Total Commitment to Education and Training WorldWide.

Turning Courseware
for CNC Machines.

Denford Limited reserves the right to alter any specifications and documentation without prior notice. No part of this manual or
its accompanying documents may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, for any
purpose, without the express written permission of Denford Limited.
All brands and products are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective companies.
Copyright Denford Limited - Version 1.04.01. All rights reserved.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Contents - 1

Notes

Contact Details
Address: Denford Limited,
Birds Royd,
Brighouse,
West Yorkshire,
HD6 1NB,
UK.
Telephone: General Enquiries +44 (0) 1484 712264
Customer Services +44 (0) 1484 722733
Fax: +44 (0) 1484 722160
e-mail: for customer services and technical support contact,
customer_services@denford.co.uk

2 - Contents Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Contents Table of Contents
Section 1 - CNC Lathe Basics.
What can be made on a CNC Lathe? .......................................................... 5
Parts of a CNC Lathe ................................................................................... 6
Principles of turning a component on a Lathe .............................................. 9
Types of Lathe Operation ............................................................................. 10
Axis Configuration and Identification ............................................................ 11
CNC Machining Datum Points...................................................................... 12
Homing the Machine .................................................................................... 13
CNC Machining Datum Points...................................................................... 14
Configuring the Tool Offsets ......................................................................... 15
Control Methods ........................................................................................... 16

Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece.

The 3 Jaw Chuck ......................................................................................... 18
The 4 Jaw Chuck ......................................................................................... 22
Specialised Fixing Methods.......................................................................... 25
Tailstock ....................................................................................................... 26
Safety Issues ................................................................................................ 27
Automatic Chuck Systems ........................................................................... 28
Measurement Tools ...................................................................................... 29

Section 3 - How does a CNC Lathe work?

Feedback ..................................................................................................... 31
Open Loop Systems ..................................................................................... 32
Closed Loop Systems .................................................................................. 33
Stepper Motors ............................................................................................. 34
Servo Motors ................................................................................................ 36
Positional Tranducers ................................................................................... 37

Section 4 - Cutting Tools.

Cutting Tools ................................................................................................ 39
Directional Type Classification of Tools ........................................................ 40
Basic Tool Shapes and Uses ....................................................................... 41
Brazed Tip Tools........................................................................................... 44
Mechanically Held Tip Tools ......................................................................... 45
Tool Tip Materials ......................................................................................... 48
Taps and Dies - Manual Cutting of Threads ................................................. 49
Drills ............................................................................................................. 50

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Contents - 3

Contents
Section 5 - Tool Geometry.
Tool Geometry .............................................................................................. 51
Angle Systems ............................................................................................. 52
Tool Signature .............................................................................................. 55
Tool Fault and Remedies Chart .................................................................... 56
Tool Setting .................................................................................................. 57

Section 6 - Cutting Parameters.

Selection of Cutting Parameters................................................................... 58
Cutting Speed .............................................................................................. 60
Billet Diameter and Spindle Speed............................................................... 61
Feedrate ....................................................................................................... 62
Depth of Cut and Tool Setting Angles .......................................................... 63
Cutting Fluids and Coolants ......................................................................... 64

Section 7 - Safety.
CNC Machine Safety .................................................................................... 65
Safety Posters .............................................................................................. 67

Section 8 - CNC Programming.

Positional Control ......................................................................................... 69
Co-ordinate Dimensioning - Absolute........................................................... 70
Co-ordinate Dimensioning - Incremental ...................................................... 71
Data Format ................................................................................................. 72
Zero Suppresssion ....................................................................................... 75
Program Proving .......................................................................................... 76
Example Program ........................................................................................ 77

Section 9 - CNC Machines in Industry.

The Business Cycle ..................................................................................... 85
Why use CNC Machines? ............................................................................ 86
Production Sizes .......................................................................................... 87
Flexible Manufacturing Cells (FMC) ............................................................. 89
Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) ....................................................... 90
What does each part of the FMS do? .......................................................... 91
Robots .......................................................................................................... 93

Section 10 - Glossary of Technical Terms.

Glossary ....................................................................................................... 95

4 - Contents Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

What can be made on a CNC Lathe?
Most mechanical devices we use today contain at least one cylindrical
component - for example, pistons, pulleys, bushes, wheels and connecting rods.
In components such as these, the quality of fit and finish are paramount to the
success of the designs in which they are used.
In order to achieve such a high quality of precision, the components are turned,
manufactured using machine tools called lathes.
Where large numbers of identical components are required, the process is
usually automated, using computers to drive the lathe. Machine tools such as
these are called CNC (Computer Numerically Controlled) lathes. The movement
of the 2 axes on a cnc lathe can be used to generate very complicated shapes,
from simple straight lines to complex curves, producing 3 dimensional shapes.

Bushes.

Pulleys. Model
components,
eg, wheels.

Ink
stamp.

Pen
Tools barrels.
using
multiple
materials. Tools,
eg,
punch or
pin
hammer.

Facsimile
models,
eg,
submarine.

Examples of components that can

be manufactured on a CNC Lathe.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 1 - CNC Lathe Basics - 5

Parts of a CNC Lathe
Basic Lathe Parts.
The main parts of the CNC lathe are the machine bed, headstock, cross-slide,
carriage, turret, tailstock, drive motors, ballscrews, hydraulic and lubrication
systems and the MCU (machine control unit).

Toolpost

Headstock Tailstock

Chuck Slant Cross-slide

Machine Carriage /
Bed Saddle
Identification of Basic Lathe Parts.

Lathe Sizes.
Lathes sizes are categorised by two factors:
1) The Swing of the lathe. This represents the largest diameter billet that could
be machined.
2) The distance between the centres. This represents the longest billet that
could be machined. The distance is calculated along the spindle centre line
from the headstock spindle nose to the rearmost part of the tailstock.

6 - CNC Lathe Basics - Section 1 Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Parts of a CNC Lathe
The Machine Bed.
The bed is usually made from high quality cast iron, well suited to absorb the
shock created from heavy machining cuts. It is common to find beds of slant
design in a CNC lathe, angled from 30° to 45°, providing easier access for the
loading and unloading of both tools and workpieces. Angling the bed also allows
any chips and coolant to fall directly to the base of the machine cabinet. Parallel
surfaces are machined into the front of the cast bed, providing mounting tracks
for the hardened bed ways. The machine bed is fixed, running parallel to the
machine spindle centreline.

The Headstock.
The headstock contains the spindle drive motors, gearing and chuck. The chuck
is the area of the lathe where the work material, called the workpiece, or billet, is
held. The headstock transmits the maximum power and torque from the motor to
the spindle. CNC machines are available with a variety of drive motor sizes,
ranging from around 7 to 75 horsepower and spindle speeds from around 30 to
5500 rpm. The spindle speed is usually programmable in 1 rpm increments.
The diagram right shows a spindle driven by a three-phase AC or DC motor. In
three-phase AC drives, the spindle speed selection is obtained through use of a
gearbox. Depending on the design of the gearbox, a number of different fixed
speeds can be selected. However, most CNC lathes use AC or DC servo
motors, since their speeds are infinitely variable between their designated speed
ranges, through use of a tachogenerator. To achieve the most favourable
torques for particular machining operations and also to change the spindle speed
range, AC and DC
drives frequently
Tachogenerator Workpiece
incorporate a reduction
transmission with two
to four stages.
The MCU - Machine Headstock
Contol Unit.
The MCU allows the Chuck
operator to enter, edit, Spindle Nose
store, graphically
display and export any
part programs.
Additionally, the MCU Motor CNC
can perform Lathe
comprehensive
diagnostics and run the
Work
parogram manually or Spindle.
automatically.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 1 - CNC Lathe Basics - 7

Parts of a CNC Lathe
The Turret.

Disk Turret Cross-type Turret

It is rare that workpieces can be completely machined without a tool change.

The turret is the component that holds all the various single and multi-point
cutting tools used to machine the workpiece. The type, style and number of
turrets on individual CNC lathes differ, according to the size of the machine and
its specifications. The most common types are the drum turret and the square
multitool turret - each constructed to hold up to eight or more inner and outer
turning tools. Calling a tool change from the CNC program has the effect of
causing the tool to rotate until the required tool is at its correct working portion.
Since most toolchangers use a bi-directional indexing system, together with rapid
traverse rates approaching 100 m/min, non-cutting time can be dramatically
improved on machining operations that demand frequent tool changes.

The Tailstock.
The tailstock is positioned at the opposite end of the headstock, running parallel
and in line with the spindle centreline. Tailstocks are primarily used for drilling,
boring operations and supporting long workpieces. On some lathes that turn
small components, it is normal for the tailstock to be omitted.
CNC lathes can be equipped with different types of tailstock; a manual tailstock
similar to a standard manual lathe, an automatically controlled tailstock, or a
swing-up tailstock. The tailstock travels on its own hardened and ground bearing
ways. This allows the carriage to move past the tailstock when a short workpiece
is being held. It also eliminates the need to extend the quill of the tailstock to its
maximum distance, maintaining the rigidity of the part.
The automatically controlled tailstock can be moved via CNC program command,
or manually using the switches on the MCU. Positioning, clamping and release
of the tailstock to the bearing ways is achieved using hydraulic pressure. Many
tailstocks are fitted with motion sensors to prevent them from colliding with any
indexing tools.
The swing-up tailstock adds flexibility since it can swing-up to support workpieces
for external machining, then swing away to allow internal operations such as
deep hole drilling and boring.

8 - CNC Lathe Basics - Section 1 Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Principles of turning a component on a Lathe
Principles of turning a component on a lathe.
The billet is held securely in a the lathe chuck. The chuck rotates the billet and a
cutting tool, mounted on a toolpost, is moved around, across and into the rotating
billet, removing material using a wedge type cutting action.
The path that the cutting tool follows determines the shape of the component. All
components manufactured on lathes are composed of either cylindrical or flat
shapes.

Example - Cylindrical shape - Parallel Turning.

The cutting tool moves along the side of the billet
in a straight line parallel to the chuck spindle.

Example - Flat shape - Facing.

The cutting tool moves in a straight line across
the end of the billet, at right angles to the chuck
spindle.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 1 - CNC Lathe Basics - 9

Types of Lathe Operation
Operation. Description.

Rough Turning The process of removing excess material from the workpiece in a minimum
time, by using a high feedrate and a high depth of cut.
Finish Turning. The process of generating a high quality, smooth surface finish, by using a
high spindle speed, a low feedrate and a low depth of cut.
Shoulder Turning. The process of generating a stepped cylindrical shape. Types of shoulder
include, square, bevel and radius.
Taper Turning. The process of generating a conical shape by turning a cylinder whilst
gradually reducing the diameter along its length.
Facing. The process of machining the ends of the workpiece to produce a flat surface
square with the Z axis.
Knurling. The process of embossing a diamond shaped pattern onto the workpiece,
used as a surface for gripping.
Grooving. The process of reducing the diameter of the workpiece over a very narrow
surface.
Forming. The process of turning convex, concave or any other irregularly shaped
surface.
Drilling. The process of machining or enlarging a hole, using a drill.
Boring. The process of turning internal surfaces, using a single point cutting tool.
Counter-boring. The process of enlarging a hole a certain distance from one end of the
workpiece, rather than enlarging the entire length of the drilled hole.
Reaming. The process of producing holes having a smooth surface finish, good
dimensional accuracy and close tolerances, required for precision assembly.
Thread Cutting. The process of machining specified external threads.
Parting Off. The process of cutting the finished workpiece from the billet, following all the
required turning operations.

10 - CNC Lathe Basics - Section 1 Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Axis Configuration and Identification
All machine tools have more than one slide. It is important that each slide is
identified individually. There are two planes in which movement can take place
on a lathe:
• Longitudinal.
• Transverse.
Each plane is assigned a letter and is referred to as an axis:
• Z Axis - This axis is always parallel to the main spindle of the machine.
• X Axis - This axis is always parallel to the work holding surface and always at
right angles to the Z axis.
Additionally, each axis is identified with a plus (+) or minus (-) sign, according the
direction of travel and co-ordinate system in use.

Machine toolpost
lies behind spindle
centreline
-Z
Z axis
+Z

+X Spindle
X axis centreline
-X

Lathe Axis
Configuration
and
Identification.

The co-ordinate system used for

designating the axes is the
conventional ‘Righthand co-ordinate +Y +A
system’, also called the ‘Clockwise
rotating co-ordinate system’. A
labelling of the axes is a righthand co-
ordinate system whenever the fingers +X
of the right hand are aligned with the
positive X axis and are then rotated +Z
(through the smaller angle) towards
the positive Y axis, then the thumb of
the right hand points in the direction of
the positive Z axis. This system is
used when the toolpost is positioned Righthand Co-ordinate
behind the spindle centreline.
Otherwise, the orientation is a System.
‘lefthand co-ordinate system’.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 1 - CNC Lathe Basics - 11

CNC Machining Datum Points
On CNC machines, all tool movements are controlled using co-ordinating
systems. Their accurate positioning within the machine tool is established using
various datums (co-ordinate points from which a series of measurement can be
taken).

The Machine
The Machine Datum (M).
Datum (M).
The machine datum
is the zero point for
the co-ordinate
systems and
reference points
within the machine.
The machine datum
is positioned inside
the programmable area of movement and its position is set by the machine
manufacturer. It is from the machine datum that the machine calculates any
programmed movements. It is often referred to as the machine zero point, or
zero datum, designated with the letter M.
On CNC lathes, the machine datum is generally positioned along the spindle
centreline and sometimes at the centre of the spindle nose face. The main
spindle axis (centreline) represents the Z axis, the face determines the X axis.
The directions of the positive X and Z axes point towards the working area, so
when the tool traverses in a positive direction it always moves away from the
workpiece. In some cases the machine datum may be moved, or offset to a new
position, to suit a particular machining exercise. This is done by using the zero
offset facility.
However, some CNC machine manufacturers align the machine datum point with
their machine reference point on one or both slide axes - this can make it easier
to set some values when setting the tool offsets. Check your CNC lathe operator
manual for precise details about datum positions and how to home your
particular CNC machine.

The Reference Point (R).

The Reference Point (R).
The reference point is used for
calibrating and controlling the
measuring system of the slides and
tool traverses. The position of the
reference point is determined by limit
switches along the X and Z axes.
Therefore, the reference point co-
ordinates always have the same
precisely known numerical values in
relation to the machine zero point.

12 - CNC Lathe Basics - Section 1 Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Homing the Machine
Homing the CNC machine.
After first starting the machine controlling software, the machine must be
datumed, or homed. The reference point is approached from all axis directions
to properly calibrate the slide measuring system, otherwise the machine will not
know the co-ordinate position of any tools in relation to its machine datum and its
working envelope.
The working envelope describes the maximum area of movement for the
machine co-ordinate system.
If the current position of the axes is lost during a machining process, for example
through an electrical failure or emergency stop procedure, all positional data will
be lost. The machine must be rehomed to re-establish its positional values
before any work can continue.
In the example shown below, the CNC lathe is first switched on, the machine
datum point is set, by homing the machine. After homing the machine to find the
full working envelope, the machine datum is confirmed as the tip of the currently
selected tool, with the co-ordinates X=0, Z=0.

Machine
Datum point,
X=0, Z=0.

Homing the Machine.

Please Note - The diagram shows tools fitted to a
toolpost which homes in the back right-hand corner of
the machine (all Denford Automatic Toolpost and
most manual toolpost machines) using a righthand
co-ordinate system.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 1 - CNC Lathe Basics - 13

CNC Machining Datum Points
The Workpiece Zero Point (W).
The workpiece zero point is
devised by the programmer when The Workpiece Zero Point
he writes the part program. It is
often referred to as the program (W).
datum, or program zero point,
designated with the letter W. All
program co-ordinate movements
are calculated relative to this point.
It is usual to make the workpiece
zero point and the machine datum
the same point.
This point determines the
workpiece co-ordinate system in
relation to the machine zero point.
The workpiece zero point is chosen by the programmer, set by parameters in the
CAD/CAM software, or input into the CNC machine when setting up the machine.
The workpiece zero point can be freely chosen by the programmer to lie
anywhere within the working envelope of the machine.
However, the workpiece zero point is usually positioned so that the dimensions in
the workpiece drawing can be conveniently converted into co-ordinate values
and orientation, when clamping, setting up the chuck and setting up the tools.
Generally, the workpiece zero point is positioned along the spindle axis
(centreline), aligned with the right-hand or left-hand face end of the finished
contour.

The Tool Reference Point.

When machining a workpiece, it is
essential to control the tool point or tool The Tool Reference
cutting edges in precise relationship to
the workpiece along the machining path.
Point.
Since all cutting tools have different
shapes and sizes, the precise tool
dimensions must be carefully established
and input into the control system before
attempting any machining. Any tool
dimensions are related to a fixed tool
setting point during presetting.
The tool setting point, E, is located at a certain point on the tool holder. This
setting point permits the measuring of any tool data away from the machine.
Data such as tool length, tool point offset or tool nose radius are input into the
data storage memory of the control system. The mate of the tool setting point is
the socket point N on the tool carrier. When the tool or tool holder is inserted into
the tool carrier, the setting point and the tool socket point exactly coincide.

14 - CNC Lathe Basics - Section 1 Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Configuring the Tool Offsets
The Zero Offset.
The zero offset facility allows the machine datum to be moved temporarily. After
the machine datum has been relocated, all slide movement measurements will
be taken from this the new datum. A typical use for this facility is where two
identical components are to be machined in one setting. The process of moving
the machine datum point temporarily is commonly referred to as setting the tool
offsets.

Configuring the Tool Offsets.

Configuring the tool offsets aligns each tool where the actual billet is positioned,
so each tool can start cutting in the correct place.
The G-code program describes the path taken by the tools when cutting the part.
All these movement commands are relative to a position set within the G-code
program. This position is usually the face end of the billet along its centreline,
with the co-ordinates X=0, Z=0.

When the G-code program is loaded into the machine,

"Imaginary"
billet. the machine datum point (ie, the tip of the currently
Billet centreline. selected tool) is also the starting position for the G-
code program. The program will presume that the billet
that we want to cut is also positioned here - see the
diagram left.

Loading the G-code program.

However, the actual billet, held in the chuck, is

Home positioned in a different area of the machine.
Toolpost
Offset
position. Therefore, the starting position for the G-code program
Toolpost
position.
must be moved, or "offset", so it coincides with the face
end of the actual billet along its centreline - see the
diagram left.
This amount of offset between the machine datum
point for the currently selected tool and the fixed
position of the actual billet will differ according to the
"Actual"
billet. type of tool, since all the tools differ in size. The
offsets must be set individually for every tool that will
Tool Offsets position. be used to make the part.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 1 - CNC Lathe Basics - 15

Control Methods
Machine
Tool N.C. - Numerical control.
This is the term used to describe machines which are controlled by
instructions expressed as a series of numbers and letters of the
alphabet.
Blocks of information, usually from a storage medium such as floppy
disk, CD-ROM or punched paper tape, are passed to the control unit.
The control unit interprets and executes each block of information
sequentially, passing data to the machine tool which defines
machine movements and machining parameters.
Blocks of
Information

Simplified
Diagram showing
a Control System
for an N.C.
Control Unit Paper Tape
Machine.

Machine
Tool
C.N.C. - Computer Numerical Control.
This is a general term used to describe a control system which includes a
digital computer or microprocessor.

Blocks of
Information

Simplified
Diagram showing
a Control System
for an C.N.C.
Control Unit
Machine.
Computer

16 - CNC Lathe Basics - Section 1 Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Control Methods
Data, in the form of a coded program, may be entered in several ways.
For example:
• MDI (Manual Data Input).
• By prepared paper tape.
• By magnetic tape.
• From a floppy disc or CD-ROM.
• From a micro computer.
• CAM (Computer Aided Manufacture).

Computer Numerical control is adaptable to a wide range of manufacturing

processes.
Applications include :
• Metal cutting
• Welding
• Flame cutting
• Woodworking
Machines of this type are capable of working long hours with minimum
supervision and are ideally suited to mass and batch production. Additionally,
the manufacturing industries which are adopting new CNC technology are able to
achieve increased productivity with reduced operator involvement.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 1 - CNC Lathe Basics - 17

The 3 Jaw Chuck
The method of holding the workpiece is important, since unlike many other types
of machine tool, the workpiece itself rotates at very high speeds, not the cutting
tool. Similarly, any cutting forces imposed on the workpiece tend to be higher on
CNC machines. The demand for heavier metal removal rates and higher spindle
speeds also dictates the need for high performance clamping methods.
Therefore the workpiece must be held both firmly and securely, to enable safe
machining to take place.
The clamp used to hold the billet at the headstock end of the lathe is called the
Chuck. Along with the high performance requirements already mentioned is a
need for better and more secure gripping of the workpiece, quick-change jaws
and specialised chucks that can hold different size workpieces.

The 3 Jaw Chuck.

The self centring 3 jaw chuck is used to centrally hold cylindrical section billets,
or billets with side faces divisible by three, such as hexagonal sections.
On manual versions of the 3 jaw chuck, the jaws are opened using a square
ended chuck key. When the key is rotated in one of the slots provided on the
side of the chuck, all three jaws open or close together simultaneously. Whilst
closing the jaws you should always ensure that the centre line of your billet
remains along the centre line of the chuck (the spindle centre line). Turning the
key clockwise closes the jaws. Turning the key anticlockwise opens the jaws.
Always ensure that chuck key has been removed before using the lathe.
Self centring 3 jaw
chucks are normally more 3 Jaw Chuck
accurate than other types fitted with
Outside
of chuck. They are
Stepped
recommended for general Jaws.
turning operations using
bar stock, forgings and
castings which can be
gripped from a turned
diameter.
For high precision
machining, it is
recommended that all
operations on one end of
a billet are completed
before altering the Inside Stepped Jaws.
position of the billet in the
chuck. Despite being self
centring, it is unlikely that 3 Jaw Chuck.
the same billet will be
replaced in the chuck in
exactly the same position.

18 - Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece Turning Courseware for CNC Machines
The 3 Jaw Chuck
Each 3 jaw chuck has two sets of jaws:
• Inside stepped jaws - Positioned with the steps pointing towards the centre of
the chuck. These allow solid billets of various dimensions to be held.
• Outside stepped jaws - Positioned with the steps pointing away from the
centre of the chuck. These allow the inside edges of any bored cylinders to
be held.
Both sets of jaws can be changed, when required. When changing a set of jaws,
you must ensure that the numbers stamped on each jaw is match correctly with
the numbered slots on the chuck body.

Holding a solid billet

in a 3 Jaw Chuck
using outside
stepped jaws.

Holding a borred
billet in a 3 Jaw
Chuck using inside
stepped jaws.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece - 19
The 3 Jaw Chuck
Removing the Jaws on a manual 3 Jaw Chuck:
1) Isolate the machine power supply. Using the chuck key, wind out each of the
jaws until they protrude beyond the outside edge of the chuck.
2) While continuing to unwind the jaws, gently pull jaw number 3 out until it
slides free from the chuck.
3) Repeat this process with jaw number 2 and finally jaw number 1.

Engaging the Jaws on a manual 3 Jaw Chuck:

1) Isolate the machine power supply. Ensure that the jaw teeth and slots are
clean.
2) Insert the chuck key, rotating it clockwise until the scroll tooth’s outer edge
appears at the top of the number 1 chuck slot. Then turn the chuck key
anticlockwise a short distance so that the scroll tooth is no longer visible.
3) The chuck jaw marked number 1 should then be engaged into the chuck slot
marked number 1. Push the chuck jaw until the thread locates on the scroll.
4) Rotate the chuck key clockwise about half a turn while holding the jaw gently
in position.
5) To check that the scroll is properly located, try to pull the jaw outwards.
6) The process will need to be repeated if the jaw can be pulled free. Jaws,
numbers 2 and 3 should be engaged in order, using the same process.

Locating a Cylindrical Work Piece in a manual 3 Jaw Chuck:

1) Isolate the machine power supply. Open the chuck jaws wide enough to
accommodate the workpiece.
2) To ensure the workpiece is firmly held, insert the maximum amount of
workpiece into the chuck, while checking that this will not interfere with the
machining required.
3) Holding the workpiece in place, tighten the chuck jaws around it. This will
locate the workpiece centrally in the chuck and ensure it is held parallel to the
jaws.
4) The chuck jaws should be firmly tightened. Finished diameters should be
protected by inserting a shim between the workpiece and the jaws.

20 - Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece Turning Courseware for CNC Machines
The 3 Jaw Chuck
Locating and Clamping Workpieces with Large Diameters in a manual 3
Jaw Chuck:
1) Isolate the machine power supply. Open the chuck jaws wide enough to
accommodate the workpiece.
2) Ensure that the jaws do not stand proud of the outer edge of the chuck. If
the jaws are beyond the edge of the chuck, step jaws should be used.
3) Locate the workpiece on the face of the chuck or the face of the jaw.
4) While holding the workpiece in place, tighten the chuck jaws around it. This
will locate the workpiece centrally in the chuck and ensure it is held parallel to
the jaws.
5) Tap the workpiece with a soft hammer to ensure it is properly positioned and
securely tighten the chuck.

Clamping a Hexagonal Bar in a manual 3 Jaw Chuck:

1) Isolate the machine power supply. Align the flats with the jaw faces when
placing the workpiece in the chuck.
2) As the jaws are tightened, the workpiece should be gently rocked and twisted
to ensure it will locate correctly. This movement will decrease as the jaws
tighten.
3) When movement has ceased, the jaws should be securely tightened.

Clamping a Work Piece with an Internal Bore in a manual 3 Jaw Chuck:

1) Isolate the machine power supply. Adjust the jaws to accommodate the
internal bore diameter of the workpiece.
2) Ensure the workpiece is properly located onto the face of the chuck or the
face of the jaws.
3) To ensure the workpiece will be securely held, the maximum possible area of
jaw should be in contact will the internal bore. Stepped jaws should be used
to secure shallow bores.
4) Open the chuck jaws while holding the workpiece in position and allowing it to
centralise.
5) Gently tap the workpiece to ensure it is properly seated and securely tighten
the chuck.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece - 21
The 4 Jaw Chuck
The 4 Jaw Chuck is used
to hold square,
rectangular and irregularly
shaped billets. Each of
the 4 jaws can be opened
or closed independently,
allowing parts to be held
more securely, due to the
greater pressures that can
be exerted on each jaw
when tightening.
Although the independent
4 jaw chuck is quite
versatile, it also takes
longer periods of time to
set-up.
The four jaw chuck has
4 Jaw
reversible jaws which can Chuck.
be independently
adjusted. This allows both
symmetrical and irregularly
shaped billets to be held.
Unlike the 3 jaw chuck, each
of the 4 jaws must be set
individually to secure the
billet.

To reverse the jaws in a manual 4 jaw chuck:

1) Isolate the machine power supply.
2) Using the chuck key, wind out the jaws until they protrude beyond the outside
edge of the chuck.
3) Continue to wind, while gently pulling the jaw until it slides clear from the
chuck.
4) Reverse the jaw and replace it in the chuck slide, ensuring that it slides freely.
5) Push the chuck jaw in, ensuring the teeth can be felt.
6) Continue to push in lightly, rotating the chuck key until the jaw is positioned to
hold the work piece.
7) Repeat the procedure for each jaw.

22 - Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece Turning Courseware for CNC Machines
The 4 Jaw Chuck
Clamping a Symmetrical Workpiece in a manual 4 jaw chuck:
1) Isolate the machine power supply. Set each jaw to the same index line on the
chuck face.
2) Each jaw should be equally adjusted until the approximate size of the
workpiece is achieved.
3) To ensure the workpiece is firmly held, insert the maximum amount of
workpiece into the chuck while ensuring that this will not interfere with the
machining required.
4) Holding the workpiece in position, wind in both pairs of opposite jaws by equal
amounts, until the workpiece is gently clamped.
5) Securely tighten the jaws. To prevent damage from jaws, a finished part of a
workpiece needs to be protected.

Clamping an Irregularly Shaped Workpiece in a manual 4 jaw chuck:

The positioning and clamping of an irregularly shaped workpiece is a similar
process although:
1) Depending on the shape of the workpiece, the jaws may not all be positioned
on the same index line on the chuck face.
2) It may be necessary to reverse at least one jaw to securely hold a workpiece.

To Approximately set a Workpiece Centrally:

1) Isolate the machine power supply. Manually rotate the machine spindle.
2) Check by eye that the workpiece is set centrally on the chuck face. It may not
be necessary to centralise the workpiece with more accuracy than this if the
jaws are accurately set on the index rings and the workpiece diameter is
significantly oversized.

To Centralise a Workpiece Accurately using a Scribing Block:

1) Isolate the machine power supply. The base of the scribing block should be
placed on the flat bed of the lathe, with the scriber pointing towards the face
of the workpiece.
2) Adjust the scriber point until it is level with the centre line of the workpiece.
3) Ensure scriber point will not foul chuck jaws.
4) Manually rotate the chuck, while sliding the scriber point so that it makes
contact the highest outside point of the workpiece diameter.
5) Find the largest gap between the scriber point and the workpiece by rotating
the chuck.
6) The nearest jaw should be adjusted by half distance of the gap between the
workpiece and the scriber point. Securely tighten the opposite jaw.
7) Repeatedly check and adjust until the scriber point evenly touches the whole
diameter of the workpiece.
The above procedures can also be used to set hexagons or similar shapes
except that:
1) The point of the scriber should be moved to touch the highest corner of the
workpiece.
2) The workpiece should be adjusted so that each corner comes into equal
contact with the scriber point.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece - 23
The 4 Jaw Chuck
Using a Scribing Block to Centrally Set an Irregularly Shaped Workpiece:
Irregularly shaped workpieces require marking out in order to obtain the
necessary information to correctly set them on the chuck.
To set the workpiece centrally:
1) Isolate the machine power supply. Roughly set the workpiece centrally in the
chuck.
2) The base of the scribing block should be placed on the flat bed of the lathe,
with the scriber pointing towards the centreline face of the workpiece.
3) Manually rotate the chuck, while adjusting the scriber point so that it touches
the circumference of the datum circle.
4) Rotate the chuck a further 180 degrees, taking note of the differences
between the datum circle and the scriber point.
5) The jaw nearest the scriber point should be loosened and adjusted by half the
distance between the marked line and the scriber.
6) The opposite jaw should then be tightened securely.
7) The process of checking and adjustment should be repeated until the scriber
point is aligned with the datum circle line around the workpiece.

Balancing a Work Piece in the Chuck.

Turning irregularly shaped workpieces or eccentric diameters means that the
weight of the workpiece in the chuck is not centralised. In such cases, it is
necessary to equalise the weight on the chuck to ensure balance.
To balance the chuck:
1) Isolate the machine power supply. Ensure the chuck can rotate freely.
2) Assess the weight required to balance the off-centre weight of the workpiece.
3) Firmly attach a balancing weight to the chuck.
4) Check the balance by manually rotating the chuck 90 degrees. Once it is
steady, release the chuck.
5) If the chuck remains stationary, balance has been achieved.
6) If the workpiece rotates to the bottom, the amount of counter balance weight
should be increased.
7) If the counter balance weight rotates to the bottom, it should be decreased.
When the chuck rotates slowly, only a small adjustment will be required to
balance the workpiece on the chuck.
1) If the workpiece rotates very slowly to the bottom, the weight should be
moved slightly out.
2) If the weight rotates very slowly to the bottom, the weight should be moved
slightly in.
3) When the chuck remains stationary in any position, balance has been

24 - Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece Turning Courseware for CNC Machines
Specialised Fixing Methods
Faceplates.
Particularly awkward
shapes can be held using
a face plate. The
workpiece is bolted firmly
to the face plate, which is
then attached to the
spindle. Counterweights
must be added since the
centre of gravity of the
billet will be offset
compared to the spindle Faceplate.
centre line. If the face
plate is run out of
balance, damage could
occur to the headstock
and headstock spindle
bearings.

Countercentrifugal Chucks.
The countercentifugal chuck is one way that manufacturers have met the need to
better the grip of the workpiece at high speeds. The countercentrifugal chuck
reduces the centrifugal force developed by high rpm values. Counterweights
pivot so that the centrifugal force tends to increase the gripping pressure,
offsetting the outward forces developed by centrifugal force of the chuck jaws.
One of the disadvantages of these chucks is the tendency to increase the
gripping pressure as the chuck slows down, which can damage the workpiece.
An alternative method is to use elements of the chuck to lock the chuck jaws
mechanically in their original position.
Countercentrifugal chucks can be obtained in a variety of sizes, from 200 -
450mm diameters, operating at spindle speeds of 5500rpm for a 200mm
diameter chuck and 3500rpm for a 300mm diameter chuck. The repeatability of
these chucks is 0.02mm.

Collet Chucks.
The collet chuck is ideal for holding square, hexagonal and round bar stock. The
collet assembly consists of a drawtube, a hollow cylinder with master collets, and
collet pads. Master collets are available with three or four gripping fingers and
are referred to as either three-split or four-split designs. The four-split design has
better gripping power but is less accurate. Collet chucks are front actuated and
the collet pads are sized for the diameter being machined.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece - 25
Tailstock
The tailstock is located at the opposite end of the lathe to the chuck and
headstock, the nose of the tailstock running along the chuck and spindle
centreline. It is primarily used to clamp centres, helping to support long
workpieces. They can also be used to hold tools for operations such as boring
and drilling, though most proprietary toolchangers on CNC lathes are more
readily used for such operations.

Holding the Workpiece between Centres.

Long workpieces must be held between centres. This avoids the end of
workpiece nearest to the tailstock from flexing, when the tool pushes against the
side of the workpiece to cut away material.
The centres are held in the headstock spindle and at the opposite end of the
lathe, in the tailstock. Before using centres, all the workpieces must be prepared
by facing and drilling both ends to receive the centres. The headstock spindle
uses a reducing bush to locate the ‘live’ centre (which can freely rotate on its
bearings) or ‘dead’ centre (which must be lubricated since it does not move).
Then the correct size of carrier is clamped to the workpiece. The carrier and
workpiece are secured against the catch plate, which is attached to the spindle.
A dead centre in the tailstock receives the opposite end of the workpiece.
Repeatability is available, when using centres, because workpieces can be
replaced in exactly the same positions.

Catch Plate
Holding the
Carrier
Workpiece between
Centres.

Haedstock Workpiece
Tailstock

‘Dead’
Centre

‘Live’
Centre

26 - Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece Turning Courseware for CNC Machines
Safety Issues
Chuck Clamping Forces.
Two devices can be used to measure the clamping force that is put on the
workpiece. One measures the static gripping force, whilst the other measures
the dynamic gripping force. The static gripping force is the force per jaw exerted
by the chuck on the workpiece when the spindle is stopped. The dynamic
gripping force is the force per jaw exerted by the chuck on the workpiece when
the spindle is running.
Each individual chuck will have a specific clamping pressure.
When the chuck jaw clamping pressure is set, the pressure must not exceed the
maximum pressure stamped on the chuck or warning plate. If a greater pressure
is used, high stress forces are created in the chuck, which can lead to damage to
the chuck, workpiece and machine. Front actuated chucks have a typical
operational pressure of 200 - 500psi. Operating a chuck below 200psi will cause
insufficient clamping force on the workpiece.
Always use maximum chuck clamping pressure unless the applied pressure will
damage the workpiece.

Centrifugal Force and Speed Limitations.

Centrifugal force imposes speed limitations on all types of chucks. Centrifugal
force will always increase as the speed of rotation of the chuck increases. This
tends to throw the chuck jaws outward, decreasing the amount of clamping force
on the workpiece. No chuck is entirely immune from this, therefore, all chucks
have a maximum rotation speed. This speed must never be exceeded under any
circumstance.
In addition to increasing with speed, centrifugal force increases as the jaws are
moved outward from the centre line of rotation, since the jaws are ‘made’
heavier. Do not mount top jaws so that they extend beyond the diameter of the
chuck and reduce the spindle speed when using special top jaw tooling
configurations.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece - 27
Automatic Chuck Systems
Changing the Chuck Jaws.
When it is necessary to frequently change the chuck jaws, to accommodate
different sized workpieces, or when additional machining operations require a
different method of holding the workpiece, a quick jaw-changing system can be
used. Systems such as these can reduce the time taken to change jaws from
around 30 minutes to 1-2 minutes, or less. Although initially expensive, the
system can pay for itself in a very short space of time. There is less machine
down time, so the productivity of the machine can improve quite dramatically.
CNC lathes can also be equipped with fully automatic jaw, or chuck, changing
systems. Some automated systems change on jaw at a time, whilst other
systems may be capable of changing all jaws at once.

Steadyrest / Follower Rest.

When long, thin workpieces or shafts are machined, chatter vibration can often
occur. Left unchecked, this chatter can damage both the cutting tool and surface
finish of the part. Chatter can be reduced using a steadyrest, or follower rest.
The steadyrest is mounted to the CNC lathe bed and can be programmed to
open or close automatically, providing feed through capabilities for the workpiece.
The steadyrest uses constant hydraulic pressure applied to the support rollers,
enabling it to adjust to the correct workpiece diameter. In addition to reducing
chatter, the steadyrest also allows the machine to operate at higher and more
efficient speeds and feeds.

28 - Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece Turning Courseware for CNC Machines
Measurement Tools

100mm/4” Straight Edged Rule.

Straight Edged Rules.
The straight edged rule is the most common and simplest all purpose workshop
measuring tool. Straight edged rules are accurately marked with a metric
(millimetres) scale on one face and an imperial (inches) scale on the opposite
face. A good quality steel rule of 100mm/4” or 300mm/12” will serve as a straight
edge for testing and basic marking out on small workpieces, when used with a
scriber.

Internal
Measurement
Main body of the caliper with
whole millimetre scale

Depth
Measurement

Sliding body with

External 0.02mm vernier
Measurement scale The Vernier Caliper Gauge.

The Vernier Caliper Gauge.

Named after its inventor, the Vernier scale is incorporated into many types of
measurement tool, the most common being the sliding caliper gauge, used for
taking internal, external and depth measurements. Other measurement tools
including the vernier scale include the depth gauge and the height gauge.
Vernier calipers are made from fine alloy steels, accurately ground and finished
to read up to 1/100th of a millimetre or 1/1000th of an inch.
Before using the vernier caliper gauge, it is important to check that the surfaces
of both the gauge and the workpiece are clean and that all parts of the gauge
can move freely.
A metric vernier has two main scales. The main body of the caliper houses the
whole millimetres scale, whilst the smaller sliding body houses the 0.02mm
vernier scale. Similar setups are available for imperial measurements. To read a
metric vernier the whole millimetre value is determined from the highest value on
its scale before aligning with the zero marker of the 0.02mm vernier scale.
Where the lines on the 0.02mm vernier scale and the main body whole millimetre
scale coincide determines the 1/100th mm value to be added.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece - 29
Measurement Tools

Micrometer.
The Micrometer.
The micrometer is a complex precision made instrument, used for measuring the
thickness of a workpiece when great accuracy is required. Micrometers are
available with either metric or imperial graduations, allowing measurements to
within 1000th of a millimetre or 1000th of an inch.
The micrometer must be zeroed before use, to ensure an accurate reading is
obtained. The spindle is extended and the workpiece is positioned in the frame
of the micrometer between the spindle and the anvil. The spindle is then closed
onto the workpiece using the thimble. When the spindle nears the workpiece
edge, the rachet stop is used until it 'clicks'. Readings are taken using the
graduated segments on the thimble assembly.
Care must be taken not to tighten the spindle onto the workpiece, since the
delicate internal threads of the micrometer may become damaged. Reading can
also become distorted through holding the micrometer too long, since warmth
from your hands can transfer and expand the metal assemblies. Always replace
the micrometer to a safe clean area when it is not in use, preferably back in its
box.
Example reading:
Above the datum, 10 whole millimetres
are visible = 10.000 mm
Below the datum, 1 half millimetre is
visible = 0.500 mm
Highest line on the thimble below the
datum is 6 = 0.060 mm
Vernier line coinciding with the line on
thimble is 4 = 0.004 mm
Reading of measurement is
10.564mm
When no lines coincide with the vernier,
the intermediate thousandths can be Example Micrometer Reading.
estimated, ie, if the reading lies
between 4 and 6 then the additional
thousandths reading would be
0.005mm.

30 - Section 2 - Holding and Measuring the Workpiece Turning Courseware for CNC Machines
Feedback
A conventional, hand operated lathe. relies heavily on the experience of the
operator.
It is their responsibility to check that everything on the lathe is in the right
position. The operator provides all this important information, called “feedback”.
If problems arise, the operator must use this information and act to adjust the
machine.
Fully automatic CNC lathes can work very accurately, since they use a system
which checks that the 2 different slides (the X and Z axes) of the machine are in
the right place when an information signal is sent out asking them to move. The
system detects if the slides are in the wrong position, at any given time, and the
computer automatically corrects any mistakes. The process of sending
information on the position of the slides back to the computer is called
“feedback”.
On a CNC lathe, the feedback information is provided by sensors placed in
different areas of the machine. These sensors are sometimes called “encoders”
or “transducers”.
Any system which uses feedback is called a “Closed loop” system, whilst those
which do not are called “Open loop” systems.

Open Loop System.

Closed Loop System.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 3 - How does a CNC Lathe work? - 31
Open Loop Systems
Machine control systems which do not have the facility to provide “feedback” are
called “open-loop” systems. The action of the controller has no information about
the effect of the signals it produces. This implies that the neither the movement
nor the velocity of the slide is being measured.
Open loop systems are of digital type, commonly use “Stepper” motors to drive
the slides.
In an open-loop system, the controller sends out information instructing a slide to
move a certain distance. This information is called the “control signal”. This
signal switches on the stepping motor, whose output shaft rotates through a fixed
angle in response to an input pulse. The movement and velocity are controlled
by the number of pulses and the pulse frequency respectively. The system is
totally dependant upon the quality of the machine components, since no
feedback is available regarding the accuracy of the system, ie, whether the slide
actually moves the exact distance required. The diagram on page 31 shows an
open loop control for a single axis of motion.
Open loop systems are satisfactory in applications where tight tolerances are not
required. They are generally restricted to smaller CNC machines due to the
limited power output availability of stepping motors - the pulses per second will
restrict the speed of the drive.

Machine saddle.

Drive motor
(Stepper).

Lead screw.

Control Controller.
Signal.

Open Loop System.

32 - Section 3 - How does a CNC Lathe work? Turning Courseware for CNC Machines
Closed Loop Systems
Machine control systems which do have the facility to provide “feedback” are called
“closed loop” systems. Closed loop systems commonly use conventional variable-
speed DC motors, called “Servos” to drive the slides. In order to keep track of the
slide position, a servo must be fitted with a sensing device. The system measures
the actual position and velocity of the slide and compares them with the desired
values. Such a control can have capabilities of up to 0.0001mm resolution and
speeds up to 10 m/min. The diagram on page 31 shows a closed loop control for a
single axis of motion.
In a closed loop system, information is sent out to the machine instructing it to
perform an operation. For example, move the Z axis from Z=0 to Z=50. This is
called the “control signal”. A sensor, called the “encoder”, or “transducer”, is used to
count the number of turns of the servo motor. Therefore it always knows its position
in relation to where it originally started.
At the same time, information is fed back to the control unit. This information is
called the “return signal” and the control unit is called the “comparator”. The
comparator compares the control signal with the return signal and balances any
differences between the two. This difference between the two signals is known as
“following error”. The system is designed to eliminate, or reduce this error to a
minimum.
For example, the feedback 1/4 of a second into the operation might indicate that the
Z axis had not moved as far as the computer had expected it to. The next, or
“updated control signal” sent out would instruct the stepper motor to spin slightly
faster, in order to “catch-up” this difference. This process of comparing and
balancing signals is carried out up to 500 times per second, constantly throughout
the operation. By increasing the magnitude of the feedback signal (more pulses per
revolution of the leadscrew) the loop will be made more sensitive.

Machine saddle.

Drive motor
(servo). Encoder/
Transducer.
Return
Lead screw.
Signal
(Feedback).

Comparator.
Updated (balanced)
control signal.

Controller.
Control
Signal.

Closed Loop System.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 3 - How does a CNC Lathe work? - 33
Stepper Motors
Electric motors are devices used
to convert electrical energy to
mechanical energy (rotary
movement).
Electrical Mechanical energy. The stepper type of drive motor
energy. (rotary motion). was fitted to earlier types of CNC
machine and CNC machines
using open loop control systems. The centre of the motor, called the rotor, is
fastened to the leadscrew of the machine tool. When energised (on receipt of
small electrical pulses), the motor rotates through small angular divisions, called
steps, hence the name.
The distance moved depends upon the number of pulses received and the pitch
of the leadscrew. A typical example is a 7° rotation per pulse.
Since each of these steps are the same, the leadscrew can be positioned quite
accurately by simply counting the number of pulses required for each step.
Try to imagine the stepper motor is a wheel with graduated segments, one
segment equating to one step. Every time the wheel moves one step forward,
the saddle will move a certain distance, say 1/4 of a millimetre. If we wanted the
saddle to move 4 millimetres, the wheel must move 16 steps. This is the basic
principle behind the control offered by stepper motors.

Saddle. Lead screw.

Stepper motor represented by

wheel with graduated segments.

Each graduated segment of the

Stepper Motors. wheel represents one step.

34 - Section 3 - How does a CNC Lathe work? Turning Courseware for CNC Machines
Stepper Motors
FIGURE 1. A conventional d.c. motor is switched on by applying a
ON
ROTOR controlling voltage signal across it and will continue to rotate
S until switched off.
The stepper motor is different because it will move in a series of
N3
S1
small steps. In order to do this, a stepper motor needs to be
S3
OFF OFF continually switched on and off, for each step required.
N2 N1 Therefore, the control voltage signal for a stepper motor is a
S2 series of electrical pulses.
The stepper motor uses two basic parts in its construction, the
N
"rotor" and the "stator".
N=North.
S=South. ON STATOR The rotor is made from a number of permanent magnets with
fixed north and south
poles. This is the part of Stepper
FIGURE 2.
OFF the motor which rotates.
The stator is made from Motor.
a number of
N3 electromagnets, which
S1
S3 can be independantly
ON N S ON
N1 switched on and off. This
N2
S2 is the part of the motor
which remains still.

N=North.
S=South. OFF

How does a stepper motor turn one step?

FIGURE 3. OFF
Note - the rotor and stator shown in the diagrams have been
simplified to make the drawing clearer.
Figure 1 - The vertical electromagnet in the stator is switched on
N3 S1 and holds the rotor firmly in position.
ON N S3 N1 S ON
Figure 2 - The vertical electromagnet is switched off whilst the
horizontal electromagnet is switched on. The "new" north and
N2 S2 south poles created by this horizontal electro-magnet start to pull
the rotor round (through magnetic attraction - N1 is attracted to
S, whilst S3 is attracted to N).
N=North.
S=South. OFF
Figure 3 - The horizontal electromagnet in the stator is now
holds the rotor firmly in its "new" position.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 3 - How does a CNC Lathe work? - 35
Servo Motors
The servo type of drive motor incorporates power amplification and feedback, in
order to balance the output signal with the input signal and hence follow a
command signal accurately. Servo motors offer constant torque (twisting force)
across most of the speed ranges, so the size of the motor remains relatively
small.
The drives motors are usually connected directly to the leadscrew of the
machine, so a stiff drive is always provided. In CNC machines where indirect
systems are used, such as a pulley drive belt, the high accuracy and quality of
the feedback can become compromised.

Servo Motors.

36 - Section 3 - How does a CNC Lathe work? Turning Courseware for CNC Machines
Positional Tranducers
The Role of Positional Tranducers.
A transducer is simply a device that converts one form of energy to another.
There are basically two types of position-measuring transducer that are used on
CNC machine tools:
• Linear transducers.
• Angular transducers.

Linear Tansducers.
Linear transducers, more commonly used in CNC milling machines, work by
recording the movement of the machine table. A linear scale is engraved onto a
moving work table. The scale is a series of parallel lines. A beam of light is
shone over the gratings so that as the table moves the beam of light is
interrupted giving a pulsing effect. This pulse is ‘picked up’ by a photocell and
information from it is sent back to the controller. By knowing the pitch of the
engraved lines and counting the pulses it is possible to establish the distance the
machine table has moved.

Linear tranducers.

Table

Gratings

Light source
Photocell

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 3 - How does a CNC Lathe work? - 37
Positional Tranducers
Angular Transducers.
Angular transducers measure angular rotation of the axis leadscrew. If we know
the pitch of the leadscrew the movement of the table can be easily found.
A radial grating disc is fastened onto the machine spindle. This disc has
alternate transparent opaque areas. These areas pass in front of a beam of light
as the leadscrew rotates, the intensity of the light onto the photocell varies.

Angular
Radial grating disc
Transducers.

Lighting
source
Photocell

As the photocell gives out a voltage that varies according to the intensity of the
light beam the output is in the form of a sine wave, shown below....

Light Dark Light Output

voltage in
the form of
a sine wave.
The voltage at this point is said to be in analogue form. A Schmitt Trigger
converts this analogue signal to a Digital signal which has a square form, shown
below... The output signal can now be recognised as a series of pulses which
represent movement of the leadscrew. By knowing the pitch of the leadscrew
and the number of transparent areas on the engraved disc, the exact distance
the slide moves can be determined by calculating the number of pulses.

High Digital
Signal.
Low

38 - Section 3 - How does a CNC Lathe work? Turning Courseware for CNC Machines
Cutting Tools
Classification of Single Point Tools.
Lathe cutting tools need to be both hard and tough, due to the extreme forces
that are exerted on their tips. There are four basic categories of single point
cutting tool:
1) Ground Tools - The cutting edge is formed by grinding the end of a piece of
steel stock.
2) Forged Tools - The cutting edge is formed by rough forging, before hardening
and grinding the cutting edge.
3) Brazed tip tools - The cutting edge is formed by brazing a small tip of high
grade material to a toolholder shank of lower grade material.
4) Mechanically held tip tools - The cutting edge is formed by mechanically
holding a small disposable high grade material tip in a toolholder shank.
Since only the very end of the tools are used to cut away material,
interchangeable cutting tips are much more flexible, since each single worn
tip can be simply replaced by a new one. Tips can also be ground for special
operations and quickly changed when they are required. Both high speed
steel and carbide bits are available for purpose made holders.

Tool Selection.
The selection of the cutting tool is probably one of the most important choices
you will need to make to ensure successful operations. An incorrect choice of
cutting tool could have many consequences relating to the following areas.
1) Load - If a cutting tool is not able to adequately sustain the load under which it
is placed, it is liable to flex, causing chattering or breakage. Both of these
would ruin a work piece.
2) Profile Depth - If the cutting tool selected is not of the correct geometry then it
will be unable to cut the billet with enough accuracy to achieve the required
tolerance.
3) Removal Rate - If the cutting tool selected is not able to achieve the required
removal rate then the initial roughing process will be slow and laborious.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 4 - Cutting Tools - 39

Directional Type Classification of Tools
Single point tools can also be classified in one of the following directional
categories, based on the type of cutting performed:
1) Right hand type.
2) Left hand type.
3) Neutral type.
This directional type classification is determined by laying your hand on the tool,
palm facing downward, so that while your fingers are pointing towards the tool
point, your thumb points to the side of the tool with the main cutting edge.

Right Hand Type Tool. Left Hand Type Tool.

A right hand type tool moves from the right A left hand type tool moves from the left to
to the left, along the lathe bed, ie, from the the right, along the lathe bed, ie, from the
tailstock end to the headstock end. headstock end to the tailstock end.
Right hand tools have their cutting edge on Left hand tools have their cutting edge on
the left when viewed from the top with their the right when viewed from the top, with
nose pointing away from the operator. their nose pointing away from the operator.

Direction of travel. Direction of travel.

Neutral Type Tool.

A neutral type tool can move in either direction, from right to left, or from left to right. For this
reason, they are constructed with zero back rake and side rake angles. In special cases, a small
back rake angle is used. A neutral type tool is used for finish turning operations, with an approach
angle of 45 degrees.

40 - Section 4 - Cutting Tools Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Basic Tool Shapes and Uses
The Heavy Duty Roughing Tool.
Used for: General Shaping - removing large amounts of
material quickly and efficiently. Its thick shank
and extremely large wedge angle make it very
rigid allowing deep, fast cuts.
Notes: Safety implications - since cutting forces are likely
to be high, great care must be taken to ensure all
cutting angles are correct. Too large a cutting
angle may result in the workpiece being
damaged. Too small a cutting angle may result in
the tool being damaged.

The 45 Degree Roughing Tool.

Used for: General Shaping - removing large amounts of
material quickly and efficiently, though lighter cuts
are taken when compared to the heavy duty
roughing tool. It is more commonly used towards
the end of the roughing process.
Notes: Safety implications - since cutting forces are likely
to be high, great care must be taken to ensure all
cutting angles are correct. Too large a cutting
angle may result in the workpiece being damaged.
Too small a cutting angle may result in the tool
being damaged.

The Straight Round Nose Tool.

Used for: Finishing operations - removing minimal material
to produce a high quality surface finish. The
straight round nose tool can be used to either
provide a bevelled edge or shoulder on a
workpiece or as a finishing tool due to its round
nose.
Notes: Quality implications - The smaller nose radius on
this tool dictates the quality of finish, since this
reduces the surface of the cutting area. It is
important that the correct balance of angles is
maintained, as they can effect the radius. A larger
radius can result in chatter. A smaller radius can

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 4 - Cutting Tools - 41

Basic Tool Shapes and Uses
The Cranked Round Nose Tool.
Used for: The cranked round nose tool is used to make sure
that the billet is perfectly round by just travelling
along the bottom edge of the billet and removing
any material projecting from it. This guarantees a
regular shape and should be used with all billets
before any other machining takes place.
Notes: Safety implications - This tool is used when
clearance angles are the prime consideration, for
example, when machining close to the machine
chuck. The cranked round nose tool can be used
for most operations, so long as the correct cutting
angles are ground and used.

The RH Knife Tool.

Used for: The knife tool is normally used for medium to light
cuts, often to create a shoulder on a billet. The
RH means that the tool is right handed and
therefore that it cuts from the right. Left handed
tools are also available.
Notes: Quality implications - Often used for finishing
operations. When this is the case, the correct
cutting angles must be maintained. Too small a
cutting angle may result in rubbing to produce
chatter and a poor surface finish.

The Facing Tool.

Used for: Facing the workpiece or a turned shoulder.
Notes: Quality implications - When machining a shoulder,
check that the tool nose radius is compliant with
the tolerance required on the part. Correct cutting
angles must be maintained to eliminate rubbing
and chatter.

42 - Section 4 - Cutting Tools Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Basic Tool Shapes and Uses
The Threading Tool.
Used for: Producing outside threads on the workpiece. It
must be used with a calculated spindle speed,
feed rate and cutting depth as these values
dictate the pitch of the thread.
Notes: Quality implications - The cutting tool angles must
be ground to specific values depending on the
pitch of the thread to be cut. Correct cutting
angles must be used to prevent chattering and
shredding of thread flanks.

The Recessing Tool.

Used for: Producing recesses in the workpiece.
Notes: Quality implications - The cutting tool must be
ground to specific width and length depending on
the size of recessing required. Too large a
clearance angle may result in chatter, a poor
surface finish, possible breakage of the tool and
damage to the workpiece. Too small a clearance
angle may result in the tool overheating, damaging
both the tool and the workpiece.

The Parting Tool.

Used for: Removing the finished part from the remainder of
the workpiece.
Notes: Safety implications - The parting tool is shaped to
allow the finished part to be cleanly cut from the
remainder of the workpiece, without having to
remove it from the lathe. Parting tools are
normally ground so that a minimum amount of
material is wasted in the operation. If the tool is
undersized there is a greater chance of it
breaking. Too large a clearance angle may result
in the tool flexing and the part will not be cut away
cleanly. Too small a clearance angle may result in
the tool rubbing, overheating and both the tool
and part being damaged.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 4 - Cutting Tools - 43

Brazed Tip Tools
The International Standards Organisation has standardised nine types of brazed
carbide tools, covering turning, shouldering, chamfering, grooving, parting and
boring operations, as shown in the diagram below.

ISO Classification of Brazed Tools.

Advantages of brazed tip tools:

• They are suitable for general purpose work.
• They have a low unit cost.
• They require less space compared to mechanical toolholders.
• Special tools can be readily formed with non standard cutting edges.

Disadvantages of brazed tip tools:

• They have high regrinding costs.
• Brazing of the carbide tip to the steel shank can cause residual stresses that
cause breakage of the tip during resharpening or cutting procedures.
• Speeds and feedrates require careful monitoring to prolong tool tip life.

44 - Section 4 - Cutting Tools Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Mechanically Held Tip Tools
Tips are made from specially developed high grade materials, such as carbides,
ceramics, cermets and diamond. The inserts are purchased in different sizes
and shapes, ready for use, with cutting edges on a number of indexable planes.
When all the cutting edges have been used, the tip is discarded and simply

Inserts can be adjusted to

Positioning the Tip to suit the provide various approach
Cutting Operation. angles, according the type
of toolholder used.

The inserts are available in

Standard Tip Shapes. a number of different
shapes. The overall
strength of the tool depends
on the tool tip angles, round
inserts being the strongest.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 4 - Cutting Tools - 45

Mechanically Held Tip Tools
Advantages of mechanically held tip tools:
• No regrinding or resharpening is required.
• Since inserts can be indexed very accurately, tool tip and holder change times
are greatly reduced.
• High speeds and feedrates are permissible.
• When using negative rake angles, both the top and bottom cutting edges can
be used, doubling the number of cutting edges of the insert.
• Specially coated tips, such as titanium carbide can be readily used.

Use of Insert Shapes for

Various Turning Operations.

46 - Section 4 - Cutting Tools Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Mechanically Held Tip Tools
Selection of Indexable Insert.
Insert selection is mainly based upon the characteristics of the insert and the
requirements of the application. Performance aspects and cost considerations
should be taken into account in the selection process, together with the material
cutting grade.

Selection criteria: Insert Shape.

• In general, inserts with larger included angles should be chosen over those
with smaller angles, in the following order: S (90°), C and W (80°), T (60°), D
(55°), V (35°).
• Where applicable, the trigon shape W (80°) should be chosen over the C
insert, since more cutting edges are available.
• Round inserts are an alternative to S inserts and may also be suitable for use
in form turning.
• Negative rake inserts which are useable on both sides are more cost effective
than one sided positive rake inserts.
• Positive rake inserts offer advantages in turning operations using thin walled
parts and soft work materials.

Selection criteria: Cutting Edge Length.

The size of an indexable insert is governed Cutting Edge Length.
by the maximum depth of cut, the approach
angle, insert shape and geometry.
Approach angles vary between 75° - 105°.
The effective cutting edge length is roughly
equal to the maximum depth of cut.

Selection criteria: Corner Radius.

The corner radius determines the strength
of the cutting point, the maximum
admissible feed and the suitable finish of
the workpiece.
Generally, always try to select the largest possible corner radius.
The following maximum radii, depending on the feedrate, are recommended for
roughing operations:
Radius r > 1.6 x Feedrate f (for insert shapes C and S).
Radius r > 2.5 x Feedrate f (for insert shapes D and T).
When finishing, good surfaces are achieved with:
• Higher cutting speeds.
• Inserts with sharp cutting edges.
• Positive rake angles and positive chip breaker geometries.
• Use of cermet tips.
• Rigid machining setups.
• Use of easily machinable work materials.
• Use of cutting fluids.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 4 - Cutting Tools - 47

Tool Tip Materials
Stellites.
Stellite is a cobalt based alloy which contains little or no iron. The alloy,
composed of 50% Cobalt, 33% Tungsten, 3% Carbon and 14% of various other
materials can only be used for casting to shape or deposited as a hard facing.
Stellite is naturally hard and requires no heat treatment. In fact, it is so hard that
it can only be machined by grinding. Stellite is slightly softer than high speed
steel but it keeps its hardness even when the cutting edge is glowing red hot.
Due to the properties of Stellite, it is very expensive compared to high speed
steel and as it is extremely strong and tough, would be suitable for use in
standard tool holders at high values of positive rake angles.

Metallic Carbides.
Metallic carbides are harder and cheaper than Stellite, yet are capable of
operating at the same temperature. Again the metal is so hard it can only be
machined using Green grit silicon abrasive wheels. There are three categories
of carbide:
1) Tungsten Carbide - This metal is used to machine materials like cast bronze
and grey cast iron as it is very hard. As a result of the casting process
Tungsten carbides have a hard and abrasive skin but a relative low tensile
strength.
2) Mixed Carbides - These are mixtures of tungsten and titanium carbides. They
are not as hard and abrasion resistant as straight tungsten carbide but can be
much stronger and tougher and are mainly used to cut high strength
materials.
3) Coated carbides - These are the most expensive type of carbide because it
can run up to 30% faster than the recommended speed for tungsten and
mixed carbides without any reduction in the life expectancy.

Ceramics.
Ceramics tips are harder but less brittle than those made from carbides. The
most common form of ceramic is aluminium oxide which can be pure or mixed
with other metallic oxides like chromic oxide. Ceramic tips can only be used if it
is clamped on to an object as it can’t be brassed. Ceramic tips are very weak
under tension and the edges chip easily. This metal is most commonly used for
high speed, high quality finishing cuts.
Machines that use ceramic tooling must be powerful and very rigid to utilise the
full power of this material’s special properties. Cutting speeds from 150-300 m/
min are very common when using ceramic tooling, but vibration chatter will
immediately make the tool unusable. The rake angle for ceramic tools is
normally between -5 to -7 degrees and the chips are often seen flying off red hot
due to the high power necessary when using ceramic tooling.

48 - Section 4 - Cutting Tools Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Taps and Dies - Manual Cutting of Threads
The Tap.
The tap is used for manually cutting internal threads. It is similar in shape to a
screw, although it has narrow slits along its length to allow the surplus material to
be ejected from the hole being tapped. Before tapping a work piece, ensure it is
secured in a vice. The tap should then be turned inside the hole to be threaded,
using a tap wrench to apply the necessary leverage. Alternatively, the work
piece can be secured in a chuck and the tap turned by using the tailstock. The
thread is cut by simultaneously turning the chuck anti-clockwise while turning the
tailstock clockwise.
Note: For every two full turns of the chuck in an anti-clockwise direction, you
must turn it half a turn clockwise to stop the tap from clogging.

The Die.
The die is used for manually cutting external threads. It has internal cutting
edges with narrow slits along its length to allow surplus material to be removed
from the thread being cut. Before using the die, ensure the work piece is
secured in a vice. The die should then be turned on the billet, using a spring-
loaded centre or wrench to give the necessary leverage. Alternatively, the work
piece can be secured in the chuck and the tailstock can be used to turn the die.
The thread is cut by simultaneously turning the chuck anti-clockwise while turning
the tailstock clockwise.
Note: For every two full turns of the chuck in an anti-clockwise direction, you
must turn it half a turn clockwise to stop the die from clogging.

Manual Die
Holder.
Manual Tap
Holder.

Standard Standard Set

Set of of Dies.
Taps.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 4 - Cutting Tools - 49

Drills
The Centre Drill.
The centre drill is used in drilling and countersinking centre holes in one
operation. Countersinks are set at 60° and a wide variety of drill sizes are
available according the the operation required.
When drilling operations are performed, centre drills are used to provide pilot
holes, to help guide the main drill bit.
When using lathe centres, the hollow created at the bottom of the countersinking
hole leaves clearance for the centre point and provides a reservoir for lubricant.

Too
deeply
drilled.

Workpiece Lathe Centre

Correctly Centre Drill.

drilled.

Centre Drilling for use

with a Lathe Centre.

The Twist Drill.

Twist drills, available in
a range of diameters,
are used for boring
circular holes into the
workpiece.
Twist Drill.

50 - Section 4 - Cutting Tools Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Tool Geometry
Cutting tools are categorised depending on the number of cutting edges they
have:
Single Point Cutting Tools.
These type of tools have a single effective cutting edge and remove excess
material from the workpiece along the cutting edge. They are used in lathes and
boring bar operations. Cutting tools using specially ground tips are usually
preset to a specific set of dimensions and are mounted in toolholders. The tool
assembly is then placed in a toolpost or turret, which is usually indexable.
Multi-point Cutting Tools.
These type of tools have more than one cutting edge to remove excess material
from the workpiece. They are used for milling, drilling, reaming, countersinking
and counter boring operations on machining centres, milling machines and drills.
Special Purpose Tools.
These types of tools are especially designed for specific operations, such as taps
and dies for internal and external thread cutting and grinding tools.

All cutting tools have certain angles and clearances to make them cut more
efficiently. The various angles ground on a tool bit are called basic tool angles,
often referred to by the term tool geometry. These angles and shapes can also
be defined by a sequence of statements called tool signature. The geometry of a
typical single point cutting tool is shown below:

Geometry of a Single
Point Cutting Tool.

Shank: The main body

of the tool.
Face: The surface on
which the chip impinges.
Heel: The intersection of
the flank and the base of
the tool.
Flank: The surface
below and adjacent to
the tool.
Nose: The intersection
of the side cutting edge
and cutting edge.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 5 - Tool Geometry - 51

Angle Systems
Back Rake Angle.
This is the angle that measures the degree of slope of the face of the tool from
the nose towards the rear. A downward slope towards the nose is a negative
back rake. A downward slope from the nose is a positive back rake. If there is
no slope, the back rake angle is zero.

Side Rake Angle.

This is the angle that measures the degree of slope of the face of the tool from
the cutting edge. A downward slope towards the cutting edge is a negative back
rake. A downward slope from the cutting edge is a positive back rake. If there is
no slope, the side rake angle is zero.

Positive Rake Angle System.

The face of the tool slopes away from the cutting edges and slopes towards the
back of the tool, forming an acute angle with the workpiece. Cutting efficiency is
optimum, since the tool penetrates the workpiece easier, shearing the material
away, but htis also results in a much more fragile cutting edge. Material is moved
away from the machined workpiece. Postive rake tools are indexable on one
side only.
Use a Positive Rake Tool:
• To machine work hardened materials.
• When using machines of low power output.
• For turning long shafts of small diameters.
• When the workpiece lacks rigidity and strength.
• When machining below recommended cutting speeds.

Positive
Rake
Angle
System.

52 - Section 5 - Tool Geometry Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Angle Systems
Negative Rake Angle System.
The face of the tool slopes away from the cutting edge and slopes upwards
towards the back or side of the tool, forming an obtuse angle with the workpiece
(the tool is not pointed against the movement of the work piece, but in the same
direction). The cutting edge is stronger than positive rake systems and both top
and bottom cutting edges can be used. This is especially important when taking
interrupted cuts using carbide cutting tools, since most of the load occurs at the
rear of the cutting edge, where there is more strength. Tool wear is reduced and
heavier depths of cut may be performed, though material tends to move towards
the machined workpiece.
Use a Negative Rake Tool:
• To machine high-strength alloys, using a high power output machine.
• When using intermittent cuts and heavy feedrates.

Negative
Rake
Angle
System.

Side Cutting Edge Angle.

This is the angle between the side cutting edge and the edge of the toolholder
shank, often referred to as the lead angle. The side cutting edge angle is usually
set at around 15 degrees, although angles up to 40 degrees can be used. An
increase in tool angle will give:
• An increase in the life of the tool.
• Better surface finishes.
• Quicker dissipation of heat.
• A wider surface on which the cutting force may be distributed.
• A decrease in the size of the chips removed from the material.
• Larger cutting speeds to be used.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 5 - Tool Geometry - 53

Angle Systems
End Cutting Edge Angle.
This is the angle between the plane of the end cutting edge and a line
perpendicular with the toolholder shank. The end cutting edge angle, usually set
at 8 to 15 degrees, prevents the cutting edge of the tool from rubbing against the
side of the workpiece. In conjunction with the feedrate used, this angle will affect
the surface finish of any machining.

Side Clearance Angle.

This is the angle between the plane of the side cutting edge and a line
perpendicular with the toolholder shank. The side clearance angle prevents the
cutting edge of the tool from rubbing against the side of the workpiece. Larger
feedrates require larger side clearance angles.

Nose Radius.
The nose (tip) of a tool is given a radius to strengthen the tool point, giving a
longer tool life. Heat build-up is reduced and better surface finishes are obtained
through the use of a tool nose radius.
A larger tool nose radius (1.5mm+) permits use of greater depths of cut and
faster feedrates. Larger tool nose radii can be used if both the toolholder shank
and the workpiece are rigid. This must be balanced against chatter which may
occur when using a large tool nose radius, since the length of contact between
the cutting edge and the workpiece is higher.
A small tool nose radius (0.4mm) is recommended when the workpiece cannot
be securely held, lacks rigidity or has tubular construction. If the depth of cut is
smaller than the tool nose radius, the
surface finish can be poor quality. Depth of cut Tool Nose Radius
Turning tools using indexable carbide inserts (mm) (mm)
incorporate a standard nose radius of 3 or less 0.5-0.75
0.2mm, 0.4mm, 0.8mm and 1.2mm, whilst 3-10 1.0
12-20 1.5-2.0
heavy duty inserts are provided with a large 20-30 2.0-3.0
nose radius of 1.2mm or 1.6mm.

Tool Signature.
Tools are specified using a standard
abbreviated system, known as the tool Back rake angle 0
Side rake angle 7
signature. The data states the effective angles End relief angle 7
of the tool, normal to the cutting edge. All Side relief angle 8
values are true, as long as the toolholder End cutting angle 15
shank is mounted at right angles to the Side cutting angle 15
workpiece axis. An example signature of a Nose radius (mm) 0.8
single point cutting tool is shown in the table on
the right.

54 - Section 5 - Tool Geometry Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Tool Signature
Table showing recommended tool geometry for a single point cutting tool for
different types of work materials.

Work Hardness Tool Back Side End Side Side & end
material HB material rake rake clearance clearance cutting edge
angle angle angle angle angle
degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees

Free 85 HSS 10 12 5 5 15
machining to Brazed carbides 0 6 5 5 15
steels 225 Throwaway carbides -5 -5 5 5 15

Mild 225 HSS 8 10 5 5 15

steels to Brazed carbides 0 6 5 5 15
325 Throwaway carbides -5 -5 5 5 15

Medium carbon 325 HSS 0 10 5 5 15

steels, alloy to Brazed carbides 0 6 5 5 15
steels 425 Throwaway carbides -5 -5 5 5 15

Tool 45 HRC HSS 0 10 5 5 15

steels to Brazed carbides -5 -5 5 5 15
58 HRC Throwaway carbides -5 -5 5 5 15

Stainless 135 HSS 0 10 5 5 15

steels to Brazed carbides 0 6 5 5 15
275 Throwaway carbides -5 -5 5 5 15

Cast iron, 100 HSS 5 10 5 5 15

grey, ductile, to Brazed carbides 0 6 5 5 15
malleable 200 Throwaway carbides -5 -5 5 5 15

Cast iron, 200 HSS 5 8 5 5 15

grey, ductile, to Brazed carbides 0 6 5 5 15
malleable 300 Throwaway carbides -5 -5 5 5 15

Cast iron, 300 HSS 5 5 5 5 15

grey, ductile, to Brazed carbides -5 5 5 5 15
malleable 400 Throwaway carbides -5 -5 5 5 15

Aluminium 30 HSS 20 15 12 10 5
alloys to Brazed carbides 3 15 5 5 15
150 Throwaway carbides 0 5 5 5 15

Copper 40 HSS 5 10 8 8 5
alloys to Brazed carbides 0 8 5 5 15
200 Throwaway carbides 0 5 5 5 15

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 5 - Tool Geometry - 55

Tool Fault and Remedies Chart
Tool Wear. Characterisations. Remedies.

Flank wear. Excessive amounts of flank wear characterises the end of the Select more wear-resistant grade.
tool life. Reduce cutting speed.

Notch wear. The tool tip is in danger of breaking. Characterised by local Strengthen cutting edge.
wear in the area of the primary cutting edge, where it contacts Select smaller approach angle (45°).
the workpiece surface. Caused by hard surfaces and work- Reduce feedrate.
hardened burrs.

Characterised by wear on the rake face. Use coated hardmetal grades.

Crater wear. Select positive insert geometry.
Reduce cutting speed.
Reduce chip cross section.

The tool tip is in danger of breaking. Characterised by minor Select tougher grade.
Edge chipping. chipping along the cutting edge, accompanied by flank wear. Reduce feedrate on the start of the cut operation.
Edge chipping occurring outside the cutting area indicates Vary the feedrate.
excessive chip removal. Change the chip breaker geometry.
Change the approach angle.

Insert breakage. Characterised by damage to both the tool and the workpiece. Select tougher grade.
Often caused by notches or excessive wear. Use stronger insert with a larger corner radius.
Select chip breaker geometry for heavy chip removal sections.
Reduce feedrate and depth of cut.

Built-up edges. Characterised on the rake face by the work material welding Increase cutting speed.
with the cutting material, especially when attempting to cut Use coated hardmetals (cermets).
difficult to machine materials. Can break off, but often causes Select positive cutting edge geometry.
damage to the cutting edge. Results in poor surface finishes Use cutting fluid.
on machined workpieces.

Plastic deformation. The tool tip is in danger of breaking. Characterised by Reduce cutting speed.
overloading of the cutting edge, along with high machining Use lower feedrates.
temperatures. Use greater wear-resistant hardmetal grades.

Thermal cracks. The tool tip is in danger of breaking. Characterised by small Use grade with greater resistance to thermal shock.
cracks running across the cutting edge, caused by thermal Check use of cutting fluid (cutting fluid not recommended for
shock loads during interrupted cutting operations. interrupted cuts).

The size of chip removed is affected by the type of work Avoid small depths of cut below 1x radius, except when finishing.
Chip control. material, feedrate and depth of cut. Short chips can cause If chips are too long, select chip breaker geometry for small chips,
vibrations and overloading of the cutting edge. The tool tip is in or increase feedrate.
danger of breaking. Long chips coil around the tool and If chips are too short, select chip breaker geometry for long chips,
workpiece. or reduce feedrate.

Surface finish. The surface finish is affected by the configuration and condition Increase cutting speed.
of the cutting tool point, the cutting conditions and the rigidity of Increase radius.
the machining setup. Use cermet grade tools when cutting steel.
Avoid vibrations.
Use appropriate cutting fluid.
Vary feedrate slightly.
Change approach angle.
Select different chip breaker geometry.
Check rigidity of tool and holding system.

Shape and Both shape and dimensional accuracy are affected by the Select grade with better wear resistance.
dimensional accuracy. condition of the machining tool setup. Check cutting parameters.
Check rigidity of tool and holding systems.
Reduce cutting forces.

Vibrations and Vibrations usually occur in thin walled tubes and non-rigid Increase tool approach angle.
instability. setups. Characterised by unbalanced and excessive cutting Use positive geometries.
forces. Use small radii.
Reduce chip break cross sections.

Burring. Burring often unavoidable when machining steel. Use Select inserts with a positive geometry.
chamfering methods wherever possible. Use sharp cutting edge insert (ie, cermet).
Reduce approach angle.

56 - Section 5 - Tool Geometry Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Tool Setting
Tool Setting.
No matter what configuration or type of tool used, it must be postioned at the
correct height, in the toolholder and toolpost, for efficeient cutting. Ideally, the
tool should be positioned as far back into the toolpost as possible. Too great an
overhang can cause vibration and chatter, leading to poor surface finishes.

Rake

Clearance
Correct Height Too High
Clearance lost, resulting in
Too Low
rubbing on the side of the billet
Rake lost, resulting in the
tool not cutting properly

Tool Setting Heights.

Further information on Tool Setting can be found in the ‘Cutting Parameters’
section.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 5 - Tool Geometry - 57

Selection of Cutting Parameters
The lathe cutting parameters determined by the operator are the feedrate, depth
of cut and spindle speed. All three must co-ordinated to take into account a
number of factors:
1) To achieve short cycle times.
Increasing the feedrate, depth of cut or spindle speed parameters will remove
more material chips per unit time, reducing the time required to complete the
CNC program. This must be balanced against accompanying high tool wear
which will counter any time saved, due to more frequent tool tip and
toolholder changes.
2) To achieve lower machined part costs.
Any increase in cutting paramteers leading to a reduction in cycle times will
also reduce overall labour and machining costs. Tool costs will rise due to
greater wear. A balance must be chosen so that the wear-related tool costs
are not excessive, possibly through the selection and use of an appropriate
coolant.
3) To achieve high machined workpiece quality.
The choices for flexibility of cutting parameters become much more limited,
due to the specialised settings for obtaining high quality surface finishes and
dimensional accuracy. The choice of parameters will depend on the type of
tool tip being used, the load capabilities of the machine and the vibration
characteristics of the tool, workpiece and machine.

Type of Material.
The type of material being machined during any cutting operation will effect most
of the other factors involved in the process. The harder a material, the greater
the load will be on the cutting tool. Therefore, the hardness of a material must be
considered when selecting the geometry of the tool, the spindle speed, the feed
rate and the cutting depth. If the load on the tool is too great, it may flex or even
break during a cut and damage the workpiece. Therefore, the properties of the
material being cut must be considered in order to choose the appropriate tool.
The material used will alos impose restrictions on the types of coolant available
as certain materials are not compatible with certain types of coolant.

58 - Section 6 - Cutting Parameters Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Selection of Cutting Parameters
Machining Operations.
The selection of the correct spindle speed, feed rate, cutting depth and cutting
tool for each machining operation is important since incorrect settings can lead to
chattering, poor finishes and tool breakage. There are three basic types of
machining operation:
1) Roughing - The roughing cut is used to remove largest amount of material
from the billet safely and begin to shape the billet into the size and shape
required. Roughing cuts use low spindle speeds at high feed rates, coupled
with deep cuts to remove a large amount of material quickly. With such large
cuts, the cutting tool is place under great load. Therefore special roughing
tools should be used as they provide a higher strength and rigidity and stop
chattering while also reducing the chance of the tool breaking.
2) Finishing - A finishing cut is the final cut on a billet. It is an accurate cut which
takes a work piece into the tolerance required and leaves it correctly shaped
and textured to allow for the extra finishing cut. A finishing cut usually leaves
a depth of around two to four millimeters (2 - 4 mm).
3) Extra Finishing - This is a very light cut used to leave a smooth surface finish
on the cut material. The surface finish depends on the depth of cut also
speed and feed, the depth of cut is the distance between the tip of the cutting
tool and the amount set on the dial to be removed. With an extra finishing
cut, the depth should be no more than one millimeter (1 mm).

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 6 - Cutting Parameters - 59

Cutting Speed
Cutting Speed.
Each material has an ideal speed at which it may be cut, according to the quality
of surface finish required and the properties of the workpiece material.
Whilst machining, this
cutting speed value must Spindle speed,
Cutting speed,
remain constant. The in R.P.M.
chip removal,
cutting speed is the in m/min.
equivalent of the workpiece
surface speed at the point
being machined (see
diagram opposite).
A small spindle speed and
small diameter being
turned results in a low
cutting speed.
A large spindle speed and
large diameter being turned
results in a large cutting Cutting Speed.
speed.

Ideal cutting speeds (m/min) for different types of material are shown in the table below:

Cutting Speed (m/min)

Depth of cut (mm)
Work Tool 5-10 2-5 0.5-2 0.1-0.5
Material Material
Feedrate (mm/rev)
0.4 0.25-0.5 0.2-0.3 0.05-0.2
Free machining HSS 20-40 40-70 40-110 50-120
steels Carbide 90-150 120-180 150-250 200-500
Mild HSS 25-35 30-50 30-60 40-80
steels Carbide 60-120 80-150 120-200 150-450
Medium carbon HSS 15-25 25-45 25-50 30-70
steels Carbide 50-110 60-120 90-150 120-300
Alloy HSS 10-15 15-25 15-35 20-45
steels Carbide 30-65 40-80 60-100 80-180
Tool steels HSS 15-20 20-25 20-30 30-60
steels Carbide 50-110 60-120 90-150 120-300
Stainless HSS 15-20 15-25 15-30 20-50
steels Carbide 40-60 40-70 50-80 50-90
Cast iron, grey, HSS 20-25 25-30 35-45 40-60
ductile, malleable Carbide 60-90 70-100 80-110 80-120
Aluminium HSS 40-70 70-100 90-120 100-200
alloys Carbide 60-150 80-180 90-450 150-600
Copper alloys HSS 40-60 60-100 90-120 100-200
Carbide 50-110 60-150 90-180 120-310
Magnesium alloys HSS 40-70 70-100 90-120 100-200
Carbide 60-150 80-180 90-450 150-600

60 - Section 6 - Cutting Parameters Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Billet Diameter and Spindle Speed
Billet Diameter.
The billet diameter dictates the spindle speed of an operation, the larger the
diameter the slower the spindle speed. To measure spindle diameter use a
vernier caliper or micrometer as shown on pages 29 and 30.

Spindle Speed.
The spindle speed is the rate at which the machine spindle revolves, determined
by the type of material being cut and the diameter of the workpiece being cut.
In CNC programs, spindle speeds are usually signified by the code letter “S”.
Spindle speeds are measured in R.P.M. (Revolutions Per Minute).
The following formula is used to determine the required spindle speed:

N= 1ØØØ x V
pxd

where N=Spindle Speed (R.P.M.)

V=Cutting speed (m/min from the table on the previous page).
d=Diameter being turned (mm).
p=3.142.

For example, the spindle speed required for turning a 3Ømm mild steel bar, using
a 2mm depth of cut, a feedrate of Ø.25mm/rev and a carbide tipped tool would
be:
N= 1ØØØ x 8Ø = 85Ø R.P.M.
3.142 x 3Ø

The following M codes are

Spindle
Speed,
Spindle used for controlling the
in R.P.M. Speed. Spindle:
MØ3 - Spindle Forward.
MØ4 - Spindle Reverse.
MØ5 - Spindle Stop.
M13 - Spindle on and
coolant on.
M14 - Spindle Reverse
and coolant on.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 6 - Cutting Parameters - 61

Feedrate
Feedrate.
The feedrate is the rate at which the cutting tool advances in the machining
direction. In lathe work, distinction is made between longitudinal feed, when the
tool travels in a direction parallel to the workpiece axis (Z) and cross feed, where
the tool travels in a direction perpendicular to the workpiece (X).
The feedrate determines the machining speed. For this reason, feedrates are
chosen according to the available cutting force and the surface finish required.
By using coolants, higher feedrates and improved surface finishes can be
obtained.

Maximum feedrate is limited by the following factors:

• Cutting edge strength
• Workpiece rigidity
• Surface finish required
• Tool chip size and space

In CNC programs, feedrates are usually signified by the code letter “F”.
Feedrates are measured in mm/min (Millimetres Per Minute) or mm/rev
(Millimetres Per Revolution).
Feedrate (mm/min)=Feedrate (mm/rev) x Spindle Speed (rev/min).

The following G codes are used for controlling the Feedrate:

G98 - Feedrate per minute.
G99 - Feedrate per revolution.
G20 - Imperial Data Input (Inches).
G21 - Metric Data Input (Millimetres).

Feedrate.

Feedrate,
in mm/min,
or mm/rev.

62 - Section 6 - Cutting Parameters Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Depth of Cut and Tool Setting Angles
Depth of Cut.
The depth of cut determines the rate of chip removal and the accuracy of any
cutting operations. The greater the cutting depth, the greater the amount of
material removed but this is achieved at the cost of accuracy.
When roughing, the depth of cut is set high (around 4mm), although this is
dependant on the maximum rate that material can be removed from the
workpiece.
When finishing, the depth of cut is set low (around 0.5mm), since the finishing cut
must be very accurate, with a good surface finish.

Tool Setting Angles.

The choice of feedrate and depth of cut determines the size of the chip cross
section.
The following formulae are used to determine the size of the chip cross section
and the amount of material removed during a machining operation:

Chip cross section=Feedrate per revolution x Depth of cut.

Stock removal volume=Chip cross section x Cutting speed.

Chip Cross Section.

Different Setting Angles.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 6 - Cutting Parameters - 63

Cutting Fluids and Coolants
Whilst it is possible to carry out some machining operations dry, wet machining
using the appropriate cutting fluid (coolant) offers many advantages, including
extended tool life, potential for better surface finishes and higher cutting depths
and speeds.

A liquid coolant is used to prevent heat build up while the cutting tool is in use on
a workpiece. The friction and cutting force between a tool and workpiece can
cause extremely high temperatures. If left untreated, this would raise both the
workpiece and tool to such temperatures that they would become malleable,
making accurate cutting impossible. Therefore, a coolant is sprayed onto the
tool and workpiece to absorb the heat and then evaporate, effectively keeping
the tool and workpiece cool.
The coolant chosen should be selected primarily on the basis of the material
being cut, as not all coolants are compatible with all materials. Therefore,
choosing the right coolant can be critical to getting a properly cut component.
The other factor to be considered when choosing coolants is the operation that
you wish to carry out, as some coolants are purpose made for specific operations
or operation characteristics such as high feed/speed rates, deep cuts etc.

Commonly used coolants:

• Soluble Oil - these are inexpensive mineral oils containing emulsifying agents
which enable them to be mixed with water and to remain stable. Use when
machining copper.
• Straight Mineral Oil - these are low viscosity oils suitable only for light
machining without any heavy tool loading. Use when machining Aluminium,
brass.
• Lard Oil - these are mixtures of both mineral and fatty (lard) oils which are
generally used over a much larger range of operations than straight mineral
oils. Use when machining Aluminium, brass.
• Sulphur Based Oil - these contain sulphur content, allowing them to retain
their lubricating properties under severe conditions. Use when machining
Steel.
• Dry - Use when machining Cast iron.

64 - Section 6 - Cutting Parameters Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

CNC Machine Safety
General Safety Rules.
Due to the great cutting forces that CNC lathes are capable of producing and the
increased feed and speed rates over conventional machines, great care must be
taken at all times. Any fault in the program or the set up of the machine may
have disastrous effects both to the machine and the operator.
The seven safety rules listed below should be followed at all times when using
CNC machines:
• Make sure you know how to stop the machine in
case of an emergency.

• Make sure that all machine guards are in

position at all times.

• If you suspect something is going wrong, STOP

the machine immediately.

• Isolate (switch off and unplug) the machine

before making any adjustments.

• Do not attempt to use the machine until you are

sure you can use it correctly.

• Programs should be tested prior to machining

by using a dry run/computer simulation.

• Keep hands away from moving parts.

The Emergency Stop Button.

All CNC machines are fitted with an large easy to reach when emergency stop
button, usually red in coluour, incase the machine should do something
unexpected. Pressing the button will immediately stop all slide, tool and spindle
movements. Following the use of an emergency stop button, the CNC machine
will need to be homed (datumed). This is because most of the information used
by the controller, such as the tool position relative to the machines working
enevelope, is lost when power is cut to the slides.
Make sure you know where the emergency stop button
is on the machine you will be using!

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 7 - Safety - 65

CNC Machine Safety
Axis Limit Switches.
Limit switches can be fitted to both CNC lathe slides to prevent overtravel. They
are used when the toolpost has overtravelled and activated the limit switch,
preventing the slide from fouling the machine casing and assemblies. To reset a
limit switch, depress the ‘Axis Limit Override’ button and simultaneously press
the appropriate axis key to move the toolpost away from the limit switch and back
onto its regular section of slideway, then home each axis individually.

Guard Door Safety Switch.

CNC lathes supplied with CE type approval include a guard door safety switch,
preventing entrance to the working area when machining operations are taking
place, or the 24 volt circuit has failed. When the guard is opened, the CNC
machine slides can only be moved in ‘Jog Step Incremental Mode’ - a safety
feature that only allows an axis to be moved a set distance, each time its axis
movement button is pressed. Continuous and rapid movements can only be
performed when the guard switch is closed.
When complete power failure has occurred, entrance to the working area can
only be obtained by manually tripping the safety switch, as shown in the diagram
below.

White Trip Lever.

Guard
Door
Safety
Switch.

66 - Section 7 - Safety Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Safety Posters

Always wear eye

protection when it is
provided.

Make sure that you are

dressed safely. No loose
clothes or undone laces.

Keep long hair tied

back or in a hat.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 7 - Safety - 67

Safety Posters

Do not run in the

workshop. Think of other
peoples' safety too.

Keep the workshop and

machines clean and tidy.

? If in doubt, ask!

68 - Section 7 - Safety Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Positional Control
Movement of the CNC lathes slides to predetermined positions may be done in
three ways:

Point-to-point. Point-to-point.
This is the programming of
instructions which will move the slide
or slides to the next position required
at a preprogrammed Rapid Traverse
rate. Point-to-point control is
sometimes referred to as the
Positioning System. One or more
axis may be involved, but the
movements are not co-ordinated with
each other so care must be taken to
avoid collision with clamping
arrangements or the workpiece.
Note:
No cutting should be performed using point-to-point positioning.
Denford machines use code GØØ for point-to-point positioning.

Line Motion. Line Motion.

Line Motion is also referred to as
Linear Interpolation. This refers to
the programming of the next slide
position required and also a feedrate
to be used. More than two slides can
be programmed to move at any one
time under line motion (to produce
taper effects). Line motion is used
when the tool is to cut in a straight
line.
Note:
Denford machines use code GØ1 for
line motion.

Contouring. Contouring.
This involves programming that is
similar to line motion in that the next
position is specified and a feedrate
given. Angular and curved
movement can be achieved by this
method of positioning.
Note:
Denford machines use codes GØ2
and GØ3 for circular interpolation.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 8 - CNC Programming - 69

Co-ordinate Dimensioning - Absolute
Data in an absolute dimension system always refers to a fixed reference datum
point, as shown in the example below. The dimension lines run parallel to the
co-ordinate axes and always start at the reference point. Absolute dimensions
are also referred to as reference dimensions. When plotting absolute co-
ordinates, this point has the function of the co-ordinate zero point.

Advantages:
Absolute Dimensioning Example. • There is no build-up or accumulation of
errors between dimensions.
• In cases of interruptions that force the
operator to pause or stop the CNC
machine, the cutting tool automatically
returns to the previous position, so the
machining can proceed from the same
block where it was interrupted.
• The dimensional data and positions in the
part program can be easily changed, if
required.

70 - Section 8 - CNC Programming Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Co-ordinate Dimensioning - Incremental
When using an incremental dimension system, every measurement refers to a
previously dimensioned position. An incremental dimension is the distance
between adjacent points. These distances are converted into incremental co-
ordinates by accepting the last dimension point as the co-ordinate origin for the
new point. Incremental dimensions are also referred to as relative dimensions or
chain dimensions.

Advantages:
Incremental Dimensioning Example. • Incremental positioning is advantageous
when certain contours require repeating
several times. The associated program
sections can be used immediately without
the need for a co-ordinate shift.
Disadvantages:
• If an error is made in one dimension this
will mean that any subsequent positions
will be incorrect.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 8 - CNC Programming - 71

Data Format
A Part Program may be defined as 'all the required data necessary in order to
machine a component to the required specifications.'

The data or part program must follow the manufacturers format and is in a series
of blocks. A Block is one line of data within the program. In each block there are
a number of words and each word is made up of a number of characters.

Each operation requires a separate block. A typical block is shown below:

N G X Z F S T M

Each of these letters are known as addresses. After each address comes a
number. The address and number together form a word
eg. GØØ (This is the program word defining Rapid Traverse).

Where:
N refers to the Number of the block.
G refers to the G code or Preparatory function.
X refers to the distance travelled by the slide tool in the X direction.
Z refers to the distance travelled by the slide tool in the Z direction.
F refers to the Feedrate.
M refers to the Miscellaneous Function.
S refers to the Spindle speed.
T refers to the Tooling management.

N - Block, or Program Line, Number.

Each new block of information must be allocated a number.
N means the Number of the block, or program line.
N ØØ1Ø
N ØØ2Ø
N ØØ3Ø
etc....
It is recommended that the blocks are programmed in increments of 1Ø. This
allows for any future editing by leaving the opportunity to insert extra blocks
where required. Alternatively, unrequired blocks may be removed.

72 - Section 8 - CNC Programming Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Data Format
G - G code or Preparatory Function.
A G Code or Preparatory function is a command to the control unit to perform some
specific cutting tasks or functions. These tasks or functions are used for a number
of purposes:
GØØ Rapid Traverse
GØ1 Point to Point positioning
GØ2 Clockwise Circular Interpolation
GØ3 Anti-clockwise Circular Interpolation
G7Ø Imperial Units
G71 Metric Units
G9Ø Absolute Dimensions
G91 Incremental Dimensions

Some of the G codes have to be cancelled after use. They are known as modal.
For example,
GØ1 - Linear Motion (Programmed feed rate)
G42 - Cutter compensation.
Note:
G4Ø is the code to cancel cutter compensation.

Others will only operate in the block in which they are placed, these are known as
non-modal.
For example,
GØ4 - Dwell

X and Z Co-ordinate Positional Data.

These letters refer to movement along the designated axes,
For example,
X 3ØØ could mean a slide or tool movement of 3ØØ millimetres in the X positive
direction and, Z - 3ØØ could mean a slide or tool movement in the Z negative
direction.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 8 - CNC Programming - 73

Data Format
F - Feedrate.
The feedrate is the speed at which the cutting tool is fed into the workpiece. It
can be entered into the computer either as millimetres per minute (mm/min) or
millimetres per revolution (mm/rev).
To change from mm/rev to mm/min requires prior G code changes
For example,
G94 or G95.
It is important that the programmer uses the correct feed rates for the operation
to be carried out as an incorrect feed rate may result in damage to the cutting
tool or workpiece. Information on the various feedrates and cutting speeds can
be obtained from a cutting tool manufacturers brochure.

M - M code or Miscellaneous Function.

M codes or Miscellaneous functions, are commands to the control unit to perform
a specific non-cutting task. M codes perform tasks other than those related to
slide movement. Some examples are given below :
MØØ Program stop.
MØ2 End of program.
MØ3 Spindle on clockwise.
MØ4 Spindle on Anti-clockwise.
MØ8 Coolant On.
MØ9 Coolant Off.

As with G codes, some of the M codes are modal and so must be cancelled after
use.

S - Spindle Speed.
The speed of the spindle is usually programmed at the start of the program and
when a new cutting tool is used.
The speed of the spindle can be programmed in the following ways:
• Revolutions per minute.
• Cutting Speeds in metres/minute.
• Constant Cutting Speeds in metres/minute.
• A chosen number from the manufacturers tables.
For most control systems today the spindle speed in revolutions per minute is
programmed.

T - Tooling Arrangement.
This refers to the number of the tool required to be used for a particular
operation.
Each tool is given a number and placed in a waiting area before being called
upon. The tools must be pre-set in the machine prior to storage.

74 - Section 8 - CNC Programming Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Zero Suppresssion
Any data that is fed into a CNC computer must conform to the manufacturer's
classification or the computer will not understand it.
A typical example would be:
N4 G2 X4/3 Z4/3 ....... etc
To explain this take X4/3:
The first digit (in this case 4) refers to the maximum number of digits that can be
allowed before the decimal point.
The second digit (in this case 3) refers to the maximum number of digits that can
be allowed after the decimal point.
For example, X 1689.913.
If there is only one figure after the address character for example N4
This means that the largest number of digits before a decimal point and none
after it.

It is very important that any data entered into the machines computer is done so
in a way that the computer understands.
Two methods are described below:
• Fixed Block - Each block of information must be entered into the computer
even though some of the words have not changed from the previous block.
• Variable Block - The data can be entered in any order without having to
repeat unchanged data.

Zero Suppression.
It may be that the data classification of a block is 3/2. As we know, this refers to
the maximum and minimum number of digits before and after the decimal point.
But what if the programmer has to program a figure of 16.1 into this block?
It can be seen that there are only two digits prior to the decimal point and only
one after it.
Some systems will require the programmer to input leading and trailing zeros
For example, Ø16.1Ø
Other systems will just require the original digits to be fed into the computer
For example, 16.1
The leading zero and the trailing zero are not required. We call this omitting of
the zeros, Zero Suppression.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 8 - CNC Programming - 75

Program Proving
All CNC part programs should be carefully checked before they are set in motion
on a machine tool. The checking, or verification, of a part program is to establish
that no errors are present in the program which may cause damage to the
machine, the workpiece and more importantly, the operator.

Methods of Checking and Verifying:

Visual Inspection.
The actual program is run, with no workpiece present in the chuck. Through
purely visual inspection, all the programmed movements in all axes are checked,
together with any tool offset and cutter compensation features. This method
represents the least form of verification and should not be relied on entirely.

Graphical Simulation.
A graphical simulation package emulates the CNC lathe by using computer
graphics to plot out any tool movement and cutting of the workpiece on the VDU
screen. Any errors in the program will be observed and highlighted prior to the
program being entered into the machine. The programmer can alter or 'Edit' their
program as the simulation takes place.

Dry Run.
This method of program proving is done on the machine tool but the workpiece
or billet to be cut is not installed. As the tool or cutter moves in air the operator
looks to see that the cutting tool will not collide with proposed clamping
arrangements or other projections within the set-up. Feedrate override facilities
can be used to slow down the speed at which the program runs.

Single Step Execution.

Using single step mode, the part program can be run block by block with the
operator in full control. All CNC machines have this facility and it should be used
as part of a safe setting up and verification procedure.

All the above methods of verifying part programs are to check that the correct
cutting conditions apply. If any doubt occurs on the part of the operator they
must take action to prevent the part program running.
In a situation where there is likely to be damage to the machine or workpiece the
operator must stop the machine. It is very important that the operator is familiar
with the emergency stop procedure and the correct start up routine as the tool or
machine slides may move to a pre-programmed position, when the start button is
pressed.

76 - Section 8 - CNC Programming Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Example Program
(Lathe CAM Designer - test.LCD) N18M3S1230 N40X34 N62X17
(25/8/1999) N19G1Z-53.14 N41G0Z2 N63M3S3183
(Novaturn (metric)) N20X46 N42X29 N64G1Z0.32
(Post fanucl:1.2 23 May 1994) N21G0Z2 N43M3S1866 N65X19
N1G21 N22X41 N44G1Z-2.5 N66X52
[BILLET X50 Z80 N23M3S1320 N45X31 N67G0Z2
N2G98 N24G1Z-48.64 N46G0Z2 N68G1Z0
N3G28U0W0 N25X43 N47X26 N69X15
N4M6T0101 N26G0Z2 N48M3S2081 N70M3S1546
N5M3S1082 N27X38 N49G1Z-1.3 N71G3X35Z-10K-10
N6G0X50Z2 N28M3S1424 N50X28 N72G1Z-40
N7X52 N29G1Z-44.14 N51G0Z2 N73M3S1203
N8X50 N30X40 N52X23 N74X45Z-55
N9G1Z-69.75F140 N31G0Z2 N53M3S2353 N75Z-70
N10X52 N32X35 N54G1Z-0.46 N76X52
N11G0Z2 N33M3S1546 N55X25 N77G0Z2
N12X47 N34G1Z-9.64 N56G0Z2 N78M5
N13M3S1151 N35X37 N57X20 N79G28U0W0
N14G1Z-69.75 N36G0Z2 N58M3S2706 N80M30
N15X49 N37X32 N59G1Z0.05
N16G0Z2 N38M3S1691 N60X22
N17X44 N39G1Z-4.36 N61G0Z2

Program - "Test.fnc".
This program machines an aluminium billet, 75mm long (excluding a 20mm length section required for the
chuck) with a 50mm diameter.
Below left: Denfords Lathe CAM Designer Package was used
to design the test part. The G code program was generated
using Lathe CAM’s post processor.

Below right: 3d view of the test part generated using the

Denford CNC turning machine controlling software.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 8 - CNC Programming - 77

Example Program
This section looks at the program "Test.fnc", in more detail, explaining what each particular line means....

(Lathe CAM Designer - test.LCD)

(25/8/1999)
(Novaturn (metric))
(Post fanucl:1.2 23 May 1994)
N1G21 Define Working Parameters. The N word designates the program line number. G21 defines the
units being used as metric, ie, millimetres.
[BILLET X50 Z80 Define Working Parameters. A square bracket indicates a Denford directive, used only with
Denford machines. The BILLET directive is used for simulation package graphics, indicating that
the billet is 80mm long with a diameter of 50mm.
N2G98 Define Working Parameters. G98 commands a per minute feedrate, in this case, millimetres
per minute will be used.
N3G28U0W0 Program Start-up. G28 commands a reference point return, homing the machine slides. The U
and W co-ordinates can be used to specify an intermediate point that the toolpost will move to
first, but since the values are both zero, no intermediate point is used.
N4M6T0101 Program Start-up. M6 commands an automatic tool change to tool number 0101.
N5M3S1082 Program Start-up. M3 switches the spindle on clockwise. The S word defines the value of the
spindle speed, 1082RPM.
N6G0X50Z2 Program Start-up. G0 commands a rapid positioning traverse to the co-ordinates, X=50, Z=2
(just in front of the face end circumference of the billet) - see screenshot below.

N7X52 Program Start-up. Continue G0 to co-ordinate X=52 (moving at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N8X50 Roughing Cycle 1. Continue G0 to co-ordinate X=50 (moving at right angles towards the
spindle centreline).
N9G1Z-69.75F140 Roughing Cycle 1. G1 commands a linear interpolation, straight line cutting to co-ordinate Z=-
69.75 (cutting a straight line parallel to the spindle centreline, towards the headstock). The F
word defines a feedrate of 140mm/minute - see screenshot below.

N10X52 Roughing Cycle 1. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=52 (moving at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N11G0Z2 Roughing Cycle 1. G0, rapid traverse, to co-ordinate Z=2 (moving in a straight line parallel to
the spindle centreline, back to just in front of the face end of the billet).
N12X47 Roughing Cycle 2. Continue G0 to co-ordinate X=47 (moving at right angles towards the
spindle centreline).

78 - Section 8 - CNC Programming Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Example Program
N13M3S1151 Roughing Cycle 2. M3 switches the spindle on clockwise, with a speed of 1151RPM.
N14G1Z-69.75 Roughing Cycle 2. G1, linear interpolation, to co-ordinate Z=-69.75 (cutting a straight line
parallel to the spindle centreline, towards the headstock) - see screenshot below.

N15X49 Roughing Cycle 2. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=49 (moving at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N16G0Z2 Roughing Cycle 2. G0, rapid traverse, to co-ordinate Z=2 (moving in a straight line parallel to
the spindle centreline, back to just in front of the face end of the billet).
N17X44 Roughing Cycle 3. Continue G0 to co-ordinate X=44 (moving at right angles towards the
spindle centreline).
N18M3S1230 Roughing Cycle 3. M3 switches the spindle on clockwise, with a speed of 1230RPM.
N19G1Z-53.14 Roughing Cycle 3. G1, linear interpolation, to co-ordinate Z=-53.14 (cutting a straight line
parallel to the spindle centreline, towards the headstock) - see screenshot below.

N20X46 Roughing Cycle 3. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=46 (moving at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N21G0Z2 Roughing Cycle 3. G0, rapid traverse, to co-ordinate Z=2 (moving in a straight line parallel to
the spindle centreline, back to just in front of the face end of the billet).
N22X41 Roughing Cycle 4. Continue G0 to co-ordinate X=41 (moving at right angles towards the
spindle centreline).
N23M3S1320 Roughing Cycle 4. M3 switches the spindle on clockwise, with a speed of 1320RPM.
N24G1Z-48.64 Roughing Cycle 4. G1, linear interpolation, to co-ordinate Z=-48.64 (cutting a straight line
parallel to the spindle centreline, towards the headstock) - see screenshot below.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 8 - CNC Programming - 79

Example Program
N25X43 Roughing Cycle 4. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=43 (moving at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N26G0Z2 Roughing Cycle 4. G0, rapid traverse, to co-ordinate Z=2 (moving in a straight line parallel to
the spindle centreline, back to just in front of the face end of the billet).
N27X38 Roughing Cycle 5. Continue G0 to co-ordinate X=38 (moving at right angles towards the
spindle centreline).
N28M3S1424 Roughing Cycle 5. M3 switches the spindle on clockwise, with a speed of 1424RPM.
N29G1Z-44.14 Roughing Cycle 5. G1, linear interpolation, to co-ordinate Z=-44.14 (cutting a straight line
parallel to the spindle centreline, towards the headstock) - see screenshot below.

N30X40 Roughing Cycle 5. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=40 (moving at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N31G0Z2 Roughing Cycle 5. G0, rapid traverse, to co-ordinate Z=2 (moving in a straight line parallel to
the spindle centreline, back to just in front of the face end of the billet).
N32X35 Roughing Cycle 6. Continue G0 to co-ordinate X=35 (moving at right angles towards the
spindle centreline).
N33M3S1546 Roughing Cycle 6. M3 switches the spindle on clockwise, with a speed of 1546RPM.
N34G1Z-9.64 Roughing Cycle 6. G1, linear interpolation, to co-ordinate Z=-9.64 (cutting a straight line parallel
to the spindle centreline, towards the headstock) - see screenshot below.

N35X37 Roughing Cycle 6. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=37 (moving at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N36G0Z2 Roughing Cycle 6. G0, rapid traverse, to co-ordinate Z=2 (moving in a straight line parallel to
the spindle centreline, back to just in front of the face end of the billet).
N37X32 Roughing Cycle 7. Continue G0 to co-ordinate X=32 (moving at right angles towards the
spindle centreline).
N38M3S1691 Roughing Cycle 7. M3 switches the spindle on clockwise, with a speed of 1691RPM.

80 - Section 8 - CNC Programming Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Example Program
N39G1Z-4.36 Roughing Cycle 7. G1, linear interpolation, to co-ordinate Z=-4.36 (cutting a straight line parallel
to the spindle centreline, towards the headstock) - see screenshot below.

N40X34 Roughing Cycle 7. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=34 (moving at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N41G0Z2 Roughing Cycle 7. G0, rapid traverse, to co-ordinate Z=2 (moving in a straight line parallel to
the spindle centreline, back to just in front of the face end of the billet).
N42X29 Roughing Cycle 8. Continue G0 to co-ordinate X=29 (moving at right angles towards the
spindle centreline).
N43M3S1866 Roughing Cycle 8. M3 switches the spindle on clockwise, with a speed of 1866RPM.
N44G1Z-2.5 Roughing Cycle 8. G1, linear interpolation, to co-ordinate Z=-2.5 (cutting a straight line parallel
to the spindle centreline, towards the headstock) - see screenshot below.

N45X31 Roughing Cycle 8. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=31 (moving at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N46G0Z2 Roughing Cycle 8. G0, rapid traverse, to co-ordinate Z=2 (moving in a straight line parallel to
the spindle centreline, back to just in front of the face end of the billet).
N47X26 Roughing Cycle 9. Continue G0 to co-ordinate X=26 (moving at right angles towards the
spindle centreline).
N48M3S2081 Roughing Cycle 9. M3 switches the spindle on clockwise, with a speed of 2081RPM.
N49G1Z-1.3 Roughing Cycle 9. G1, linear interpolation, to co-ordinate Z=-1.3 (cutting a straight line parallel
to the spindle centreline, towards the headstock) - see screenshot below.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 8 - CNC Programming - 81

Example Program
N50X28 Roughing Cycle 9. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=28 (moving at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N51G0Z2 Roughing Cycle 9. G0, rapid traverse, to co-ordinate Z=2 (moving in a straight line parallel to
the spindle centreline, back to just in front of the face end of the billet).
N52X23 Roughing Cycle 10. Continue G0 to co-ordinate X=23 (moving at right angles towards the
spindle centreline).
N53M3S2353 Roughing Cycle 10. M3 switches the spindle on clockwise, with a speed of 2353RPM.
N54G1Z-0.46 Roughing Cycle 10. G1, linear interpolation, to co-ordinate Z=-0.46 (cutting a straight line
parallel to the spindle centreline, towards the headstock) - see screenshot below.

N55X25 Roughing Cycle 10. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=25 (moving at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N56G0Z2 Roughing Cycle 10. G0, rapid traverse, to co-ordinate Z=2 (moving in a straight line parallel to
the spindle centreline, back to just in front of the face end of the billet).
N57X20 Roughing Cycle 11. Continue G0 to co-ordinate X=20 (moving at right angles towards the
spindle centreline).
N58M3S2706 Roughing Cycle 11. M3 switches the spindle on clockwise, with a speed of 2706RPM.
N59G1Z0.05 Roughing Cycle 11. G1, linear interpolation, to co-ordinate Z=-0.05 (cutting a straight line
parallel to the spindle centreline, towards the headstock) - see screenshot below.

N60X22 Roughing Cycle 11. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=22 (moving at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N61G0Z2 Roughing Cycle 11. G0, rapid traverse, to co-ordinate Z=2 (moving in a straight line parallel to
the spindle centreline, back to just in front of the face end of the billet).
N62X17 Roughing Cycle 12. Continue G0 to co-ordinate X=17 (moving at right angles towards the
spindle centreline).
N63M3S3183 Roughing Cycle 12. M3 switches the spindle on clockwise, with a speed of 3183RPM.
N64G1Z0.32 Roughing Cycle 12. G1, linear interpolation, to co-ordinate Z=0.32 (cutting a straight line
parallel to the spindle centreline, away from the headstock).
N65X19 Roughing Cycle 12. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=19 (cutting at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N66X52 Roughing Cycle 12. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=52 (cutting at right angles away from the
spindle centreline).
N67G0Z2 Finishing Cut. G0, rapid traverse, to co-ordinate Z=2 (moving back to just in front of the face
end of the billet).

82 - Section 8 - CNC Programming Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Example Program
N68G1Z0 Finishing Cut. G1, linear interpolation, to co-ordinate Z=0 (cutting a straight line parallel to the
spindle centreline, towards the headstock).
N69X15 Finishing Cut. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=52 (cutting at right angles away from the spindle
centreline) - see screenshot below.

N70M3S1546 Finishing Cut. M3 switches the spindle on clockwise, with a speed of 1546RPM.
N71G3X35Z-10K-10 Finishing Cut. G3 commands a counterclockwise circular interpolation, arc line cutting, to the
co-ordinate X=35, Z=-10, with K=-10. The K word defines the distance from the start point to the
arc centre. The tool starts from near the spindle centreline, at the face end of the billet and
moves both towards the headstock end and away from the spindle centreline, to precisely cut the
arc required - see screenshot below.

N72G1Z-40 Finishing Cut. G1, linear interpolation, to co-ordinate Z=-40 (cutting a straight line parallel to the
spindle centreline, towards the headstock) - see screenshot below.

N73M3S1203 M3 switches the spindle on clockwise, with a speed of 1203RPM.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 8 - CNC Programming - 83

Example Program
N74X45Z-55 Finishing Cut. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=45, Z=-55 (cutting a taper outwards in the direction
of the headstock) - see screenshot below.

N75Z-70 Finishing Cut. Continue G1 to co-ordinate Z=-70 (cutting a straight line parallel to the spindle
centreline, towards the headstock) - see screenshot below.

N76X52 Finishing Cut. Continue G1 to co-ordinate X=52 (cutting at right angles away from the spindle
centreline).
N77G0Z2 Finishing Cut. G0, rapid traverse, to co-ordinate Z=2 (moving in a straight line parallel to the
spindle centreline, back to just in front of the face end of the billet).
N78M5 Program End. M5 commands the spindle to stop rotating.
N79G28U0W0 Program End. G28 commands a reference point return, homing the machine slides. The U and
W co-ordinates can be used to specify an intermediate point that the toolpost will move to first,
but since the values are both zero, no intermediate point is used.
N80M30 Program End. M30 indicates the end of the program and rewinds control back to the start of the
program - see screenshot below.

84 - Section 8 - CNC Programming Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

The Business Cycle
CNC machines and CAD/CAM can play an important role in the success of a business, by aiding the
companies efficiency, flexibility and quality....

Customer purchases
product. Product sent to
Retail Outlets.

Market Research/ CAM (Computer Aided

Advertising into potential Manufacture) of
product. product.

Design/CAD -
Product
development.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 9 - CNC Machines in Industry - 85

Why use CNC Machines?
CNC machines are used to great effect by industry, particularly in areas of
production where repeat tasks or high accuracy is required. In many situations,
they can offer great advantages over human operated machines...

The advantages of CNC machines:

• CNC machines, once programmed, will perform a repeat task until instructed
to stop. Each component produced will be exactly the same size and shape.
This saves money on designing the jigs and fixtures - units which hold the
material and help check it's being machined to the correct size.
• The ability to store a part program in the memory. With some CNC machines
it may be possible to store more than one program in the control unit memory
at any one time.
• Part programs may be edited relatively easily after entry, either at the machine
tool itself (called on line) or away from the machine tool (called off line).
• Repetitive machining operations can be done by smaller sub-programs,
therefore making part programs shorter.
• Cutter compensation and offsets are made much easier.
• Most modern CNC machines are equipped with program proving software.
This software makes it possible to produce the component shape in the form
of a graphical display on a VDU, plotter or printer. Any errors in the part
program can therefore be identified prior to machining.
• Most CNC control units are able to communicate with other computer-based
systems, for example CAD/CAM (Computer Aided Design and Manufacture).
• Waste material can be reduced, since a CNC machine is much less likely to
make an error than a manual machine. CNC machines can run 24 hours a
day, if necessary, with no signs of fatigue, unlike machines requiring a human
operator.
• Companies can estimate the manufacturing costs for CNC production much
more accurately, compared to a production line with manual machines.
• Consistently high quality of parts produced, including parts involving
complicated contours.
• Tool inventory low and hence tool storage costs lower than manual machines.
• Applicable to a wider range of production methods, from one-off through to
mass production.
• Easier to change between units of measurement, Metric to Imperial and vice
versa.

The disadvantages of CNC machines:

• The cost of buying and installing the machines can be quite high, compared
to human operated machines.
• Maintenance of CNC machines requires a high order of skill and trained
personnel.
• The company needs to train both operators and programmers of the installed
system.
• If very large numbers of identical components need to be made (high quantity
mass production) it is probably more cost effective for the company to install a
specially designed automatic machine.

86 - Section 9 - CNC Machines in Industry Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Production Sizes
One factor which can influence the decision to use CNC machines is the number
of identical components that are to be produced on the machines. There are
basically three methods used depending on the scale of production:

a) One-off production.
One-off simply means just that -
only one component is made.
Most products manufactured
as one-offs are expensive
to buy, since each
component has to be
individually designed, made,
checked and fitted. Some
one-off products, such as a
suspension bridge, have
engineering safety as a much
higher priority than the
production costs. Others such
as "prototypes" are
manufactured purely to test
public reaction on a product,
before committing to the next stages
of manufacture.
In the example shown below, Denford has
decided to manufacture a hot air balloon in
the shape of their cartoon character,
“Denny”, to promote the company at shows
and exhibitions. Only one balloon is
required and safety is an important factor,
so the most economical method for
production would be one-off.

b) Batch production.
Quite often, a company will need to make a small number of identical products, say
40 special benches for a new theme park. Using one-off production, the benches
would be individually designed and made. Therefore, they would be very expensive
to produce. If mass production was used,
lots of benches would need to be sold,
just to cover the initial cost of
setting up the machines. Since
only 40 are required,
this set-up cost would
be too great.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 9 - CNC Machines in Industry - 87

Production Sizes
b) Batch Production.
continued....
In cases such as these, it makes better sense to manufacture
every component needed to build all the products required,
rather like a miniature production line. This small quantity of
products, made one after is called a batch. When all the
products have been made, the machines are then used to
build completely different items for another design. In the
future, if more products are needed, the machines can be
reset and another batch of components can be produced.
CNC machines are ideally suited to a situation like this.
In the example shown, Denford has decided to make a
limited edition model of their cartoon character,
"Denny", in two different poses, to sell to its
customers. There will be 50 models of each
pose, so the most economical method would be
batch production.

c) Mass production.
Mass production costs a great amount of money to install
(called "tooling up") since the machines are specially
designed to make just the components needed for
one design of product. However, once running,
the system makes the products
very cheaply. It is only cost
effective if a very high
number of products are
needed, say 2500 or
more products, since
these initial tooling costs
need to be overcome.
Some products which are
mass produced are very complex,
each product itself being made of
thousands of different components.
Probably, the most well known example of this system is the car production line,
where computers, robots and automatic machines are used to set-up a system
which can run virtually "human" free.
In the example shown, Denford have discovered that their cartoon character,
"Denny", seems more popular than ever, so the company decides to launch a
special promotional "Denny" badge. 150,000 badges will be made, so it will be
cost effective to use mass production.

88 - Section 9 - CNC Machines in Industry Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Flexible Manufacturing Cells (FMC)
Many companies cannot justify spending such a high amount of capital (money)
on long, fully automated production lines, since the machines are usually limited
to making one design only. In cases such as these, the company installs a
number of flexible manufacturing cells (FMC). Each FMC may contain a number
of machines, programmed to carry out a particular task on the particular
component being produced. A number of these FMCs are then linked together in
a certain sequence (order) to form a production line to make all the different
components for the design.
The FMC illustrated below comprises of one CNC milling machine and one CNC
lathe, a hopper where the raw materials and finished parts are stored (this is
sometimes called a buffer store), and a robot moving on a slide, for taking the
parts to the different areas of the cell.
Using a system such as this allows the company more flexibility to expand,
simply by adding more FMCs into the production line, when required. When a
particular job is finished, any number of FMCs can be reprogrammed and
recombined into a 'new' production line for a different design.

CNC Milling
Machine.
CNC Lathe.

Robot.
Materials Hopper/
buffer store

Two Machine FMC.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 9 - CNC Machines in Industry - 89

Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS)
A number of flexible manufacturing cells can be combined with other pieces of
equipment to form a production line, called a flexible manufacturing system, or
FMS.
The system is very flexible, since it builds or reduces in size according to how
many FMCs or other pieces of equipment are needed. The FMS shown would
be ideal for a small company, since only one FMC is shown (it comprises of one
CNC milling machine and one CNC lathe), although further FMCs could be
added as the company expands.

FMC Number 1 (two

CNC machines). FMC controller.

FMS (host) controller 1.

FMS (host) controller 2.

AGV.

Conveyor system. ASRS.

Basic FMS (Flexible

Manufacturing System). Inspection area.

90 - Section 9 - CNC Machines in Industry Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

What does each part of the FMS do?
The flexible manufacturing system (FMS) shown on the last page contains many
other pieces of equipment, as well as the flexible manufacturing cells (FMCs). All
these different units work together to form the production, or assembly line. To
keep track of what each particular unit is doing, a number of computers, called
Host Controllers, are used to monitor the FMS to ensure everything runs
efficiently. These are in addition to the Cell Controller computers for each FMC.

A component which needs working upon is lifted out of one of the storage bays
on the Automatic Storage and Retrieval System (called the ASRS) and onto a
conveyor system. Each component usually sits on its own platform, called a
pallet.

The conveyor moves the pallet to the correct FMC, where a robot lifts the
component onto one of the CNC machines. The same robot may move the
component a number of times between all the CNC machines in its FMC, until all
its work has been completed. The robot will then move the component back onto
the conveyor, which in turn moves it to the next FMC unit, if fitted, for the next
stages of work.

ASRS
(Automatic
Storage
and
Retrieval
System).

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 9 - CNC Machines in Industry - 91

What does each part of the FMS do?
Once the component has travelled through every FMC required, it is taken back
to the ASRS and loaded onto an Automatically Guided Vehicle, or AGV. This is
used to transport the component over longer distances, perhaps even into a
different building. The AGV works by following a set route, which is marked out
on the factory floor by lines or wires. Many companies use AGVs to transport
large components between storage areas, cleaning areas, FMCs and (as shown
on the main FMS diagram) inspection areas.

The most famous example of this is the FIAT car assembly plant, where each car
moves around the factory being assembled on its own AGV. In the early 1980's
when its FMS was introduced, the company advertised its cars by showing them
moving round the factory on their AGVs.

AGV (Automatic
Guided Vehicle).

92 - Section 9 - CNC Machines in Industry Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Robots
Robots play an essential role in the success of flexible manufacturing systems.
Although robots can come in any shape or size, the most recognisable form of
robot is one programmed to imitate the action of a human arm.
Robots are quite common sights in many industries, such as car production lines.
They are used to assemble vehicles, spray paint, weld and unload CNC
machines.

Robot advantages:
a) Robots are excellent for highly repetitive, dangerous and hazardous
operations.
b) Robots can usually increase the rate of productivity (speed at which products
are made) by upto 50% in tasks such as loading and unloading of machines
and inspection of parts.
c) Robots work consistently (the same way each time) to position components
very accurately, for long periods of time, without stopping.

Robots can also be

combined with other
systems to provide
fully flexible packages.
Installing a device
similar to a tv camera
will allow a robot to
see. A vision program
is used to interpret the
information from the
camera, so the robot knows what the component is
and where it is located. A control program tells the
robot what to do with the component. Robots can
even be given a sense of feel through the use of
fibre optic cables beaming infrared light.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 9 - CNC Machines in Industry - 93

Robots
Robots give the impression of mechanical human arms since they offer the same
range of movement as the human arm itself, right down to intricate wrist
movements. The amount of different movements on a robot are called its
"degrees of freedom", for example, the robot illustrated has 5 degrees of
movement. At the end of the robot wrist, specially designed and shaped grippers
are used to hold the objects being moved.

Robots will perform mostly any task but need to be programmed first.
Programming a robot can be performed by a variety of methods such as:
a) physically limiting the areas of movement of the robot using stops and
switches,
b) moving the robot through a series of movements (which are recorded) either
by physically moving it each step, or using a remote hand-held controller,
c) programming the robot with a computer (this is commonly used with CAD/
CAM systems).

Elbow sweep.
Robot degrees
of freedom. Wrist pitch.
Shoulder
sweep.

(some robots Waist

Wrist roll. sweep.
can also move
their wrists
between left and
right, called the
yaw movement).

94 - Section 9 - CNC Machines in Industry Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Glossary
ABSOLUTE .................... In absolute programming, zero is the point from which all other dimensions are
described.
ADC ................................ Analogue-to-digital converter. A device that converts an analogue value to its
digital equivalent.
ADDRESS ...................... An alphabetic character used to define the start of a program word.
AGV................................ Automatic guided vehicle - an unmanned vehicle which moves workpieces
around the different sections of a factory production line.
AMPLIFIER .................... Also referred to as an amp. A device for increasing the power level of an
electrical signal. Incorporated in closed loop servo motor systems.
ANALOGUE ................... In numerical control, the term analogue implies a continuously variable quantity.
ARC ................................ A portion of a circle.
ASRS ............................. Automatic storage and retrieval system - a large unit used for keeping
workpieces not being worked upon.
ATC ................................ Automatic tool changer - if fitted to a lathe, cutting tools do not need to be
changed manually.
AUTOMATIC .................. Automatic Cycle - A mode of control system that continuously runs a cycle or
stored program until a program stop or end of program word is read by the
controller.
AUXILIARY .................... Auxiliary Function - The function of the CNC machine (ie, F, S, T, M codes etc.)
other than co-ordinate based commands.
AXIS (AXES) .................. The planes of movement for the cutting tool, referred to as X (transverse, at 90°
to the Z axis) and Z (longitudinal, parallel with the chuck spindle centreline).
Combinations of both axes allow precise co-ordinates to be described.
BATCH ........................... A factory production method where a small number (ie,50) of identical products
are made on machines before using the machines for making a different design
of product.
BILLET ........................... The technical name for the workpiece (the material being cut by the lathe).
BLOCK ........................... A line of data within a program.
BUFFER STORE ........... An area of a factory production line where workpieces are held temporarily,
before being sent to the next stage of production.
CAD ................................ Computer aided design.
CAM ............................... Computer aided manufacture.
CANNED CYCLE ........... A fixed sequence of operations that are permanently stored in the control
system. The fixed cycles can be called and used by a single command in the
part program.
CHARACTER ................. A number, letter or symbol as entered into a CNC program.
CHIP ............................... The pieces of workpiece material, cut away from the billet.
CHUCK .......................... The area where the billet is clamped.
CIRCULAR ..................... Circular Interpolation - G code term for a programmed arc movement.
CLOSED LOOP ............. A controlling system which does not have any feedback information.
CNC ............................... Computer Numerical control.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 10 - Glossary of Technical Terms - 95

Glossary
COMPARATOR .............. A device used in an open loop system which compares two signals and balances
any differences between them.
COOLANT ...................... Liquid used for lubricating and cooling tool tips, allowing higher spindle speeds to
be used.
CO-ORDINATES ............ Positions or relationships of points. Co-ordinates are usually described using two
numbers referring to the (X and Z) axes, e.g. the co-ordinate (23,35) means X
axis = +23 units and Z axis = +35 units.
CUTTER ......................... The actual "cutting" tool which machines the workpiece. Cutters are fixed into
"tool holders" on an ATC, identified by the machine as different numbers. Odd
numbers are single point cutting tools (eg, roughing tools) and even numbers are
multi-point cutting tools (eg, twist drills).
CUTTING SPEED .......... The equivalent of the workpiece surface speed at the point being machined.
CYCLE ........................... A sequence of events or commands.
DAC ................................ Digital-to-analogue converter. A device that converts an digital value to its
analogue equivalent.
DATA .............................. An order or sequence of numbers and information understood by a computer.
DATUM ........................... The co-ordinate (point) from which a series of measurements are taken.
DESKTOP TUTOR ......... The input control keypad for the machine. Keypad overlays are interchangeable
according to the type of control method required.
DIRECTORY .................. An area of a disk containing the names and locations of the files it currently
holds.
DISK ............................... A computer information storage device, examples, C: (drive) is usually the
computers hard (internal) disk and A: (drive) is usually the floppy (portable 3.5"
diskette) disk.
DNC ............................... Direct Numerical Control referring to the operation of a number of different
machines from a single relatively large computer.
DRIVE ............................ The controller unit for a disk system.
DRY RUN ....................... A test run of a CNC program to see if it contains any mistakes. The workpiece
cannot be cut on a dry run since no parts of the machine tool will move.
DWELL ........................... A programmed time delay.
ELECTROMAGNET ....... A number of wires wrapped round an iron bar. When an electric current is
passed through these wires, a magnetic field is generated.
ELEMENTS .................... Denford Lathe CAM Designer software elements are different shapes that are
put together to make a design.
END OF BLOCK SIGNALEOB - A symbol or indicator that defines the end of a block of data. The 'pc'
equivalent of the 'return' key.
ERROR .......................... The deviation of an attained value from a desired value.
FEEDBACK .................... Information about an object or system being controlled. It allows the potential for
any mistakes to be corrected.
FEEDRATE .................... The rate (speed), in mm/min or mm/rev, at which the cutting tool advances along
the workpiece.

96 - Section 10 - Glossary of Technical Terms Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Glossary
FILE................................ An arrangement of instructions or information, usually referring to work or control
settings.
FLUTE ............................ The grooved channels spiralling up the sides of a multi-point cutter which allow
waste material to be removed as the workpiece is cut.
FMC ............................... Flexible manufacturing cell - a number of CNC machines linked together by a
robot and under the control of a computer (the cell controller).
FMS ................................ Flexible manufacturing system - a number of FMCs and other pieces of
equipment linked together to form a production line, all controlled by computers
(called host controllers).
G CODE ......................... The programming language relating to commands about slide movement of the
lathe. G-Codes are the series of letters and numbers that make up the language
used by CNC machinery.
HARDWARE .................. Equipment such as the machine tool, the controller, or the computer.
HEADSTOCK ................. End area of the lathe containing the spindle, drive motor and chuck.
HOME ............................ Command signal instructing the datuming of machine axes.
IDEAL SPEED................ A number, measured in mm/min, relating to the most efficient speed one blade
can cut a specific type of material in a straight line.
INCH CONTROL ............ See Jog Control.
INCREMENTAL .............. Incremental programming uses co-ordinate movements that are related from the
previous programmed position. Signs are used to indicate the direction of
movement.
INDEXABLE ................... Tool tip that can be reversed until all its cutting edges are worn, then thrown
away and replaced by another.
ISO ................................. International Standards Organisation.
JIGS & FIXTURES ......... Devices used (or especially designed and made) to hold workpieces so the
correct areas can be accurately and easily reached and cut.
JOG CONTROL ............. Jog (or Inch) Control - Manual positioning of the machine using small fixed length
movements per axis key press (called Jog Steps) or user defined length
movements through holding the axis key down (called Continuous).
M CODE ......................... The programming language relating to commands about specific (non slide
movement) tasks on the lathe.
MACHINE BED .............. Area of the lathe running parallel to the spindle.
MACHINE CODE ........... The code obeyed by a computer or microprocessor system with no need for
further translation.
MACHINE DATUM ......... The Machine Datum (or reference) point is the co-ordinate set automatically by
the machine so it can relate the position of its cutting tool to both its slides (axes).
The machine must be instructed to search for this point when it is first switched
or the power supply is interrupted during a machining session. When set, it is
the point from which the machine takes all its measurements (displayed on
screen).
MASS ............................. A factory production method where a very large number (ie,100,000) of identical
products are made, usually on purpose build fully automatic machines.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 10 - Glossary of Technical Terms - 97

Glossary
MCU ............................... Machine Control Unit - the computer hardware and software used to control all
the operations of the CNC machine.
MDI ................................. Manual Data Input - entering data into a CNC computer by hand.
MODAL .......................... Modal codes entered into the controller by a CNC program are retained until
changed by a code from the same Modal group or cancelled.
NC .................................. Numerical control - a system which allows numerical data (from a computer) to
be processed into functions and movement commands.
OFF-LINE ....................... Working away from the machine tool, for example, entering program data or
program proving on a computer not linked to the machine tool.
ONE-OFF ....................... A production method where only one product or design is made (sometimes
called a prototype).
OPEN LOOP .................. A controlling system which contains feedback information.
PART .............................. The designed component manufactured, or being manufactured, from the billet.
PC .................................. Personal computer.
PERIPHERY .................. The outside edge of an object.
PROGRAM ..................... A systematic arrangements of instructions or information to suit a piece of
equipment.
PULSE ........................... A pattern of variation of a quantity, such as voltage or current.
QUILL ............................. The moveable front nose of the tailstock which can extend or retract to hold
parts.
RAKE ............................. Elevational angle of the tool tip.
RAM ............................... Random access memory. Data can be temporarily written to this memory.
RAPID TRAVERSE ........ Fast movement of the cutting tool through the two machine axes when not
cutting any material.
REFERENCE POINTS ... The machine has two reference points (hidden microswitches) used in setting the
limits of movement for its slides (axes).
REPEATABILITY ............ The accuracy of a system to attain identical positions or values.
ROM ............................... Read only memory. Data cannot be written to the device, only read (eg, CD-
ROM).
ROTOR .......................... The part of a motor (with fixed magnets) that spins.
RPM ............................... Revolutions per minute (rev/min) - a measure of spindle speed.
SADDLE ......................... The toolpost carrier fitted to the transverse slide.
SERVO ........................... An continuously variable electric motor incorporating facility for feedback
information.
SIGNATURE .................. Set of numbers describing a tool tips shape and angles
SIMULATION ................. A command within the lathe controlling software which allows the work performed
by a program to be viewed as a plan or 3d view.
SLIDES .......................... Another name for the two machine axes - see axis.
SOFTWARE ................... Programs, tool lists, sequence of instructions etc.....
SPINDLE ........................ The longitudinal shaft connecting the chuck with the drive motor.

98 - Section 10 - Glossary of Technical Terms Turning Courseware for CNC Machines

Glossary
SPINDLE SPEED........... The rate at which the spindle, its attached chuck and the workpiece rotates.
STATOR ......................... The part of a motor (with a series of electromagnets) that remains still.
STEPPER MOTOR ........ An electric motor which rotates in equally spaced units (called steps) each time a
voltage signal is sent.
TACHOMETER .............. A speed measuring instrument generally used to determine the revolutions per
minute.
TAILSTOCK ................... Area where drills are held and long billets are supported, at the opposite end of
the machine to the headstock.
TOOL OFFSET .............. When machining, allowances must be made for the different length and size of
tools being used. Each tool used on a part requires its individual tool offsets to
be registered.
TOOL PATH ................... Tool Path shows the route followed by the CNC lathe when cutting the design.
TOOLPOST .................... The holder for the various cutting tool profiles. Most automatic toolposts are
located above/behind the spindle centreline. Most manual toolposts are located
below/in front of the spindle centreline.
TORQUE ........................ Radial twisting force.
TRANSDUCER .............. A device used to monitor the amount of rotations taken by an object (ie, the
number of times a motor turns round). This allows the precise positions reached
by objects (such as the slides) to be described.
TRAVERSE .................... Movement of the cutting tool through the two machine axes between cutting
settings.
WORD ............................ Composed from an address letter and a number to describe a CNC setting,
operation or function.
WORK (WORKPIECE) ... The actual material being turned. The work is sometimes referred to as the
'billet'.
WORK AREA ................. The Work Area represents the surfaces available for machining.
ZERO OFFSET .............. Sometimes referred to as zero shift. A means of shifting the co-ordinate zero
point from a fixed known zero point.

Turning Courseware for CNC Machines Section 10 - Glossary of Technical Terms - 99

Notes

100 - Section 10 - Glossary of Technical Terms Turning Courseware for CNC Machines