constant described through the rate law. The rate
law expresses the relationship of the rate of reaction to the rate constant and the concentration of the
reactants raised to certain exponents. The rate constant, is a constant of proportionality between the
reaction rate and the concentration of the reactants.

Empirically, the rate law can be deduced from an experiment that determines the reaction rate at various
concentrations of the reactants. Suppose mixing and at various concentrations result in the
observed rates, in M/s, shown in the table below.

From Table 9.1, concentration affects the observed value of the reaction rate. Doubling the concentration of
while keeping the concentration of constant results to doubled reaction rate. Similarly, doubling the
concentration of while keeping the concentration of constant results to doubled reaction rate. Thus, for
this hypothetical reaction, the rate law can be expressed as

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Using the rate law expression, you can determine the reaction order of chemical equations. The overall
reaction order is defined as the sum of the exponents of the reactants ( i.e. their respective orders with
respect to each reactant) in the rate law expression.

Rate laws are always determined experimentally. Using the concentration of the reactants and their initial
concentrations, it is possible to compute for the overall rate law and the rate constant of the chemical
reaction. Note that the stoichiometric values of the reactants in the balanced chemical equation has nothing
to do with the order of the reaction.

Reaction Orders and Half-Lifes

Reaction order is determined using the concentration of the reactants. They are usually first or second-
order for each reactant, or the reactant may not affect the rate of reaction at all.

First-Order Reaction
A first-order reaction is a reaction whose rate is directly proportional to the concentration of the reactant.
For the reaction

The reaction is considered to be first order if the rate law can be expressed as

A coefficient value of 1 is implied for this expression. Upon rearranging, you can determine an equation for
the rate constant, , in the form of

The higher the rate constant is, the faster is a reaction. Since the rate is expressed
in units of M/s and concentrations are expressed in M, the unit for the rate constant of first-order reactions
is s -1 (or /s, read as per second).

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Second-Order Reaction
A second-order reaction is a reaction whose rate is dependent on one of two possibilities: either the rate
is dependent on the square of the concentration of a single reactant or the rate is dependent on two
reactants that are first order for each.
Consider the hypothetical reaction,

The chemical reaction is considered second-order if rate law expression can be derived to be:

Upon rearranging, you can determine an equation for the rate constant, , in the form of

Since rate is expressed in units of M/s and concentrations are expressed in M, the unit for the rate constant
of second order reactions is M -1 s -1 (or 1/(M × s), read as per molar per second).

Provided that the reaction is second order with respect to a single component (H for example), the half-life
for second order reactions is expressed as

Zero-Order Reaction
A zero-order reaction is a reaction whose rate is independent of the concentration of reactants and is
simply defined by the rate constant, k . Consider the hypothetical reaction,

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The chemical reaction is considered zero order if rate law expression can be derived as

And since the rate constant is directly equal to the rate value, it has a unit of M/s (read as molar per
second).
The half-life expression for the zero order reaction is given by

The following example shows how these equations for half-life can be used to determine different
parameters related to reaction speed.

Example 1
The reaction of the alkyl halide C 5 H 11 Cl with water is known to be a first-order reaction. Calculate the
half-life of the reaction if the rate constant has a value of 2.0 × 10 -3 s -1.
Solution:
Step 1 Identify what is required to find in the problem.
You are asked to calculate the half-life of the reaction.
Step 2 Identify the given in the problem.

The value of the rate constant and the order of the reaction are given.

Step 3 Write the working equation.

For a first-order reaction, the half-life can be expressed as

Step 4 Substitute the given values.

Step 5 Find the answer.

Example 2
The reaction of the amine C 5 H 11 NH 2 with water has a rate constant value of 2.0 × 10 -2 M -1 s -1 .
Based on experimental results, the rate of the reaction depends only on the amine. Calculate the half-life of
the reaction if the initial concentration of the amine is 2.0 M.
Solution:
Step 1 Identify what is required to find in the problem.
You are asked to calculate the half-life of the reaction.
Step 2 Identify the given in the problem.
The value of the rate constant is given.

Since the rate constant has a unit of M -1 s -1, the order of the reaction is 2. The initial concentration
of the amine is also given.

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Example 3
The reaction of the alcohol C 6 H 13 OH with hydrochloric acid has a half-life of 20 seconds. Calculate the
rate constant of this zero order reaction if the initial concentration of the alcohol is 0.4 M.
Solution:
Step 1 Identify what is required to find in the problem.
You are asked to calculate the rate constant of the reaction.
Step 2 Identify the given in the problem.
The value of the half-life and the order of the reaction are given.

The initial concentration of the amine is also given.

Step 3 Write the working equation.

For a zero-order reaction, the half-life can be expressed as

LESSON 3: FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATES

Rates of reactions can be manipulated to a certain extent by changing or controlling a number of factors.
These factors are the nature of reactants, the concentration of reactants, the temperature of the system,
and the exposed surface area.

The Effect of Nature of Reactants on Reaction Rates

The nature of reactants that are supposedly involved in a reaction has a significant effect on rates of
reactions. This nature mostly pertains to the physical state of the reactants. Usually, reactants more readily
react with other reactants that are in the same phase or are homogeneous.

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LYCEUM OF TUAO
Centro 02, Tuao, Cagayan, 3528
Email address: lyceumoftuao1965@yahoo.com.ph
When reactants are in different phases, or heterogeneous , the reaction rates decrease. Most chemical
reactions involving ions tend to occur faster than the chemical reactions involving covalent compounds. The
reason for this is because when ions are dissolved in water, the attractive forces between ions are broken
down and are mixed with water. Dissolved ions are usually more reactive because they have no preferred
orientation for a chemical reaction to occur. Covalent compounds, on the other hand, are limited by their
bond polarity, geometry, overall size, and orientation.

The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rates

Concentration refers to the amount of substance per unit volume. This is often measured in molarity (M) ,
or the number of moles of solute per liter of solution (mol/L).

The rate of chemical reactions is usually directly proportional to the reactants’ concentration; meaning, the
higher their concentration, the faster the speed of reaction will be.

When the reactant concentration is high, there will be more molecules per unit volume, and thus, the
number of effective collisions between the reacting particles also increases. This causes an increase in the
rate of reaction.

The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rates

Temperature is defined as the measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecule. The higher the
temperature of a certain substance, the higher its average kinetic energy.

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Fig. 10 shows the effect of temperature on the kinetic energy of participating molecules. The plot shows the
number of molecules in the y -axis that correspond to certain kinetic energies in the x -axis. The area under
each curve represents the total number of molecules that have such kinetic energies. At a higher
temperature (red, T 2 ), a wider set of molecules have higher kinetic energies. At extremely high kinetic
energies where activation energy is surpassed (beyond the broken line), the area under the red curve
(represented as solid red color) is greater than the area under the blue curve (represented as shaded blue
lines). This suggests that more molecules have achieved the energy requirement set by the activation
energy barrier.

For a substance of the same identity, increased kinetic energy leads to faster molecular movement,
resulting in a higher frequency of reactants colliding with each other. This results in an increase in the rate
of a chemical reaction. Since the collision is occurring at a higher energy level, it is most likely that the
system reaches the activation energy required for the reaction to take place.

Conversely, lowering the temperature slows down chemical reactions. Milk and other food materials are
preserved at low temperatures inside refrigerators to slow down bacterial action and eventual spoilage.

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ice cubes would melt slower than shaved ice. This is because more H 2 O molecules are exposed in
shaved ice, thus, more molecules are being heated at the same time, leading to faster melting, compared
to H 2 O molecules in ice cubes.
The figure below shows the molecular interaction between the reaction of magnesium with the hydrogen
ions. The hydrogen molecules can only react with magnesium’s outer layer, and since more reactants are
in the inner area, fewer products are produced in a given time. On the other hand, for the same amount of
sample, the smaller lumps of magnesium molecules had a faster reaction with hydrogen.
Generally, the greater the surface area of the reactants, the faster is the chemical reaction.

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LYCEUM OF TUAO
Centro 02, Tuao, Cagayan, 3528
Email address: lyceumoftuao1965@yahoo.com.ph
LESSON 4: CATALYSTS
Catalysts and Speed of Reactions
Catalysts are substances that influence a chemical reaction without being consumed in the reaction. They
can be used several times and can be recovered since it does not change or participate in the formation of
the product of a chemical reaction.

In a chemical reaction, bond breaking in the reactants first takes place before new bonds can form as the
reactants are converted into products. This process of bond breaking requires sufficient energy for the
reaction to occur. It is called activation energy. However, if this energy barrier is very high, only a few
reacting molecules will be converted into products, making the reaction a slow process.

The activation energy can be reached by increasing the temperature of the system. Molecules will gain
more kinetic energy as the temperature is increased, surpassing the energy barrier much easier compared
to when they are in their original temperatures. There are instances, however, that increasing temperature
might degrade the reactants or products, or the reaction might produce unexpected side-products. These
change the purity and the identity of the final product, which is not good for those which have industrial and
medical purposes.

A method that can be used to increase the reaction rate without increasing the temperature is to add a
catalyst. Catalysts provide an alternative reaction pathway for the process of bond breaking, resulting in
lower activation energy.

Lower activation energy leads to higher rates of a chemical reaction. This means that the energy barrier
has a lower energy requirement, allowing more reacting molecules to be converted into products. Thereby,
speeding up the reaction.

Note that catalysts do not affect the composition of the equilibrium but only affects the rate at which this
equilibrium is reached. Also, alternative pathways produce several intermediates that help in decreasing
the overall energy of the reaction. These intermediates are used up by succeeding reactions to form the
ultimate product.

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis

Catalysts can be divided into two types, namely, homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts.
Homogeneous catalysts work by forming an intermediate compound with the reactants. They are usually
in the form of a gas or in a contained single liquid phase.

In a homogeneous reaction, the catalyst has the same phase as the reactants. For instance, the ozone
layer is damaged due to the presence of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) such as CF 2 Cl 2 which is present as
refrigerants and in aerosols. This happens when the ozone (O 3 ) molecules are broken down into oxygen
molecules. In this case, the reaction is catalyzed by the chlorine atoms — chlorine free radicals, forming an

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LYCEUM OF TUAO
Centro 02, Tuao, Cagayan, 3528
Email address: lyceumoftuao1965@yahoo.com.ph
intermediate compound, ClO. This compound reacts with an oxygen atom which then forms an oxygen
molecule, regenerating a chlorine atom. Since
chlorine atoms keep on regenerating, each of the atoms can destroy thousands of O 3 molecules, thus,
depleting the ozone layer.

Heterogeneous catalysts are usually in the form of a solid with reactants that are liquids or gases. In a
heterogeneous reaction, the catalyst has a different phase from the reactants.

One significant example of a heterogeneous reaction is the conversion of vegetable oils to margarine.
Vegetable oils are usually liquids at room temperature. You can convert them into solid by raising their
melting point by adding hydrogen atoms to the molecule ( i.e. hydrogenation ) in the presence of nickel.
The aim is to hydrogenate most of the carbon-carbon double bonds.

Another important use of heterogeneous catalysts is catalytic converters. Catalytic converters are used to
change poisonous molecules such as nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxides into harmless molecules,
such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Metals such as platinum and palladium are usually used for these
reactions. For example, carbon monoxide is converted to carbon dioxide by catalytic converters through the
following reaction in the presence of platinum and palladium metals.

Autocatalysis
Generally, when the concentrations of the reactants of most catalyzed reactions are plotted against time,
the graphs would show the following curve shown below. In Fig. 15, the catalytic reaction starts quickly and
slows down over time until the reaction stops.

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LYCEUM OF TUAO
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However, there are other catalyzed reactions that exhibit autocatalysis. Autocatalysis is a process where
the chemical reaction is catalyzed by one of its products. Shown below is a graph for a general
autocatalytic reaction. It starts slowly then speeds up and eventually slows down until the reaction stops.

Catalysis in the Industry

One of the most important uses of catalysts is observed in the chemical industry. Most chemical products,
about 85 to 90% of them, use catalysts for production.
Another use of catalysts is in the industrial process. Examples of these catalytic reactions include the
reformation of petroleum fractions to high octane petrol components (hexane to cyclohexane);
hydrogenation of vegetable oil to margarine; and manufacture of ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen in
the Haber process.
The most common examples of catalysts can be seen inside our body in the form of enzymes. The
following table summarizes some important applications of catalysts in the industry.

But not all catalysts are good. Some catalysts may speed up harmful reactions. Some examples of these
catalysts are families of enzymes that are called poisons or toxins. These molecules speed up reactions
that are detrimental to the normal functioning of organisms. The most lethal of these classes of toxins are
the family of neurotoxins which target the nervous system and can kill an organism, even a human being,
in a few minutes.

LESSON 5: LIMITING REACTANT AND PERCENT YIELD

Limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely used-up or consumed in a chemical reaction. It is
called the limiting reactant because it limits the amount of product formed in the reaction. Once it is
consumed, the reaction stops.

Excess Reactant
The excess reactant is the reactant other than the limiting reactant. It is the reactant that is left-over after
chemical reaction.

How to Find the Limiting Reactant?

How can you determine which reactant is limited? Consider the reaction between molten sulfur (S8) and
chlorine gas (Cl2) to form disulfur dichloride according to this equation:
S8 (l)+ 4 Cl2 (g)→ 4 S2Cl2 (l)
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If 200.0 g of sulfur reacts with 100 g chlorine, what is the limiting reactant? What mass of disulfur dichloride
is produced?
This kind of problem is an example of a limiting reactant problem since you are given the quantities of both
the reactants and you are asked to calculate for the amount of the product. To solve limiting reactant
problems, consider the following steps:
Step 1: Write down the known and the unknown quantities in the problem.
Given: mass sulfur = 200.0 g
mass chlorine= 100 g
Unknown: a.) limiting reactant
b.) mass of disulfur dichloride (S2Cl2)
Step 2: Balance the chemical equation.
In the problem, the chemical equation is already balanced.
Step 3: Convert mass of reactants to moles.
Use the molar mass ( inverse ) as a conversion factor

Step 4: Calculate the mole ratio of the reactants.

To determine the actual ratio of moles, divide the available moles of chlorine by the available moles
of sulfur which you calculated in Step 3.

To get the stoichiometric ratio, divide the moles of chlorine to the moles of sulfur from the balanced
chemical equation.

Step 5: Compare the actual ratio to the stoichiometric ratio

The actual ratio tells us that we need 1.808 mole of Cl2 for every mole of S8. In the stoichiometric ratio, 4
moles of Cl2 is needed for every mole of S8. Since only1.808 moles of chlorine is actually available for
every 1 mole of sulfur instead of the 4 mole of chlorine required by the balanced chemical equation then
chlorine is the limiting reactant.

How to Get the Amount of Product Formed?

Use the calculated amount of moles of the limiting reactant to determine the moles of product formed.
Then, convert the number of moles of product to its mass.
Going back to the problem, we are asked of the mass of disulfur dichloride produced in the reaction. To
calculate:

Now you know that 190.4 g of S2Cl2 is produced when 1.410 mol Cl2 reacts with an excess of S8. ( Note:
This is the theoretical yield)

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How to get the Excess Reactant?

What about the reactant sulfur, which you know is in excess? How much of it actually reacted? You can
calculate the mass of sulfur needed to react completely with 1.410 mol of chlorine using a mole-to- mass
calculation. The first step is to multiply the moles of chlorine by the mole ratio of sulfur to chlorine to obtain
the number of moles of sulfur. Remember, the unknown is the numerator and the known in the
denominator.

Now, to obtain the mass of sulfur needed, 0.3525 mol S8 is multiplied by the conversion factor that relates
mass and moles, molar mass.

Knowing that 90.42 g S8 is needed, you can calculate the amount of sulfur left unreacted when the reaction
ends. Since 200.0 g of sulfur is available and only 90.42 g of sulphur is required, the excess mass is:

Solving Limiting Reactant Problems

Instruction: Show your complete solutions legibly in one (1) whole sheet of paper. (Total Score: 25 points)
1. Given the following reaction:
Mg (OH)2+2 HCl →Mg Cl2+2 H2O
If 16.0 g of Mg (OH)2 and 11.0 g of HCl are combined.
a. What is the limiting reactant? ( 5 points)
b. How many grams ofMg Cl2+ will be produced? ( 5 points)
2. The reaction between solid white phosphorus and oxygen produces solid tetraphosphorusdecoxide
(P4O10).
a. Write the balanced chemical equation of the reaction. ( 5 points)
b. Determine the mass of tetraphosphorusdecoxide (P4O10) formed if 25.0 g of phosphorus (P4) and 50.0
g of oxygen (O2) are combined. ( 5 points)
c. How much of the excess reactant remains after the reaction stops? (5 points)

How to get the Percent Yield?

Chemical reactions don’t always give us the exact amount of product we are expecting. Usually, we yield
amount of product that is less than our expected outcome. To determine how much product we obtained,
we get the percent yield.
In many calculations you have been practicing, you have been asked to calculate the amount of product
that can be produced from a given amount of reactant. The answer you obtained is called the theoretical
yield of the reaction. The theoretical yield is the maximum quantity of a product derived from a given

quantity of reactant. The actual yield is the amount of a product produced when an experiment is
performed. Hence, the percent yield of product is the ratio of the actual yield ( amount of a product from
the experiment) to the theoretical yield expressed as a percent. It effectively states how much of the
reactants become product in a chemical reaction.

Sample Problem1:
The decomposition of magnesium carbonate forms 15 grams of magnesium oxide (MgO) in an experiment
based on this equation:
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MgCO3 → MgO + CO2
The theoretical yield is 19 grams. What is the percent yield of magnesium oxide?

Given: actual yield=15 g MgO

theoretical yield = 19 g MgO
Unknown: % Yield

Solution:

Sample Problem 2:
What is the percent yield of sodium sulfate when 32.18 g of sulfuric acid reacts with excess sodium
hydroxide to produce 37.91 g of sodium sulfate?

Solution:
Given: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4=32.18 𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑎2𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)=37.91 𝑔
In the problem, it is clearly stated that sodium hydroxide is the excess reactant. Therefore, sulphuric acid is
the limiting reactant. Use the limiting reactant to get the theoretical yield of sodium sulphate.

Therefore, the percent yield is 81.37%

ASSESSMENT

Measuring reaction rate

1. The reaction of the carboxylic acid C 6 H 5 COOH with water is known to be a first-order reaction.
Calculate the half-life of the reaction if the rate constant has a value of 2.5 × 10 -2 s -1 .

Solving Percent Yield Problem

Instruction: Show your complete solutions legibly in a one (1) whole sheet of paper. (Total Score:15 points)
2. When potassium dichromate (K2CrO4) is added to a solution containing 0.500 g silver nitrate (AgNO3),
solid silver chromate (Ag2CrO4) is formed.

( Note: Be sure to write down the balanced chemical equation.)

a) Determine the theoretical yield of the silver chromate precipitate. (5 points)
b) If 0.455 g of silver chromate is obtained, calculate the percentage yield. ( 5 points)

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