The

ULTIMATE
Guide to t e a c h i n g
ARGUMENTS

student-friendly guidance

instructional strategies

immediately implementable activities 

Jill Pavich, M.Ed., NBCT
Jill Pavich is an English/Language Arts teacher (grades 6-12) a curriculum
specialist, avid workshopper, writer, and entrepreneur.  Jill has published
several works, including the first-ever course book for AS Level English
General Paper through Cambridge University Press. She has consulted
curriculum for Cambridge International Assessment Examinations and is
also one of their accredited teacher trainers.

Jill's vision for her business is to provide high quality lesson plans and
instructional inspiration for high school writing teachers, and to pave an
easy path as we navigate this brave new world of 21st century education.  

edPioneer Consulting, LLC

All Rights Reserved.

 Reproducing the content from this e-book without the direct

consent of the author is in strict violation of copyright laws and
is subject to immediate legal action.  
 Understanding Arguments

An argument uses logical reasoning to support a

thesis, or main claim.  When you write to argue, your
goal is to convince your audience to accept, or at least
appreciate your views.  

Terms

argument: the process of using local reasoning to convince an

audience to accept your point of view

expressing a point of view by offering

logical reasoning: reasons to support your main claim

main claim: the thesis, or primary point, of your argument

Arguments are developed using varying degrees of persuasion. Imagine

that you are showing different ways to present an arguable point, using a
horizontal spectrum:

ive a l i v e
rsuas
a d i it on c u r s
pe tr dis
Persuasive writing would be at one end, and discursive
writing (as its opposite) would be at the other end.  This is
because persuasive writing feels very strongly about one
side of the argument, while discursive writing does not Section
(initially) prefer any one position.  In the middle of these 1
two extremes lies the most traditional approach to arguing
a point, which involves taking a stand on an issue, but being
aware of (and sensitive to) other, often opposing, views. 
 sive a l s i v e
persua d i tion c u r
tr a dis
Persuasive writing offers a one-sided view of the topic or issue.
 Meanwhile, the 'traditional' argument favors one side--but unlike
persuasive writing--it acknowledges the opposite side of the argument,
too.  Discursive writing eventually takes a side, but not until the very end,
after multiple perspectives have been considered and explored.
 Therefore, how strongly the writer makes the argument in the beginning
largely determines where their approach falls on this spectrum.

As a writer, you are expected to reason through issues logically and

maturely.  For this reason, you will need to keep away from persuasive
writing because this approach does not reasonably consider views
outside your own.  Instead, this e-book will give you an overview of the
skills you'll need to develop a line of reasoning through either a
traditional or discursive method.  

An argument:

introduces the main claim (thesis) and

supports it with reasons
supports reasons with evidence
considers opposing or alternative views
instead of ignoring or attacking them
links evidence to claims

An argument should consider different perspectives,

even when it supports a specific side.  You will need to Section
use logical reasoning to consider the issue and support 1
the side you agree with while being fair and reasonable
in the process!
In order to understand arguments, you need to understand the following
aspects about them:

context
persuasive appeals
logical fallacies

In the sub-sections to follow, we will dive into each of these.

Understanding CONTEXT
When framing an argument, context is very important to consider.  It is
an important component of an argument because it has a direct effect on
how the evidence is perceived and processed.

Context can be established by explaining what is happening around or

outside an issue.  This can help the audience better understand the
information itself and why the topic should matter to them.

Terms

context: the circumstances and information you need to

know in order to fully understand an issue.

For example, imagine a famous sports figure is on trial for violence.  The
defendant is a member of a minority group in the community because of
his race and/or religion.  The argument is whether or not he is guilty.
 How might the community's perception of his religion or race influence
the outcome of the trial?  Is it possible for preconceived ideas or
underlying values to influence the way jury sees the evidence in the case?

The influence of context is difficult to avoid, so it is something you’ll need

to consider when developing an argument.’
Section
1
CONTEXT con't
TEA
CHE
Teach about context: RS
The courtroom trial of famous football athlete OJ Simpson is an excellent
way to introduce students to the role and impact of context.  

In ESPN's documentary film, 'OJ: Made in America,' director Ezra

Edelman puts the trial of OJ Simpson into context by sharing the greater
issues surrounding the case, particularly in the first two Parts of the 7-
part film.  From race to the power of celebrity, corrupt policing, poverty,
and criminality, OJ stands as the man at the intersection of it all: 'I'm not
black, I'm OJ.'

ACTIVITY: 
After viewing several clips from Parts I and II of the ESPN documentary
and/or through collaborative research regarding the societal issues
leading up to and orbiting around this historic case, ask students to view
the 'just the facts' Trial Timeline (USA Today) of the case itself.  Then ask
them to determine to what extent context affected the dealings of the
case.

Click on the image to

view Part I of ESPN's
award-winning
documentary: 'OJ: Made
in America.'

USAToday Trial Timeline

Click here to view USA
Today's Trial Timeline.

ESSENTIAL QUESTION:
To what extent did context play a role in Section
the trial and verdict of the OJ Simpson 1
case?
Understanding APPEALS
There are several, basic ways to convince, or appeal to, your audience to
accept what you say:

appeals to authority (ethos)

appeals to emotion (pathos)
appeals to logic (logos)
appeals to urgency (kairos).

The terms logos, pathos and ethos come from Ancient Greek.

ETHOS
Ethos concerns the credibility "Of the modes of persuasion furnished by
of the writer. The audience will the spoken word, there are three kinds.
only believe you if you appear The first kind depends on the personal
very knowledgeable on the character of the speaker; the second, on
matter and seem trustworthy. putting the audience into a certain frame of
If you are sympathetic to mind; the third, on the proof, or apparent
views that oppose your own –
proof, provided by the words of the
instead of ridiculing
speech itself."
or ignoring them – your
audience is more likely to trust
From Aristotle’s Rhetoric
you. By writing fairly, you are
establishing yourself as an
authority for the reader.

Your audience is also more likely to believe you if your ideas support the views of
someone well-known in the field. So mentioning a public figure, expert or other
stakeholder who agrees with you can be helpful in building trust in your argument.

PATHOS
Pathos concerns the writer’s ability to understand and
draw upon the emotions of the audience to gain their support.
For example, arguments concerning global warming ofen use
pathos, because there are few actual facts about the issues. If Section
you change how your audience feels, it is possible to change
1
their perspective.
APPEALS, con't

LOGOS
Logos is the structure of the argument itself and the proofs
within it. To appeal to your audience’s sense of logic, it is important to present your
ideas in a rational order that the audience can follow, and to use reasons backed by
evidence. Evidence can include numbers, statistics and other data as well as
testimonial (i.e. eyewitness accounts or other ‘third party’ statements which serve as
proof).

KAIROS
One other appeal is called kairos, which means an appeal to timeliness (the
importance of doing something at the right time). A television commercial or an
advertisement that provides a limited-time offer shows kairos in action. In the same
way, if you indicate the urgency of an argument in your writing, you are appealing to
the reader’s sense of time. If you can create the sense that accepting your view will
have a significant and immediate impact, the audience may accept it.

Remember that these four appeals are not necessarily exclusive of one another. If you
use statistics as evidence, for instance, you may be appealing to your audience through
a combination of logos and ethos. This is because these stats can serve as evidence for
your line of reasoning, but they may also build your credibility since you are using
quantitative (measurable) data to support your argument!

While the use of appeals can be useful, you should be careful not to overly rely on just
one. An essay based entirely on emotion may do little to convince an audience looking
for factual evidence, for example. Meanwhile, an argument that only contains facts and
data may make your reader feel detached from the issue. To be effective, these appeals
should work together as a means for achieving your purpose.

Click here!
SPEECH: Read the speech, 'Water
Security' and identify the Section
'Water different types of appeals the
1
speaker uses to persuade the
Security' audience.
 TEA
APPEALS con't CHE
Teach about appeals:
RS
British chef Jamie Oliver's TED Talk, 'Teach Every Child About Food,' is
a great way to introduce the use of argumentative appeals to students.
 This lively and engaging video features a number of ways in which the
presenter appeals to his audience.  (It is even worth pointing out
moments where the overuse of appeal can be off-putting to an audience!)

Click on the
image to view
Jamie Oliver's
TED Talk: 'Teach
Every Child
About Food.'

ACTIVITY: 
Break students into 4 corners of the room, each corner representing one
of the basic appeals recently covered.  Share Oliver's TED Talk; as they
view it, ask each group to identify the speaker's use as many examples of
their assigned appeal as possible.  Then have each group draw
conclusions about how effective the speaker's use of that appeal was in
persuading the audience.  Share all findings as a whole class.

Section
1
Understanding FALLACIES
Recognizing weaknesses in arguments
When used well, a combination of argumentative appeals can be an effective way to
argue a point. What happens, however, when these strategies are used incorrectly?

For example, in:

• an argument that relies only on emotional appeal to win your approval. Why would
this be unfair?

• an argument that attacks the opponent himself/herself rather than his/her views.
How might this change your mind about the argument?

Terms

a defect in the line of reasoning, which

logical fallacy: weakens an argument

In both cases, the arguments contain defects (faults) in the line of reasoning, called
logical fallacies. It is not reasonable to make someone feel guilty in order to persuade
them to listen to you, or to attack an opponent’s character just because he/she has a
different view. Yet mistakes like these can easily be made, especially when the writer or
speaker is passionate about the issue. If the conclusion you are working toward seems
obvious to you, you are more likely to just assume it is true without taking the logical
steps to prove that it is. This is how fallacies are formed.

Click here!
ARTICLE: Read the article, 'A Really

'Global Inconvenient Truth: global

warming is not real' and Section
Warming' identify the different types of 1
fallacies the speaker
commits.
FALLACIES con't

Com
mon
ad hominem 
Fallac
ad populum
appeal to authority
ies
appeal to emotion
bandwagon
begging the question
cherry-picking the evidence
false analogy, faulty comparison
false dichotomy
hasty generalization
post hoc
red herring
slippery slope
straw man 

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was the first person to study
fallacies systematically...

In his work De Sophisticis Elenchis (Sophistical Refutations), he

identified and named the first thirteen of these (though there are
hundreds!).

Many fallacies have Latin names since Latin was a Section

core subject for Greek philosophers like Aristotle. 1
 TEA
FALLACIES con't CHE
RS
Teach about fallacies:
Teaching Tip...
There are dozens of names for the different fallacies, and this can get
pretty confusing for students. For instance the common fallacy ad
populum is also known as:

ad numerum
appeal to the gallery
appeal to the masses
argument from popularity 
argumentum ad populum 
common practice
mob appeal
past practice
peer pressure
traditional wisdom

Sheesh!

This is precisely why your instruction should focus more on helping

students articulate why something doesn't make sense, and less on
being able to label the fancy fallacy names!

You are welcome to teach them term names...there is no harm in that.

 But when it comes to assessing their understanding, the focus should
be on their ability to justify why the argument is fallacious ;-)

For your convenience, this e-book includes a list of some of the most
common fallacies students will come across as young writers.  

Section
1
 TEA
FALLACIES con't CHE
Teach about fallacies:
RS
Share with your students the following statements below, each of which
contains fallacious reasoning of some sort.  First and most importantly,
ask students to explain why the statement is not entirely logical.  If you
would like them to also identify the name of the fallacy being committed,
go for it (just don't make it a quiz grade!).

My favourite celebrity has just tried a new diet and it worked,

so I am going to try it, too.

If solar panels are working in remote areas in Canada, then

we should obviously use them in sub-Saharan Africa.

 According to a recent study conducted in eight European

schools, learning was better in single- sex classrooms than
mixed-gender classrooms. Therefore, single-sex schooling
should be the international standard.

Supporting the death penalty means we do not respect life.

If we do not care about life, we are more likely to commit
violent acts ourselves, and this will lead to the end of our
own civilisation. Banning the death penalty is therefore
necessary.

The farmlands to the east have not been used for three
years. Either we make the move to build a commercial site
there or we will lose money altogether.

Section
1
 TEA
FALLACIES con't CHE
Teach about fallacies:
RS
U.S. chef Ann Cooper's TED Talk, 'What's Wrong with School Lunches,'
is a great way to introduce the presence of fallacy in arguments.  While
she certainly should be praised for her work in the field of health
education (and for speaking on TED's famed, 'round-red carpet'!),
Cooper's passionate talk comes with its share of logical fumbles worth
observing.

Click on the
image to
view Ann Cooper's
TED Talk: 'What's
Wrong with
School Lunches.'

ACTIVITY: 
Watch Cooper's talk in its entirety with the class, asking students to
casually observe instances where (while well-intentioned), her use of logic
appears to break down.  Using a set of 2-column notes, have them record
'what she says' and 'why it needs work' in terms of logic.  Feel free to
provide them with a copy of the transcript as well.

Thereafter, engage in a Socratic (student-led) discussion where students

not only point out fallacious reasoning, but also offer suggestions for
improvement. 

Section
1
Understanding
COUNTERARGUMENTATION
To appear reasonable, your argument should give consideration to
viewpoints other than your own. Clearly not everyone thinks the same
way, so it is important to recognise that other views exist!

Sensitivity to different viewpoints can build trust and credibility with a

potentially skeptical audience (i.e. an audience who may not believe
you). They are more likely to accept your ideas if you have taken time
to consider alternative ways of looking at the issue.

Terms

counter-
 a strategy of considering arguments that go
against your thesis or main claim, and

argumentation:
dismissing or minimising (countering) them
in order to strengthen your own point.

If you mention an opposing viewpoint, and follow this up with reasons to either
concede to or challenge it, then you are using a counterargument (also called
rebuttal) strategy. However, it can be di icult to talk about the opposing side of an
argument without sounding as if you agree with it, especially when a strong point is
raised.

The most effective counterarguments attempt to show that

the opposite viewpoint is:

faulty

only partly true

misguided Section
true, but with limitations 1
COUNTERARGUMENTATION,
con't
When used effectively, this strategy can strengthen your argument, rather than
weaken it. An important strategy in countering an opposing view lies in the use of
tone, and careful choice of words. There are two basic elements to the wording of a
counterargument:

Writing a counter-argument
FIRST, acknowledge the opposing view by using an appropriate
transition phrase/word, such as the following examples:

This argument may look/sound/seem convincing ...

Some might think/believe that ...
Some/many/plenty of supporters think that ...
It may be logical to assume that ...
It may be true that ...
The common belief is that ...
It may appear/seem that ...
It is easy to think/imagine/claim that ...
Some evidence suggests that ...
There are some who think/believe/claim/say that ...
It is reasonable to think that ...
Admittedly ...
Granted ....
Of course ...

Section
1
 COUNTERARGUMENTATION,
con't
When used effectively, this strategy can strengthen your argument, rather than
weaken it. An important strategy in countering an opposing view lies in the use of
tone, and careful choice of words. There are two basic elements to the wording of a
counterargument:

Writing a counter-argument
THEN, shift  the focus from the opposing view back toward your own
by using a clear, contrasting transition, such as:

However ...
But ...
Still ...
Nevertheless ...

OR,  instead of using a transition in the middle of your

counterargument, you could use one at the start. For example:

 While some might argue ...

Although X might seem true ...
Though X is admittedly accurate ...
Despite the perceived notion that ...

Section
1
 COUNTERARGUMENTATION,
con't
FINALLY, introduce your evidence to undermine or dismiss the
opposing view:

ided
isgu
r m
y o
ault This is wrong/false/untrue/inaccurate/irrelevant because ...
F This view is mistaken because ...
In reality ...
It could actually ...
This is not the case because ...
It fails to consider ...
It ignores the fact that ...
It is impractical to assume ...

tru e
rtly
Pa It is also possible that ...
There are other issues that ...
There remains the problem of ...
It is more practical to ...
The benefits/drawbacks outweigh the benefits/drawbacks ...

Section
1
 COUNTERARGUMENTATION,
con't

with
b ut
rue n s
T ta tio
lim i It does not take into account ...
It does not consider ...
It is still worth considering ...
It encourages/discourages ...
It does not change the fact that ...
It may be the only/best/most e ective/last option ...

Make sure you always present your

reason followed by evidence as part of
your counterargument. A statement that
says, ‘Some believe X but that is not
true’, without the evidence to prove the
point, is not enough to convince the
reader!
Section
1
COUNTERARGUMENTATION,
con't
TE AC HER
Teach about counterarguments: S
Using counterarguments appropriately is a matter of wording.  It all
lies in your tone!  

Building an arsenal of counter-argumentative 'statement starters' to

refer to as you write. T his will help you both practice and vary your
language when using this strategy.

ACTIVITY:
Copy the table, adding at least six extra rows.
Practice organizing point–counterpoint statements by
creating eight or more generic counterargument sentences
like examples 1 and 2 in the table.
Read them to a partner to make sure they sound right.

HINT: only use one transition per sentence (either in front or

in the middle).

Section
1
 Line of reasoning

A clear line of reasoning is necessary to support any argument.

This includes:

Terms
the main point or perspective being
claim: expressed in the argument

reason: ideas which support the main claim

the qualitative or quantitative

information to support your reasons;
evidence: may appear in the form of examples,
data (i.e. statistics), case studies, or
expert opinions.
Section
2
LINE OF REASONING
Evidence is especially important because an audience expects proof if
they are going to believe someone else’s ideas and/or opinions.
Meanwhile, ‘empty claims’ (statements for which there is no evidence)
generally do not make a good impression on an audience.

In any argument, evidence can present itself in a number of ways: through

exemplification, as data, or in the form of a case study, a testimonial or
even through informed opinions from credible stakeholders.

Linking Evidence to Claims

No matter what style of essay you are writing, the body paragraphs
should always contain a combination of reasons and evidence.
Evidence is only relevant, however, if it has a clear connection to
the main claim, or thesis.

The best way to make this connection for the readers is by talking
them through it. This commentary is called ‘output’.

‘Output’ can improve your response because it helps you to justify

that your ideas are relevant. Keep in mind, though, that you should
not just put a phrase like ‘... and this is why X is relevant to Y’ at the
end of each paragraph. This is not usually enough to make the
connection clear. Your commentary needs to be point-specific in
order to be meaningful.

Words and phrases for linking evidence to your point:

exhibits affirms
confirms
is congruent to indicates
attests to
correlates relates
connects
is evidence of associates
shows
corroborates
demonstrates
applies
signifies
testifies
Section
pertains to
allies with
equates to/with aligns 2
is evidenced in
clarifies
LINE OF REASONING

INPUT OUTPUT

n, r y,
a tio s, n ta ,
rm p le me n s
fo a m m tio
in
, ex e co erva s
as n c bs ys i
e
id evid e o a l
an

Here are some questions to keep in mind that will help you to
link evidence to your point:

Why is this information important? Why does it matter in

light of the question?

What does this evidence/example imply?

What are the consequences of thinking this way or looking

at a topic/issue this way?

You have just described what something is like, or how you

see it, but why is it like that?

You have just said that something happens – so how or why

does it happen? How does it come to be the way it is? 

How is this idea related to the reason you gave in support

of your thesis?
Section
Does it truly support your thesis? If so, how does it do that 2
despite what others might think?
 Line of reasoning, con't

The 'Tree of Reasoning' Strategy

Arguments need care and attention if they are going to grow. When
taking a position on an issue, careful use of evidence and fair
consideration of the opposition are necessary.

Think of the basic elements of an argument as being similar to the

structure of a tree (as in the diagram). In fact, the first letter of these
elements can form that word:

T Thesis/main claim

R Reasons

E Evidence

E Exceptions or

challenges to evidence

The sunshine at the top of the

tree appears when you link
evidence back to claims. Just
as a tree cannot grow without
Deconstructing an argument is a great light, your argument cannot
way to determine how strong the reach its full potential if you do
argument truly is... not show your audience why
your evidence proves your
point.Add a little bit of body
text

Click HERE
to view the
Section
blog post! 2
Line of reasoning, con't

Section
2
 Line of reasoning, con't

Toulmin Model
The Toulmin model is a classic model for creating a line of reasoning that
breaks down the elements of an argument more thoroughly. This
approach identifies a total of six primary and secondary component
parts:

Claim Primary components

Reasons/evidence (necessary for establishing a
reasonable point)
Warrant

Backing Secondary components

Counterargument (supplement/reinforce initial
Qualifier reasoning)

First, a claim must be established. As you have learned,

a claim must be supported by reasons, which should be backed by
evidence. Toulmin’s model includes both of these, collectively, as the
second component. This is likely because the model was originally
designed to address immediate, everyday arguments (e.g. why you should
not have to clean your room, or why you deserve a pay raise), which are
briefer than the ones you will be writing in a formal essay.

The last primary component involves what is called a warrant, which is

your interpretation of the evidence to show the audience how or why it
supports your reason. In other words, the warrant links evidence to
reasons or claims.
Section
2
Line of reasoning, con't

Terms

an explanation of why or how the data

supports the claim and/or reason; this
warrant: can be an underlying assumption that
exists but goes unstated in the
argument.

underlying an unspoken value or belief about a

assumption: particular issue.

Writers do not always explicitly state the connection between claims and
evidence, relying instead on their underlying assumptions about their
audience.

For example, if a writer argues that fast food restaurants should be

banned (main claim) because they pose serious health risks (reason) such
as obesity and heart disease (evidence) but does not offer a warrant, this
is probably because they assume that their audience gives priority to
living a healthy lifestyle (warrant).

What happens, however, if this assumption is wrong? For example, what

if the audience considers cost to be more important than health? Fast
food might be high in calories, but since it is low in price, someone who is
eating on a budget might choose it anyway.

The point that fast food should be banned because of health risks no
longer seems as valid, since the warrant is weak.
Section
2
Line of reasoning, con't
The Toulmin model forces you to consider the strength of your
ideas. If the primary elements of the argument are not enough
(claim + support + warrant), you can add the secondary elements of
the model for reinforcement:

            backing for your warrant

            counterargumentation (attention to opposing viewpoints)

            qualifier (qualification of your point)

Again, since your arguments will concern the complicated issues of

contemporary society (rather than simple, everyday arguments),
the secondary elements will certainly be necessary. The following
diagram shows how to combine the secondary with the primary
elements:

Reasons/ Main
Evidence Claim

Point-
counter

Warrant

qualifier

backing

FINAL Section
CONCLUSION 2
Line of reasoning, con't
Here's one way of thinking about these components within the
development of an argument:
      
The data says this...
(evidence)

so I claim this...
(main claim/thesis)

for these reasons...

(reasons)

especially since we can assume that...

(warrant)

and I know this assumption to be true because...

(backing)

yet you still might think...

(opposing point)

but that's untrue/only somewhat true because...

(counter)

so for the most part...

(qualifier)

Section
2
I therefore conclude...
(final conclusion)
Line of reasoning, con't
If you have an awareness of these considerations, it will help you to
argue more clearly. You have learnt what happens when logical
reasoning does not work. This model can be useful in helping you to
identify weaknesses in your line of reasoning and to take
appropriate action to strengthen it.

Considering these elements, and using them as a guideline, will help

you to present a more stable and complete argument, and this will
therefore increase the chances that your audience will believe you.

Taking care to build a sound argument improves

your credibility as a writer because it shows you have thought
carefully about the issue before presenting it to your audience!          

Questions?
Email me at
jillpavich@edpioneer.com