STATISTICS AND ANALYSIS

Descriptive Statistics – describing characteristics

- Collection of data – physical, interviews, virtual, surveys

- Presentation of Data
- Analysis

Inferential Statistics

- Interpretation of data

COLLECTION OF DATA

Data gathering

- Primary: firsthand, experiments, field works

- Secondary: Books, magazines

Quality Data / Categorical Data – qualities, attributes, answerable by appointed responses

Quantitative Data / Numeric Data – obtain by some sort of measurement, numbers, discreet and
continuous numbers

Levels of Measurement of Data

1. Nominal – simplest form of data, no scales, no measurements. They are mutually exclusive, and
exhausted.
2. Ordinal – some sort of order, ranking, levels which indicate superiority from one level to
another, indicates a position in a series of numbers (Rank 1, Rank 2…)
3. Interval – possess the characteristics of both nominal and ordinal numbers, differentiated
between classes and categories. MAY DISTANCE (example: Temperature)
4. Ratio – highest form of data. Properties of interval data measurement + 1) complete absence of
data and 2) you can calculate for these numbers.

PRESENTATION OF DATA

1. Textual – narrative, paragraph

2. Tabular - tables
3. Graphical – illustrations
ANALYSIS OF DATA

- Just a subset of a much bigger and much known term coined as ANALYTICS.

INTERPRETATION OF DATA

- Understanding the results of the data

Data Analytics – (PDF NI SIR: Slide 4 of Economic Briefing)

Data Analysis – useful information palang

Data Analytics – making decisions na

DATA SCIENTIST – person who knows the tools of Data Science

OTHER’S NOTES

STATS February 28, 2022

Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals primarily with collection, presentation,

analysis, and interpretation of quantitative data to draw sound conclusions in phases of
uncertainty. Thus, examining these connections as well as the branches of statistics. 

Importance of Statistics 
1. Data are everywhere. 
2. Statistical techniques are used to make decisions that affect our daily lives. 
3. Knowledge of statistical methods will help you understand how decisions are made and
give a better understanding on how it can affect an individual. 

Types of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics – branch of statistics concerned with the attributes, behavior, properties
or characteristics of data on hand

Collection Presentation Analysis

Primary/First-hand data Organization Describing properties or behavior of the data
1. Experiments of data with the intent of extracting relative information
2. Questionnaires 1. Textual by using various statistical tools like measures
3. Interviews 2. Tabular of central tendency, parametric, and non-
Secondary – includes but 3. Graphical parametric test etc.
not limited to historical
data from proper agencies

Data could come in many ways:

 Physical
 Virtual
 Interviews
 Survey
 Credible agencies

TWO TYPES OF DATA

Qualitative Data – also known as categorical data, expresses qualities, attributes or

responses. They are normally in nominal form where mathematical operations cannot be
used and answerable only by two responses such as gender. We can “quantify” such data
by transforming them into dummy data – that is, giving a numeric value to their presence or
absence such as 10 for male and 5 for female. 

Quantitative Data – also known as numerical data, are obtained from measurement. It
expresses an amount using a specified level or type of measurement. They can be discrete
(whole numbers) or continuous (fractions, decimals, infinite numbers). 
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
There are four levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. 

Nominal Data 
The simplest form of data. No scales, no measurements involved as these are just counts to
differentiate classes or categories and hence, no mathematical operation can be performed.
They are mutually exclusive (an individual or object is included only in one category) and
exhaustive (individual, object or measurement is included must appear in one category). 

Ordinal Data 
These are the ones used in ranking (or levels that indicates superiority from one level to
another). It indicates a position in a series or order such as 1st, 2nd, 3rd. 

Interval Data 
Possesses the characteristic of ordinal numbers and differentiates between classes or
categories, normally of equal unit of measurement between each score. Examples of which
are Temperature, IQ Scores, Personality Scores, and the likes. 

Ratio Data 
The highest form of measurement, it has the properties of interval measurement plus two
more properties: (1) it has a meaningful zero point – the complete absence of the data
being measured and; (2) the ratio between two numbers is meaningful. 

After collecting the data, you need to present it.

*remember that data analysis under statistics is just a subset of a much bigger coined term
named ANALYTICS.

After the analysis, you interpret.

*extra lecture about data analysis and data analytics*

BASIC DATA ANALYTICS

Data analytics is the broad field of using data and tools to make business decisions

Data analysis is a subset of data analytics which, refers to specific actions with the objective of
finding useful information
Data Scientist – a person who uses data tools

Data Analysis is the process of gathering, inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modelling
data with the goal of highlighting or discovering useful information and draw sound conclusions
from them to provide empirical support in decision-making.

Data visualization is an inter and multi-disciplinary part of data analytics that deals with the
graphic or visual representation of data
Descriptive Analytics – is the portion where you want to answer what happened and what is
happening

Diagnostics Analytics – you are now performing the root cause analysis (RCA) because you
want to answer the question of why it happened or why is it happening

Predictive Analytics – you attempt to do forecast and answer the question of what is likely to
happen

Prescriptive Analytics – what actions are to be taken to mitigate future losses or problems and
take advantage of opportunities

Statistical processing and data collection

*the data that you need to collect might be to big so you need to get a sample

Population is the entire set of individuals or objects on interest, or the measurements obtained
from all individuals or objects of interest. Such observations have common attributes, which are
classified or grouped to determine certain movements, which can be useful to a researcher. The
scope of such data can be from individuals to even across-country cases. If all data are
considered, then the results can be said as accurate. 

Sample refers to taking a particular part to represent the population and facilitate easy
processing in terms of lesser cost and practicality. On the other hand, since it is only a part, then
sampling error is expected. The researcher should establish first the reliability of such before
drawing any conclusion or generalizations from the sample in reference to the population. 

SAMPLING PROCEDURES
Non-Probability Sampling Probability Sampling
NPS PS
Definition and Procedure in Drawing a Sample
Subjects are chosen without regard to Subjects are chosen on the basis of known
their probability. It does not involve probability (chance). The exact reversal of NPS,
random selection and no sampling frame. it involves random selection and follows a
sampling frame
Used when…
Plot studies or small-scale project market Whenever possible
Advantages
Convenient, speedy, less costly Samples are representative of the population
thus, can be used to draw sound conclusion
about the population
Disadvantages
Less representative, lack of accuracy due Costly, rigorous (hence, slow process) and
to selection bias, cannot be readily used poses considerable inconvenience on the
to draw conclusions about the population researcher
Methods for Non – Probability (Non-Random) Sampling 
1. Accidental/Convenience Sampling – also known as Haphazard or Convenience or
“Man on the Street Interview” Sampling Technique. It involves choosing the samples
(subjects) based on availability, proximity, and convenience of the researcher or by the use
of volunteers (self - selected samples). 

2. Purposive Sampling – subjects are chosen based on the purpose of the study; hence
they are practically a “pre-defined group” who knows where, whom and how to go with the
research goals. This technique is useful in reaching targeted groups but highly discouraged
especially in economic and business research due to its biased nature. 

Nonetheless this technique can still be useful in qualitative assessments. Common methods
of purposive sampling are as follows: 

A. Modal Instance – based on typical case or certain indicators like income, age etc.
(which 
makes it highly subjective; used in informal studies). 
 

B. Expert Sampling – sampling expert subjects on a certain topic or criterion. 

C. Quota Sampling – involves a pre-defined number of samples and normally used in 
two-criterion observations such as gender. The two sides can be proportional or non – 
proportional. 

Quota sampling is of two types; first proportionate quota sampling represent the
characteristics 
of major population by sampling a proportional total. 

D. Snowball Sampling – also known as “pyramiding”, it involves samples based on 

recommendations from the prior sample. 

Methods for Probability (Random) Sampling 

1. Simple Random Sampling – a sample selected so that each item or person in the
population has the same chance of being included. 
A. Fishbowl Method – uses the notion of “lottery” thus for each observation, the
probability of being selected is 1/N where N is the total number of observations in the
population. 
B. Table of Random Numbers – uses an array of randomly arranged numbers to
determine who will be included in the sample. 

2. Systematic Sampling – employs the use of intervals (k) drawn by dividing the number of
population by the number of target sample (N / n). 

3. Stratified Sampling – taking sample per strata or groups within a population (say, the
number of students per college in a certain university). The process is done by reversing
systematic sampling: 
% k = (n / N) x 100 
4. Cluster Sampling – taking sample from a group of the same or similar elements
gathered or occurring closely together like geographical area etc. 

5. Multistage Sampling – also called multistage cluster sampling, is exactly what it sounds
like – sampling in stages. 

It is a more complex form of cluster sampling, in which smaller groups are successively
selected from large populations to form the sample population used in your study. Due to
this multi-step nature, the sampling method is sometimes referred to as phase sampling.