Function 1-Navigation OralNotes Page126

2) Dia-254 mm
3) Cover-aluminium ring

WET CARDCOMPASS
1) Liquid- mixture of distilled water & pure ethyl alcohol

2) Made of mica

3) Dia-15cm
4) Bowl Dia - 23 cm

REMOVALOFBUBBLES IN COMPASS
1) Tilt the bowl to get the filter hole on the top

2) Unscrew the bowl

3) Top up with mixture of ethyl alcohol and distilled water

4) Screw the nut back

4)GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

Itsa
satellite basednavigationsystem
I t permits users with suitable receivers to establish their position, speed & time on land,
sea or in air at any time of the day or night and in any weather condition.

I t consists of 24 satellites in 6 dfferent orbits.

More accurate than any other existing system, with worldwide coverage.

SEGMENTS OF GPS
1) GROUND BASED SEGMENT 5 land based monitoring stations that monitor the
satellites.

2) SPACESEGMENT 24 satelites in 6 different orbits

3) RECEIVER SEGMENT- receiver unit with built in computer, receiving unit antenna& a
display unit

ERRORSOF GPS
1) ONOSPHERIC&TROPOSPHERICDELAY- velocity of waves vary as they pass through
different layers of the atmosphere, hence affecting the time measurement & position fix

Pulkit Nanda
 age 127
Function1- Naviaation Oral Notes
won't be accurate. Each satelite transmits message on 2 frequencies. Dual frequency
receiver receives both the frequencies, correction is calculated& compensated and
receiver is so designed as to not select a satellite whose elevation is less than 9.5
degrees.
2) USERS CLOCK ERROR-if the user's clock is not properly synchronized with satellite
clock, range measurement will not be accurate. Range measurement along with clock
error is called pseudo range.

3) SATELLITECLOCKERROR this is caused due to error in satellite clock with respect to

GPS time.

4) GEOMETRIC DILUTIONOEPRECESSION(GDOP)-GDOP of a satelite determines the

angle of cut, which in turn governs the quality of position obtained, Wider the angular
separation between the satellites, more the accuracy of the fix.
5) MULTIPATH ERROR-it is caused by satellite signals arriving directly from the satelite
and those that get deflected by other objects
6) DEVIATION OFSATELLITEFROM PREDICTED PATH- satellites are monitored and their
paths are predicted by ground based segments.

5) DIFFERENTIAL GPS(DGPS)
The differential GPS system is used to enhancethe accuracyof the normal GPS SYstem
I t i s used in surveying, dredging, drilling, oceanography etc where higher accuracy of
position fix is required.

With DGPs recelvers, the position accuracy is enhanced going from 30 meters to 10
meters
T h e ground stations use their precise location to calculate any error from the received
satellite data and produce local correction factors. These correction factors can then be
transmitted to GPS receiver.

There are2methods
1) Correctionsin terms ofcoordinates arebroadcastedtothe users
T h e accuracy decreases as the distance of user from the reference station increases.
Besides the reference station and the user must select the same satellite which is not
possible as the user does not have the option to select satellites manually.

2) In secondmethod both the base stationandthe GPSequipped vehicle receive data from
thesame sate!lites

Pulkit Nanda
Function 1-Navigation Oral Notes Page 128

6) ECHO SOUNDER
t is electronic equipment which measuresthe depth of seabed
Acoustic pulses of very short duration are transmitted vertically at the rate of 5-600
pulses/min.

Pulses strike the seabed, are received as echoes, converted to electric signals by the
transducer, and are then send to the stylus which produces corresponding marks on the
recording paper.
Depth measurement:

D=vxt/2

Minimum
the PL.
measurable depth- it depends on the PULSELENGTH and is theoretically half

Maxtmum measurabledepth-it depends on PULSEREPITITION FREQUENCY The PRF

is automatically selected and changes as the range scale changes.

RANGING
I n echo sounder the stylus is moving with certain constant speed and transmission
takes place when the stylus passes the zero mark. When higher range is selected the
speed of stylus is reduced as stylus has the paper for longer duration. This system is
called ranging.

PHASING
I n phasing the speed of stylus motor remains constant. Instead the
of changing speed
of stylus the transmission point is advanced. The sensors are positioned around the
stylus belt. The magnet generates the pulse when it passes the sensor which in turn
activates the transmitter.

ERRORS
1) Velacityof propagationin water- the velocity of waves changes with temperature,
salinity or pressure change. If velocity is not corect, the depth recorded will be
inaccurate
2) Stvyusspeederor - caused due to fluctuation in supply voltage.

3) Pyrthagoras eror- caused when different transducers are used for transmission and
reception.
4) Multiple echoes
Function 1-Navigation Oral NotesS Page129

5) Thermal and density layers

6) Aeration error

7) Zero line adjustment error

RECORDER

LAMPLIPER
0sCILLATOR

TRANSMTTNORECEIVNO
TANSDOCR

FULSE TRANSMITTED CHOES RECEIVED

FROM SEA BED
TO SEA BED

SEABED

Pgure
Bchio soe

Z)DOPPLER LOG
Itis based on the principle of DOPPLERSHIETIN FREQUENCYMEASUREMENT .e
apparent change in the frequency received when the distance between source and
observer is changing due to continuous motion of either source or observer or both.

Atransducer fitted at the bottom of the ship emits a continuous beam of sound
vibrations in the water at an angle of 60 degrees to the keel in forward direction. The
beam is bounced off the seabed or layer of water and received back at the transducer.
The difference in frequency between the transmitted and received signals is measured
and is proportional to the speed of the ship.

GROUND/BOTTOM TRACK(SPEED OVER GROUND)

When the signal is bounced off the seabed or bottom, the speed indicated will be in
relation to the fixed seabed and is therefore called ground track.

WATER TRACK(SPEED THROuGHWATER)

I n deep waters where the depth is more, the signal is bounced off a layer of water, the
speed indicated will be in relation to water layer and is therefore termed as water track

Pulkit Nanda
Function 1-Navigation Oral Notes Pagel|30

JANNUS CONFIGURATION
Most Doppler logs have transducers to measure both fore and aft speeds as well as
athwartship transducer to measure speed in athwartship direction. Such transducers
that measure both alongship as well as athwartship speed is called JANNUS
CONFIGURATION" It is accurate of all logs, useful for both ocean navigation and
berthing.
ERRORS
1) Eror in transducer orientation

2) Eror in oscillator frequency

3) Eror in propagation velocity of acoustic wave

4) Eror due to ship's motion

5) Etror due to effect of roling and pitching

6) Eror due to inaccuracy in measurement of comparison frequency

7) Error due to side lobe

8) ELECTRONICCHART DISPLAY &INFORMATION SYSTEM (ECDIS)

Electronic chart by itself is an image of peper chart displayed ona cathode ray tube
(CRT)

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS OFECDIS

1) Primary function should be safety of navigation

2) Should have all facilities of BA charts

3) Should comply with sOLAS

4) Should comply with GMDSS requirements

5) Easy and reltable updates should be available

6) Should have audio / visual alarm indications for safety of navigation and system
malfunction

7)The authorities publishing ENC's should be government approved

8) Must have a backup system

LIMITATIONSOFECDIS
1) Reliability on electric supply
Function1- NavigetionOralNotes Page 131
2) Reliability on feed from other equipments

3) Electronic navigational charts (ENC) are not available for worldwide coverage

UPDATES
Updates are provided by

1) Marine Data Services (MDS)

2) Admiralty Information Overlay (AIO)

CHARTUPDATING
1) Correction onfloppy orCD- supplied to navigator only in ports. If the CD is misplaced
the next CD will have all the previous updates.

2) Email- latest corrections are also sent via e-mail.

3) Websile- charts can also be updated onine wherein the manufacturer can supply
corrections via his website.

4) Broadcast- latest system of updating charts is that manufacturer transmits the chart
updates as broadcast, in a coded format. Dedicated software is fitted in the ECDIS which
receives updates, decodes them and correction of charts can be done.

pifference betweenRASTER &YECTOR charts

RASTER CHART VECTOR CHART
1) Information is storedas single leyer
1)informationis stored invarious layers
2) Direct copy of paper chart 2) computer generated chart

3) Chart appears cluttered

3)cluttering ofchartcan be avoided
4) Seamless charts not possible 4)seamless chartis afeature
5) Display regeneration takes time 5)displayregenerationis faster
6) Safety depths, etc alams not possible 6) safety depth, etc alarnms are possible

7) Scale ofchartcan'tbechanged 7) viewing on different scale is a feature

8) Zooming facility not possible 8) z0oming facility possible

9) Cheaper to produce, easily a vailable 9) costly &time consuming to produce
10) Worldwide coverage 10) no worldwide coverage

11) Information can onlybe added 11) Information can be added &deleted

Pulkit Nanda
 Function 1-Navigation Oral Notes Page 132

9)AUTOMATICIDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AIS)

AIS is a shipboard broadcast transponder system in which ships continuouslytransmit
their STATICa DYNAMIC" data to other nearby ships and shore authorities on a
common VHF radio channel.

Vessels more than 300 GT are required to carry AIs

AIS is designed to operate in one ofthe following modes

1) Ship to ship mode for "Colision Avoidence
2) As a means for coastal states to obtaininformation about a vessel and it's cargo
3) As aIraffic management too! when integrated with Vessel Traffic Infomation Services
(VTIS)
PRINCIPLE
I n AIS the principle used to transmit data on a single VHF channel is obtained by STDMA
ie. Self-Organizing Time Dvision Multiple Access
Under STDMA each minute of time is divided into 2250 timeslots and is used by multiple
vessels in single time period.

EREQUENCIESOFTRANSMISSION
AIS 1-channel 87 B(761.975MHz)
AIS 2-channel 88 B(162.025 MHz)

Informationprovidedby Als
1) STATIC DATA IMO number, call sign, name, length, beam, type of ship, location of
position fixing antenna

2) DYNAMIC DATA- vessel's position, time, course, speed, heading, navigational status,
ROT, etc

3) VOYAGE RELATED DATA-ship's draft, destination, hazardous cargo, waypoints, eto

4) SAFETYRELATED MESSAGE- short messages related to safety
Static and voyage related data is transmitted every 6 minutes Safety data whenever needed.
Dynamic data is transmitted as follows:

A t anchor -

3 minutes
Function1-Nevigation Oral Notes Page133
0-14kts 12 seconds, changing course -4 seconds
14-23 kts - 6 seconds, changing course- 2 seconds

23+ kts-3 seconds, changing course - 2 seconds

SOLASREOUREMENI
AIS is required to be carried onboard:

1) FG ship more than 300 GRT

2) Non FG ship above 500 GRT

3) All passenger ships irrespective of size and trade

2TYPES OFAUs
AISA-broadcasts infomation every 2 - 10 seconds when underway and every 3
minutes when anchored

AIS 8-reportingtime less than AIS A

Difference between AlS A and ANS B
1) AIS B can only be used to read safety messages and not transmit

2) AIS B does not show navigational status, rate of tum, ETA and destination, IMO number

10)VOYAGE DATA RECORDER

Itis more commonly known as BLACK BOX which is also used in aviation industry. Vessels
more than 20,000 GT are required to carry VDR.

PURPOSE-Main purpose of VDR is to record and store ship's critical parameters to facilitate
reconstruction of the incident for the purpose of analysis. Recording facility 12 hrs

ADVANTAGES
1) Accident investigation
2) Response assessment

3) Training support
4) Promotion of BEST practices

5) Reduction in insurance costs

VDR must be incorporated in abrlat colored protective capsule which can withstand high
pressure, heavy impact and fire. VDRmay be mounted ona buoy and placed on open deck area
Function 1-Navigation Oral Notes Page134

so that it can float free in any event of disaster.

11)AUTOPILOT
Autopilot is basically used when a ship has to steer a set course for a long time without
alteration.

Vessels above 50,000 GT are required to carry auto pilot.

cONTROLSOF AUTOPILOT
1) Course Selector Knob - primary control, course to be steered is selected with this.

2) Rudder contro!- this determines the amount of rudder to be used to correct the
deviation from set course

3) Counter rudder- It determines the amount of counter action by rudder to steady the
vessel keeping the overshoot to minimum

4) Yawcontro!-seting depends on the wind and weather condition and their effect on
course keeping ability

5) Permanent helm

6) Speed
7) Rudder limit
8) off course alam

9) Auto/Follow up /Non follow up

10) Dimmer

FOLLOWUP MODE
*Therudder action is controledby the wheel postonie. if the helmaman put the wheel
to STBD 10 the rudder will move to STBD 10 degrees and will remain there until and
unless the wheel is put back to MIDSHIP. As soon as the wheel is put to midship the
rudder will also come to midship.

NON FOLLOw UPMODE

The rudder action is directrcontrolled bythe TILLERie.the solenoid valve or steering
gear control system are directly operated by turning the NFU steering lever to either port
r stbd.

I n this mode the helmsman uses the tler on NFU panel and if he tums the lever to stbd
the rudder starts coming to stbd and the degrees is indicated on the ROTI (rate of turn
indicator). The rudder will remain in the same position until the tiller is rotated to

Pulkit Nanda
Function 1-Navigation OralNotes Page |35

opposite side to bring the rudder back to midship.

12) LONG RANGE IDENTIFICATION AND TRACKING (LRID

Long range identification and tracking (LRIT) of ships is a "MARITIME SECURIT
INITIATIVE that alows sOLAS contractinggovemments to request and receive positlion
reports from vessels operating under their flag.

CARRIAGE REQUIREMENTS
1) All passenger ships including high speed crafts

2) Cargo ships including high speed crafts of 300 GT and above

3) Mobile offshore drilling units

INFORMATIONSENT VIA LRI

1) Vessel's identity

2) Vessel's position

3) Date&time of vessel's position

Difference betweenLRITand AiSisthatLRITinformationis providedtoonlyspecifiedrecipients

onrequestie flag state,etcsafequarding the securityofthe vessel whereas AlSisa broadcast
System.Itdiffers in RANGEtoo
13)RADAR (RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING)
RADAR works on the principle of echo reflection wherein short bursts of radio waves are
sent, they are reflected back from a rigid object and are collected back where they
appear as objects on the PPl.

RADAR is of two types

1) X-band: 9 GHz, Higher frequency, short range, 3 cm

2) S-band: 3 GHz, long range, 10 cm

CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT
Vessels above 300 GT are required to carry 2 operational marine RADAR

ARPA-10000 GRT or more

ANGLOSPINT phenomenon of the scanner showing different bearing than true heading

CHARACTERISTICS
1) Wave length

Pulkit Nanda
Function 1- Navigation OralNotes Page|36

2) Pulse length

3) Vertical beamwidth

4) Horizontal beamwidth

5) Frequency
LIMITATIONS
1) Range discrimination

2) Bearing discrimination

3) Minimum range

4) Maximum range

5) Range accuracy (+/- 1)

6) Bearing accuracy(+/-1%)
EFFICIENCYOFRADAR
Efficiency of RADAR has to be checked every watch. For this an "ECHO BOX" is mounted
near the place where the transmitting signal will enter it, chun within it and will return to
the screen as an echo where it is printed as a "PLUME" shape. Length of the plume
should be checked, noted down and compared with previous values.

Efficlency= (length ofplume /max length ofplume in past) x 100%

Efficiency should be minimum 80%
SPOKING
Unwanted lines appearing on the PPI due to dirty contacts or heavy sparking of motor or
mechanical equipment in the vicinity.

Spoking
STARRING
Unwanted dotted lines which appear on the PPI due to interference of another RADAR in
the vicinity operating on the same bandwidth. The dotted lines change their position
after each scan of the RADAR
Pulkit Nanda
 Function 1-Navigation Oral Notes Page 137

********

sarth
14) SEXTANI
The marine sextant is precision built
a
optical instrument used onboard for measuring altitudes
and angles. It is named because its
so arc is 1/6 of circle- 60.

PRINCIPLE-When a ray of light suffers reflection by two mirrors in the same plane, the
angle
between the original incident ray and the final emergent ray is twice the angle between the
mirrors.

SETANTERRORS
1) Perpendicularity eror - adjustable onboard

2) Side eror- adjustable onboard

index error - adjustable onboard

4) Colimation eror adustable by laboratory -

5) Vernier error adjustable by laboratory

6) Centering error- non adjustable
7) Graduating error - non adjustable

8) Micrometer error -non adjustable

9) Shade error -

non adjustable
10) Prismatic error -

non
adjustable
USESOF SEXTANT
1) Tomeasure altitude of sun, stars, moon and
planets
2) Horizontal angle between prominent terrestrial objects and to fix
position
3) Vertical angle of suitably high terrestrial objects to obtain distance off
4) Vertical angle of masts and hydrographic surveying

Pulkit Nanda
Function 1-Navigation OralNotes Page138

MARING SExTANI

toRLtsN

RC

TANRENT RAENSE
StREN MIdRO

15) COMPANY UKCPOLICY (UNDER KEEL CLEARANCE)

This document gives the information about the minimum under keel clearance to be
maintained by the vessel when navigating in coastal / confined waters or when at port.

UKC is decided after checking the amount of cargo/ ballast/ stores and other weights
to be loaded or discharged.

Under keelclearance.allowance of3.5metersisfor open waters

While approaching berth or alongside following should be the case:

1) Summerdhaft-lessthen 10meters
>UKC-0.5m + 10% of max draft

2)Summerdraft-10meterto 17meter
UKC-0.8m +10%of max draft

3) Summer draft-more then17meter

UKC-1.0 m+10% max draft

16)WHEEL oVER POINT

Function 1-NavigationOral Notes Page 139

It is the point where the wheel is turned over for an alteration of course. It is calculated in
Nautical miles and is as follows:

T R(1-cos 0) +F(sin 8)
ROT V/RYminute
R-Radius of turn
(0)-angle of alteration of course
F-Distance moved by the vessel after wheel has been turned to the time it starts
altering course

Fdepends on the size of the shlp:

F o r large vessel it is 0.15 NM

For very large vessel it is 0.20 NM

CRASHSTOP
Distance covered by the vessel when the command is given from FULL AHEAD to FULL ASTERN
keeping the rudder midship.

INERTIASTOP
Distance covered by the vessel when the command is given from FULLAHEAD to STOP keeping
the rudder midship.

17) SQUAT (REDUCTION IN UKC)

The bodily sinkage caused due to the reduction of water pressure under the ship, when passing
overshallow waters, moving at a fairly good speed is termed squat.

OR

The bodily sinkage of vessel which happens when a vessel makes headway through shallow
waters is called squat.

Fomula:
Open waters

Squat (Cx V)/ 100

Shallow waters
Squst (Cx vV)/50

Pulkit Nanda
Function 1-Navigation OralNotes Pagel40

Ca-block co-efficient
V Speed in kts

FACTORS INCREASING SQUAT

1) High speed

2) High propeller speed

3) Deep draught
4) Shallow depth of water

5) High block co-efficient

6) Broad beam

7) Narrow channel
8) Trim of the vessel

18) BENCH MARK

It is a permanent point of known elevation which is located on the jetty walls to mark the water
level (max. or min.) at the port.

19)GIRDING OFTUG
I n simple words when the tug is pulling a vessel, while carrying out the operation if the
tug comes parallel to the vessel, the towline would become perpendicular to the length

of the tug.
If
Girding is a transverse overturning moment. It can heel the tug up to waterline or more.
any opening is left unsecured on
the deck, water may start entering it, leaving the tug in a
helpless situation and possibly capsizing her.

20) SMELLING THE GROUND

vessel is nearing an extremely shallow depth such as a shoal, etc she likely
is to
When a
of
sudden sheer first towards the shoal and then violently away. The
movement a
take a
sluggish ship may suddenly become very lively. This is called smelling the ground.

21)BANK SUCTION&BOWCUSHION EFFECT

A s the vessel moves through a restricted channel it is possible that she may be close to
one bank.

Pulkit Nanda
Function 1-Navigation Oral Notes Pagel41

There might be a restricted flow of water on one side, which causes an increase in the
velocity of water on that side accompanied with a loss of pressure head
The loss in pressure head causes a drop in water level at the nearer bank and a thrust is
set up towards it, more strongly at the STERN.

The stem part of the vessel moves towards the bank and is termed BANKSUCTION
FFECT
Whereas the bow tends to move away from it and is termed BOwCUSHIONOrCUSHION
EFFECT

Cushio
Etect

Maa
7Suctton

Ee

INTERACTIONBETWEEN SHIPS
When 2 identical vessels are proceeding at an ideal speed on a course, each ship has her
streamline and water flow from forward to aft.

When these ships come close to each other with their streamlines overlapping, it causesS
reduction in pressure on their quarters.

Now these 2 pressure zones are developed:

1) Positive pressure zone FORWARD

2) Negative pressure zone with SHIP'S HULL

T h e pressure imbalance causes bow to repel each other, midship area tend to close to
each other and stern succeeds in getting close to each other.
Function 1- Navigation Oral Notes Page 142

22)MAGNETICVARIATION
Magnetic meridians are the lines joining the magnetic poles of earth. Since these poles
are not in the same position as the geographic poles, there is an angle between the two.
This angle between them is known a VARIATION

Variation at a place is not constant. Variation at all places on earth undergoes a long
periodic change, as the magnetic poles revolve around the geographic pole once in
about 960 years.

Variation chartindicates the MEAN ANNUAL VALUE OF VARIATION and are published by
admiralty at about 5vearsinterval
MAGNETOMETERis used to measure magnetic variation.

23) TURNING CIRCLE

When a vessel alters her course under the helm through 360, she moves on a circular
path (roughly) called a tuming circle

Throughout the circle her sten remains little to outside while the bow remains slightly
inside.

With a RHP, the circle to PORT will be slightly smaller in diameter than the circle to STBD,
due to the effect of TRANSVERSE THRUST

De1LH Alondo
Function 1-NavigationOral Notes Page l 43

TRANSFER

TACTICAL PIAMETER

2KIS

DRIFT
ANGLE

1) ADVANCE This is the forward motion of the ship from the moment she starts the turn.
2) DRIFTANGLE t is the angle between the ship's fore and aft line and the tangent to the
tuming circile.

3) TACTICAL DIAMETER The distance travelled by the centre of gravity of ship measured
from the track to the point where the vessel has altered her course by 180', when
altering her course under helm through 360".

4) TRANSFER The distance travelled by the centre of gravity of vessel measured from the
track to the point where the vessel has altered her course by 90', when altering her
course under helm through 360
5) PIVOTPOINT A position aboard the vessel about which the ship rotates when turning is
called the pivot point or the point that traces the turning circle.

6) HEAD REACH Distance travelled by vessel in forward direction when main engine has
been stopped.
7) TRACKREACH Distance travelled by the vessel in the forward direction when the main
engine has been reversed till the vessel is stopped

8) SIDEREACH Distance from the original track of vessel to the stopping point by track
reach is called side reach.

FACTORS AFFECTING ATURN

1) Structural design and length of vessel

Pulkit Nende
Function 1-Navigation Oral Notes Page 144

2) Draft and trim of the vessel

3) Distribution and stowage of cargo

4) Amount of rudder angle required to complete the turn
5) Even keel or carying a list

6) External forces affecting the drift angle

24) CONTENTS OF PILOT CARD

1) VESSEL'SPARTICULARS name, call sign, displacement, DWT, year bult, breadth, length
draught F/A/M, anchor port& stbd no. of length of shackles

2) LOADED/BALLAST MANIFOLD
3)AIR DRAUGHT
4) ENGINE manpower, RPM/ pitch, loaded/ ballast speed, etc
5) STEERING: rudder type, max propeller, thrusters, bow/stern power, etc

6) EQUIPMENT CHECKED: ready for use anchor, whistle, flags, X-band/S-band RADAR,
speed log, echo sounder, etc

7)EQUIPMENT OPERATIONAL DEFECTS

8) OTHER IMPORTANTDETAILS
9)MASTERS NAME &DATE
25) WHEEL HOUSE POSTER
1) Vessef's particulars
2) Draft at which the maneuvering data was observed, loaded/ballast

3) Steering particularsS
4) Propulsion particulars
5) Anchor chain
6) Thrust effect at trial conditions
7) Draft increase (loaded)
8) Tuming circles

9) Man overboard rescue manoeuvres

Pulkit Nande
Function 1-Navigation Oral Notes Pagel45

10) Deviation card

11) Muster list

12) Time zone chart

13)Load line zone

14) ME correction

15) Critical RPM/ engine speeds

26)MANAEUVERING CHARACTERISTICS:RATEOFTURN INDICATOR

Indicates instantaneous rate at which ship is tuming
According to SOLAS, new ships of above 50,000 GRT must have ROT indicator.

ADVANTAGES
1) Useful in narrow channels

2) Useful in TSS

3) In areas of sharp bends, etc

27) When willyou call Master?

1) If Restricted Visibility is encountered or expected

2) Traffic conditions or the movements of other ships are causing concern

3) If difficulties are experienced in maintaining course

4) On failure to sight land a navigation mark or obtain soundings by the expected time

5) If,unexpectedly, land or a navigation mark is sighted or a change in sounding occurs

6) On breakdown of the engines, propulsion machinery remote control, steering gear or any
easy essential navigational equipment, alarm or indicator

7) If radio equipment malfunctions

8) In heavy weather, if in any doubt about the possibility of weather damage.

9) If ship meets any hazard to navigation, such as ice or a derelict

10) In any other emergency or in any doubt.

28)TRANSVERSE THRUST/WHEELING EFFECT/STARTING BIAS

Pulkit Nanda
Function 1-Navigation OralNotes Page|46

I t i s the sideward force exerted on the ship's sten when the propeller is in motion (either
forward or astern).

O n a right handed fixed propeller, while the vessel is moving forward, the thrust exerted
on the sterm is towards STBD and bow swings towards PORT, vice versa in astern
propulsion.

RHP
Le
MALG

29) PILOT LADDER

Physical characteristics
a) From bottom 5" step should be a spreader
b) Last 4 steps should be of rubber

c)Max 9 steps between two spreaders

d) Man rope Dia - 28 mm

e) Side rope Dia - 18 mm

Horizontal gap-40cm
9 Vertical gap between steps -30to 32 cm
h) Spreader dimensions - length (18 cm), breadth (11.5 cm), thickness (2.5 cm)

1) No knots or shackles between the ropes

D No tripping line attached

k)Steps should not be painted

REQUIREMENTS
a) Pilot ladder should be clean and free from slippery substance

b) Height of the ladder as per pilot

c)No overboard discharge where the ladder is placed

d) If ship's freeboard exceeds 9m combination ladder to be rigged

Pulkit Nanda
 Function 1-Navigation Oral Notes Page147

e)Combination ladder not to have inclination more than 55

9 Man rope as per pilot

METEOROLoGY
1)ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE
1) 2RYADIABATICLARSERATE DALRE Temperature of a dry parcel of air which is made
to rise falls at a steady rate of 10'C/km.

2) STURATED ADIABATICLAPSERATE /SALRÈTemperature of a saturated parcel of air

which is made to rise falls at a steady rate of 5°C/km.

2)FOHN WIND EFFECTI

t is an effect in which the leeward side of the mountain range remains drier and warmer as
compared to the windward side. It is the direct result of difference between DALR and SALR of
air.

Pulkt Nandae
Function1-Navigation OralNotes Pagel48

3) DEFINITIONS
A) DEW When water vapour condenses into droplets of water and get deposited on exposed
surfaces on or near the ground it is called dew.

BHOARFROST Itis the name givento"CE CRYSTALS deposited on exposed surfaces onor
near the ground when the ground temperature is much lower than the freezing point.

CGLAZEDFROST It is a thin, transparent, smooth layer of ice formed when rain or drizzle falls
on a surface whose temperature is below freezing point. Glazed frost is also called
"BLACK ICE.
DIRIME If the temperature of water droplet in a fog is below 0'C, they are said to be super
cooled droplets of water. When these droplets come in contact with very cold solid objects they
freeze almost immediately and remain struck in the form of ice. This white deposit of ice is
called rime
MIST&FOG Mist is said to exist when visibility is reduced by water particles that have
on dust but
condensed particles, etc are so that
small they remain suspended in air. If the mist
becomes dense and the visibility is reduced to 1 km or less, it is called fog.

EHAZE f the visibiity is reduced by solid paticles such

suspended in air, haze is said to exist.
as sand, dust, etc which remains

RADIATION FOG
I t is also called LAND FOG because it forms only over land not over sea.

During clear nights land gives off heat very quickly and the air near land gets cooled and
if cooled below dew point, large amount of dew is deposited.

is cold
Ifcouple
slightofbreeze flowing. this dew from land surface comes in contact with air
meters above and ground fog takes place.

I t reaches maximum about half hour after sunrise because air temperature is at its
lowest and dissipates after sun has shown for some hours.

Conditions fevorable for redidetlon foa are

1) Large moisture content in the lower layer of air
2) Little or no cloud at night

3) Light breeze at the surface

4) Cold wet surface of land

HADVETIONFOG
I t is also called SEA FOG"because it is mostly formed over sea.
Function 1-Nevigation Oral Notes Page |49

It can form over land also.

I t is formed when moist air flows over a cold surface of land or sea.

When the moist air is cooled below its dew point, the excess water vapour condenses
into small droplets of water on small particles resulting in advection fog.

DSMOC tis radiation fog mixed with industrial smoke. It is a thick black, oppressive blanket
which not only wets the exposed surfaces but also makes therm black due to carbon particles in
smoke
DEW POIT It is the temperature at which a parcel of air becomes 100% saturated. The
relative humidity and dew point can be found by hygrometer, barometer and psychrometer.

KSEA(WAVES It is
the name given to waves on the sea surface, created by wind that is
presently blowing (height of sea disturbance created due to blowing wind).

SWELL t is the name given to waves on the sea surface formed by wind that has
subsequently stopped blowing or is blowing at some other place quite far away. tis usualy the
first indicationofapproaching TRS
MGUST A gust of wind is the sudden increase of wind speed for a short period of time

M SOUALL:A sudden increase of wind speed by at least 3 stages of Beaufort scale, reaching
upto at least force 6, and lasting at least 1 minute.

VEERING A clockwise change in the direction from which wind is blowing.

PBACKING An anticlockwise change in the direction from which wind is blowing.

4)VARIOUSTPE OF CLOUDS
A) HIGH bases between 6 km above sea level and tropopause.
1) Cimus (Cc)

2) Ciostratus (Ca)

3) Cirocumulus (Co)
B MEDIUM: bases between 2 km and 6 km above sea level

1) Atostratus (As)
2) Aitocumutus (Ac)
CLOW bases between sea level and 2 km above sea level

1) Stratus (St)
Function 1 Naviaation Oral Notes Page |50

2) Stratocumutus (So)
3) Nimbostratus (Ns)
D) SPECIAL bases at low cloud level but tops may extend well into high cloud level
1) Cumulus (Cu)

Cumulonimbus (Cb)-ANWIL SHAPED CLOUD

ANVIL means flatten surfece of clouds on or near tropopause
Clouds are of 4types:
1) CIRRUS sivery cloud, fom of feather or fiber seen high up in sky
2) CUMULUS white cloud, cauliflower shape, high clouds

3) STRATUS grey colour, even layer, no raln

4) NIMBOSTRATUS grey colour, even layer, gives rain

FORMATIONOFCLOUDS
1) TURBULENCE strong winds blowing over uneven land strike against various
obstructions and the air gets deflected upwards. This causes thorough mixing of the air
and as air rises it cools adiabatically. If during this process it cools down below its dew
point, clouds are formed.

2 OROGRAPHICLIETING when a warm, moist air blows against a mountain range, it

begins to climb up and during this ascet; it cools adiabatically and after cooling below
its dew point orographic clouds are formed.

3) cONVECTON when a parcel of air gets heated due to any local cause, it expands
becomes less dense than the surrounding air and rises. During the ascent this air cools
adiabatically and when cooled below its dew point, condensation takes place resulting in
formation of convection clouds.

4) FRONTAL LIFTING when warm and cold air masses are in contact their separation line
at sealevel is called a FRONT. The boundary between them is not vertical and is inclined
towards cold air mass, as it being denser, acts like a wedge and lifts the wamer air.

5)ISOBARS
An isobar is a line drawn on the weather map joining all places having the same ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE at the time for which that weather map was drawn.

6) PRESSURE GRADIENT
I t i s the fall of pressure with distance as shown on a weather map.

Pulkit Nanda