historical

The bhāvanā in Mathematics

by ˨ͻ˨ξϑІ˨ ͬϟͻ˨ξ ̙ϟϑϑ˨

T
he Sanskrit word bhāvanā was used by
ancient Indian algebraists to name a principle of “composition” introduced by
Brahmagupta (born in 598 ce) way back in the seventh century.
In mathematics, a law of composition combines (i.e., trace the evolution of composition laws from Brahmagupta
“composes”) two mathematical objects of a certain type to to Bhargava. A more detailed exposition is being prepared in
produce a third object of the same type; for instance, it may [1].
combine two solutions of a given equation to generate a third
solution of the equation, or it may combine two polynomial Brahmagupta’s bhāvanā on the varga-
expressions of a particular form to yield another expression prakṛti
of the same form.
Brahmagupta is the first known mathematician to state The great achievements of ancient Indian mathematicians
(in 628) a non-trivial principle of composition. For any include their ingenious methods for finding integer solutions
arbitrary N , Brahmagupta’s composition law [equation of equations. In the chapter Gaṇita of his treatise Āryabhaṭīya
(1)] shows how to combine two solutions of the equation (499 ce), Āryabhaṭa describes a method (subsequently called
N x2 + z = y 2 to produce a third solution. In particular, kuṭṭaka) for solving, in integers, the linear indeterminate
it combines two expressions of the form y1 2 − N x1 2 and equation ay − bx = c with integer coefficients a, b, c. In
y2 2 − N x2 2 to get a third expression y3 2 − N x3 2 . The the chapter Kuṭṭakādhyāyaḥ of his magnum opus Brāhma-
precise identity that one gets [equation (3)] is now called sphuṭa-siddhānta (628), Brahmagupta takes up the much
“Brahmagupta’s identity”. harder problem of finding positive integer solutions to the
In Europe, Brahmagupta’s identity would reappear in quadratic indeterminate equation N x2 + 1 = y 2 for a
the works of L. Euler during the eighteenth century. Euler fixed positive integer N . The equation was later called “Pell’s
called the identity theorema eximium (a theorem of capital equation” in modern Europe. Since Brahmagupta is the
importance) and theorema elegantissimum (a most elegant first mathematician to investigate this important equation
theorem). While this specific identity on the important in a general framework, the equation is nowadays being
binary quadratic form y 2 − N x2 is now a basic result in renamed as the Brahmagupta–Pell equation.
number theory, the real greatness of Brahmagupta’s bhāvanā It is in the context of this specific equation N x2 + 1 = y 2
lies in its manifesting the very principle of composition in that Brahmagupta formulates his composition law on the
mathematics, a principle that pervades the whole of modern space of the (undetermined) solutions of the more general
algebra and number theory. But, as is the case with many equation N x2 + z = y 2 . Such equations were called varga-
outstanding mathematical discoveries in ancient India, this prakṛti (square-nature) in ancient India, a fitting name as
master stroke of Brahmagupta and its significance have not the problem involves finding a square x2 whose product
always been adequately highlighted in accounts on history of with a given non-square N would again become a square y 2
mathematics. after adding (a small integer) z, preferably 1. Brahmagupta’s
A subsequent major landmark in number theory is bhāvanā combines two solutions (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 )
Gauss’s composition law (1801) on binary quadratic forms of the varga-prakṛti N x2 + z = y 2 to produce a third solution
ax2 + bxy + cy 2 having a given discriminant D (= b2 − (x3 , y3 , z3 ), given by x3 = x1 y2 + x2 y1 , y3 = N x1 x2 +
4ac), a generalisation of Brahmagupta’s identity. Around y1 y2 and z3 = z1 z2 . Using the notation (m, n; c) for three
the beginning of the present century, Manjul Bhargava numbers satisfying N m2 +c = n2 and ⊙ for the composition
(recipient of the Fields Medal in 2014) stunned the world operation, Brahmagupta’s law takes the form
of mathematics by his discovery of new “composition laws”.
His Ph.D. thesis (2001) presented a simplification and far- (x1 , y1 ; z1 ) ⊙ (x2 , y2 ; z2 ) =
reaching generalisations of Gauss’s law. (x1 y2 + x2 y1 , N x1 x2 + y1 y2 ; z1 z2 ). (1)
In this article, we shall describe the statement and a
few applications of the bhāvanā, discuss some aspects of The technical power of Brahmagupta’s law can be seen from
the significance of the bhāvanā in mathematics, and briefly the ease with which it provides a two-step integer solution to
Amartya Kumar Dutta (amartya.28@gmail.com) is at the Stat-Math Unit of the Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata.

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historical

Box 1. Application of bhāvanā: The Case N = 92

Example (Brahmagupta). Solve, in integers, the equation 92x2 + 1 = y 2 .

Solution. The perfect square nearest to 92 is 102 . This gives, from the relation 92×12 +8 = 102 , a natural triple (1, 10; 8). Applying Brahmagupta's
bhāvanā on this starting triple, we get
(1, 10; 8) ⊙ (1, 10; 8) = (20, 192; 82 ).
Dividing the consequent identity 92 × 202 + 82 = 1922 by 82 , one obtains the triple ( 25 , 24; 1). Now
( ) ( )
5 5
, 24; 1 ⊙ , 24; 1 = (120, 1151; 1),
2 2

an integer triple. Thus, a solution to 92x2 + 1 = y 2 is given by x = 120 and y = 1151.

Note how Brahmagupta's idea of playing with solutions of the more general equation 92x2 + z = y 2 helps in obtaining a solution of the specific
equation 92x2 + 1 = y 2 .

The thrill that Brahmagupta must have felt regarding bhāvanā can be imagined from a phrase he uses a ter stating the above problem:
kurvannāvatsarād gaṇakah
̣ , “One who can solve it within a year [is truly a] mathematician.”

Box 2. Did Ramanujan use bhāvanā?

The article by Sudhir Rao in this issue (page 20) recalls a puzzle from The Strand Magazine which was mentioned by P.C. Mahalanobis to S.
Ramanujan. To the surprise of Mahalanobis, Ramanujan gave the correct answer promptly and indicated that he obtained the solution through
“continued fractions” — see Rao's article for details.

The puzzle reduces to finding positive integers x, y such that

2x2 + 1 = y 2 with 101 ≤ y ≤ 1001.

Note that 2 · 22 + 1 = 32 . Therefore, applying the bhāvanā [equation (2)] for N = 2 twice on the initial solution (2, 3), we get immediately that
(2, 3) ⊙ (2, 3) = (12, 17) and (12, 17) ⊙ (12, 17) = (408, 577).

Thus, x = 408, y = 577 satisfies 2x2 + 1 = y 2 under the given constraint, and readily gives the solution to√ the original puzzle. The fractions
3 17
, and 577
2 12 408
are respectively the second, fourth and eighth convergents of the continued fraction expansion of 2. How did Ramanujan arrive at
577
the convergent 408 so fast? Did he use bhāvanā?
√
As discussed in Rao's article, being a convergent in the continued
√ fraction expansion of 2, the solution (408, 577) of 2x2 + 1 = y 2 gives a very
577
good rational approximation 408 (= 1.414215 . . .) of 2 (= 1.414213 . . .), the best among all fractions whose denominators do not exceed
408. This approximation (matching the correct value up to 5 decimal places, 1.41421) was used by Vedic savants in a distant past and recorded by
Baudhāyana (800 BCE or earlier) and other authors of the Śulba-sūtras.

The solution (408, 577) of 2x2 + 1 = y 2 appears to connect three great mathematicians from three di ferent phases of Indian history (Vedic,
Classical and modern).

Box 3. Application of bhāvanā: A Theorem of Brahmagupta

Theorem (Brahmagupta). If N p2 − 4 = q 2 , then x = pqr and y = (q 2 + 2)(r − 1) satisfy the equation N x2 + 1 = y 2 , where
r = 12 (q 2 + 3)(q 2 + 1).

The proof can be obtained by repeated application of the bhāvanā on the given triple (p, q; −4) and making necessary simplifications and
adjustments; it is le t as an exercise to the reader.

Example: For N = 13, from the relation 13 × 12 − 4 = 32 , the above theorem produces the solution x = 180, y = 649 for 13x2 + 1 = y 2 .

14 bhāvanā · jan 2017

 historical

the otherwise difficult equation 92x2 + 1 = y 2 presented in As is the case with many brilliant discoveries, this
Box 1. one [cakravāla] can be seen in retrospect as deriving
quite naturally from the earlier work [bhāvanā].
Fixing z = 1, equation (1) takes the form
(x1 , y1 ) ⊙ (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 y2 + x2 y1 , N x1 x2 + y1 y2 ). (2)
The Term bhāvanā
This rule shows, in particular, how to generate infinitely
many, progressively larger, solutions of the equation When Manjul Bhargava first came to know of the name
N x2 + 1 = y 2 from a given solution. As a simple illustration bhāvanā for Brahmagupta’s composition law, he exclaimed,
of its usefulness, see Box 2. “What a great word!” Indeed, the word bhāvanā has
Brahmagupta gives several remarkable results on integer profound nuances. Its several meanings include “(finding
solutions of N x2 + 1 = y 2 which are all applications of his by) composition or combination”, “creating”, “producing”,
composition law [equation (1)]; one of them is presented in “generating”, “effecting”, “accomplishing”, “demonstrating”,
Box 3 (see [2], pp. 90–95; [3], pp. 178–179 and [4]). “manifesting”, “conception”, “thought”, “reflection” and
Using Brahmagupta’s bhāvanā and Āryabhaṭa’s kuṭṭaka, “contemplation”. It is also associated with the spiritual sense
subsequent Indian algebraists developed a cyclic method of “becoming (That)” — bhāva refers to a high spiritual state.
called cakravāla which describes all integer solutions of In Upaniṣadic conception, the universe is a becoming (rather
N x2 + 1 = y 2 , for any arbitrary non-square positive integer than a creation), a formative self-expansion of the One
N . (If N is a square, then it is easy to see that (0, ±1) are (the Eternal) manifesting its implicit Multiplicity. The word
the only integer solutions.) The mathematician Jayadeva is bhāvanā also connotes this conception of the One becoming
the earliest known expositor of the cakravāla algorithm. He the Many; the word bhava is often used in literature for the
describes the problem of solving N x2 + 1 = y 2 (in integers) consequent manifestation: the terrestrial world!
as being as difficult as setting a fly against the wind! Jayadeva mentions the term samāsa-bhāvanā (additive
Jayadeva’s verses on the cakravāla algorithm are quoted composition) for the equation (1) of Brahmagupta and
in the text Sundarī (1073) by Udayadivākara (see [5] for more viśeṣa-bhāvanā (subtractive composition) for the variant
details); we still do not know the dates of Jayadeva himself. given by x3 = |x1 y2 − x2 y1 |, y3 = |N x1 x2 − y1 y2 |
Till any new evidence is found, we may regard Jayadeva as the and z3 = z1 z2 . While describing the roots obtained by
first mathematician to have completely solved (in integers) his rule, Brahmagupta uses the word kṛtam (“accomplished”,
the Brahmagupta–Pell equation N x2 +1 = y 2 . In his treatise “effected”), which is closely related to one of the meanings
Bījagaṇita (1150), Bhāskarācārya gives a lucid exposition of of bhāvanā. As many of the treatises of Indian algebraists
a variant of Jayadeva’s method, illustrating it with difficult between Brahmagupta and Jayadeva are no longer available,
examples like N = 61 and N = 67. The bhāvanā and one does not know who first coined the term bhāvanā
cakravāla are applied by Nārāyaṇa (c. 1350) to generate a for Brahmagupta’s rule. But clearly the ancient Indian
sequence√of progressively better rational approximations to algebraists perceived it as a special multiplicative operation.
the surd N , when N is not a perfect square (see [6], pp. 670– For, the Sanskrit word bhāvita (usual meaning: “created”,
672). “produced”; or “future”, “to be”) had already been adopted
The cakravāla is a recursive algorithm on the solution in Indian algebra by Brahmagupta and others to denote
space of N x2 + z = y 2 to arrive at a solution with z = 1. the product xy of different unknown quantities x, y.
Note that (1, t, t2 − N ) is a solution for every integer t. The The choice of a similar word bhāvanā for Brahmagupta’s
cakravāla begins with the solution x1 = 1, y1 = a and z1 = composition law alludes to the fact that the rule makes an
a2 − N , where a is a positive integer for which a2 is closest insightful product of two triples (or pairs) of numbers. K.S.
to N . At every stage, it applies the bhāvanā to compose the Shukla records ([5], p. 6) that, according to Udayadivākara,
solution (xn , yn , zn ) obtained at the n-th step with another bhāvanā means “multiplication”. The word “multiplication”
solution (1, tn , tn 2 −N ) for a judiciously chosen tn , to obtain has two related associations: “composition” (or “product”)
(un , vn , wn ), where un = xn tn + yn , vn = N xn + yn tn as also “generating (or becoming) many” and both apply
and wn = zn (tn 2 − N ). The tn is so chosen that zn becomes to Brahmagupta’s bhāvanā. For, through the principle of
a divisor of un (it follows that zn would also divide vn and composition [equation (2)], infinitely many roots of N x2 +
tn 2 − N ) and |tn 2 − N | is minimized among candidates 1 = y 2 emerge from one fundamental root, reminding one
satisfying the divisibility criterion. The (n+1)-th step is then of the metaphysical bhāvanā, of the “One becoming Many”.
defined to be the solution xn+1 = un /zn , yn+1 = vn /zn , Thus, while the precise sense of bhāvanā for
zn+1 = wn /zn 2 . It can be shown that at some stage m, Brahmagupta’s rule is that of “composition” or
one would arrive at zm = 1. Box 4 illustrates the method “combination” (of roots), a sort-of generalized bhāvita
through a famous example; the algorithm is discussed in the (“product”), the term also carries the additional suggestion
framework of continued fractions in [6]. of being a principle of “creation”, “production”, “generation”
One can see that Brahmagupta’s bhāvanā holds the key to of new roots (from given roots), of new results and of new
the discovery of the cakravāla (cf. [2], pp. 95–99; [3], pp. 183– concepts. In fact, it is mentioned by Datta-Singh ([4], p.
185). Jayadeva, Bhāskarācārya and subsequent authors make 148) that bhāvanā also means a lemma or a theorem (which
a detailed exposition of the bhāvanā just before describing the has been “demonstrated”, i.e., proved). And Brahmagupta’s
cakravāla. As Weil remarks ([7], p. 22): bhāvanā is indeed an important theorem as well as a

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Box 4. Application of bhāvanā-cakravāla: The Case N = 61

Example (Bhāskarācārya). Solve in integers: 61x2 + 1 = y 2 .

This problem was discussed by Bhāskarācārya (1150) and later posed by Fermat (1657).

As 64 is the square nearest to 61, we have the initial relation 61 × 12 + 3 = 82 , i.e., the triple (1, 8; 3). Applying bhāvanā between (1, 8; 3) and
2
(1, t; t2 − N ), we get (8 + t, 61 + 8t; 3(t2 − 61)) and hence the relation 61( 8+t
3
)2 + ( t −61
3
) = ( 61+8t
3
)2 . The cakravāla prescribes choosing
t such that (i) 3 divides (8 + t) and (ii) |t − 61| is the least.
2

The authors on cakravāla describe methods for determining such a t (using kuṭṭaka); here t is clearly 7. Thus, we have 61 × 52 − 4 = 392 . Now,
applying Brahmagupta's theorem (see Box 3), we get the positive integral solution: x = 226153980, y = 1766319049.

powerful lemma for “producing” other theorems. Further, on subsequent research, the bhāvanā reveals an astonishingly
the “conception” of bhāvanā is a result of deep “thought” and modern attitude to an algebraic problem. For solving a
a theme for further “reflection” and “contemplation” (as it problem in two variables, the bhāvanā is introduced to
has the potential for “creating” new theories). make a bold exploration of the solution space of a more
Just before stating the bhāvanā formulae, Jayadeva general equation in three variables; and further, it acts on
� unknown (triples of) roots as if they are known numbers. In
mentions ([5], p. 5): aśeṣakaraṇavyāpi bhāvanākaraṇam. . . (“the
bhāvanā pervades endless mathematical operations”). In the modern Europe, it is Lagrange who pioneered (c. 1770) the
light of later developments, Jayadeva’s remark turns out approach of investigating the general picture, and the study
to be prophetic. One wonders whether he knew of more of actions on unknown quantities—both these features are
applications of bhāvanā apart from cakravāla. now standard in modern algebra. Above all, Brahmagupta’s
The naming of Brahmagupta’s rule by a strikingly original idea of constructing a binary operation (and that
appropriate word, rich in cultural significance, was clearly a too an intricate one) on unknown elements, and thus
tribute by an Indian savant to a very special discovery whose implicitly inventing an algebraic structure, is perhaps the
far-reaching importance was intuitively realized at that early first known instance of sophisticated abstract algebraic
stage. thinking. Modern algebra is dominated by the study of
abstract structures like groups and rings; but it is only
after a gap of eleven or twelve centuries from the time of
Historical and Mathematical Brahmagupta that the study, application and construction of
such algebraic structures would be pursued in mathematics.
Significance of Brahmagupta’s
bhāvanā
Brahmagupta was perhaps the first mathematician to have
a clear vision of algebra as a distinct discipline in the
form that we know it today. In his chapter Kuṭṭakādhyāyaḥ
(628), Brahmagupta laid a firm foundation for the subject
when he expounded on topics like the use of symbols for
different unknowns, expansion of the number-system to
include negative numbers and zero along with the ring-
theoretic rules of operations over integers, operations with
surds, formation of equations, the algebra of polynomials in
several variables, solutions of linear and quadratic equations
including the Gaussian method of elimination, and the
kuṭṭaka method for finding integer solutions of the linear Using the clarity of the language of modern “Abstract
indeterminate equation ay − bx = c. The crest-jewel of Algebra”, Brahmagupta’s bhāvanā defines a binary operation
this chapter on algebra is Brahmagupta’s treatment of the on the set {(x, y, z) ∈ Z3 | N x2 + z = y 2 } and a group
equation N x2 + 1 = y 2 through bhāvanā. It is amazing structure on {(x, y) ∈ Z2 | N x2 + 1 = y 2 } (or {(x, y, z) ∈
that such an early treatise on classical algebra anticipates Q3 | N x2 +z = y 2 }), where Z denotes the set of integers and
the concept of “binary composition” on abstractly defined Q the set of rational numbers. The group of integer solutions
elements, the quintessence of modern abstract algebra. to N x2 + 1 = y 2 is closely related to the group of units of
To appreciate the genius of Brahmagupta’s bhāvanā, a certain ring in algebraic number√ theory called the “ring of
we note that, apart from its beauty and technical power, integers of the quadratic field Q( N )”. The group structure
the wizardry in classical algebra that is involved in its on the conic y 2 − N x2 = 1 defined by the bhāvanā [equation
discovery at a formative stage of the subject, and its impact (2)] has an elegant geometric interpretation (see figure): if

16 bhāvanā · jan 2017

 historical

A = (x1 , y1 ) and B = (x2 , y2 ) are points in the first Gauss’s Composition Law
coordinate on this conic, and C is the point where the line
through the point E = (0, 1) parallel to the chord AB meets The importance of the equation N x2 + 1 = y 2 , when N is a
the conic, then the coordinates of C are precisely (x3 , y3 ) non-square positive integer, was later recognized in modern
given by the bhāvanā [equation (2)].� Europe. Pierre de Fermat, who wanted contemporary
The discovery and application of composition laws on mathematicians to take serious interest in number theory,
sets of significance is now a central theme of modern posed (in 1657) the problem of finding infinitely many integer
mathematics research. For instance, the “addition law” on solutions to the above equation (see Box 5). Fermat’s intense
the points of an elliptic curve is a basic tool in the study of involvement, and his success in drawing the attention of
the curve. other mathematicians to such number-theoretic questions,
Brahmagupta’s bhāvanā [equation (1)] can be envisaged heralded the advent of modern number theory.
as the identity A vigorous investigation was launched on the equation
by several leading mathematicians including Brouncker
(x1 2 − N y1 2 )(x2 2 − N y2 2 ) = and Wallis in the seventeenth, and Euler and Lagrange in
(x1 x2 + N y1 y2 )2 − N (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )2 , (3) the eighteenth, centuries; the equation somehow acquired
the name “Pell’s equation”. Research on the Brahmagupta–
combining two binary quadratic forms of the type x2 − N y 2 Pell equation went on to become a part of more general
to get another form of the same type. (Here, we interchange theories developed by some of the best mathematical minds
the role of x and y in equation (1) to match the standard of modern Europe. One of the fruitful theories to emerge
notation in the theory of binary forms.) Among its many was the theory of binary quadratic forms (with integer
modern significances, the bhāvanā identity in equation (3) coefficients), systematically developed by Lagrange and
is a statement of the multiplicativity of the “norm function”, Legendre after initial contributions from Fermat and Euler.
a very important concept in modern algebra and number A big advancement on the theory of binary quadratic
theory, and, of course, a principle of “composition” of binary forms was made by C.F. Gauss in his Disquisitiones
quadratic forms. Arithmeticae (1801) when he constructed a composition law
√ The norm function || || associates to the expression
√ x+ on general binary quadratic forms of a given discriminant,
N y the integer obtained
√ by multiplying
√ x +√ N y with its i.e., it composes two expressions a1 x1 2 +b1 x1 y1 +c1 y1 2 and
conjugate, i.e., ||x+ N y|| = (x+ N y)(x− N y) = x2 − a2 x2 2 +b2 x2 y2 +c2 y2 2 with b1 2 −4a1 c1 = b2 2 −4a2 c2 = D
N y 2 . It is an extension of the familiar device of associating, (say) to produce an expression a3 x3 2 + b3 x3 y3 + c3 y3 2 with
to a complex number a + ib, the real number (a + ib)(a − b3 2 − 4a3 c3 = D.
ib) = a2 + b2 . Brahmagupta’s identity [equation (3)] can The result of Gauss actually says much more. Call two
thus be reformulated as the statement
√ ||α||||β|| = ||αβ||, for (integral) binary forms Q1 (x, y) and Q2 (x, y) with the same
numbers of the form α = x + N y (see [2], pp. 82–84 and discriminant D to be “equivalent” if there exist integers
100–101 for more details). p, q, r, s with ps − qr = 1 such that Q2 (x, y) = Q1 (px +
The immense potential of the bhāvanā identity came qy, rx + sy), i.e., if Q2 can be obtained from Q1 by a certain
to be harnessed after its appearance in Euler’s writings; it homogeneous linear change of variables; and call a binary
is now a basic result used repeatedly in modern number quadratic form ax2 + bxy + cy 2 to be “primitive” if the
theory (reminding one of Jayadeva’s remark). For instance, integers a, b, c do not have any common prime factor. Gauss
Brahmagupta’s identity is a crucial ingredient in one of showed that there are only finitely many equivalence classes
the main theorems of Legendre (1785) which leads to an of primitive binary quadratic forms with discriminant D. In
important local-global theorem in number theory pertaining the later language of abstract algebra, his composition law
to the existence of nonzero integer solutions of ax2 + by 2 = imparts to the set of equivalence classes of primitive binary
cz 2 , where a, b, c are positive integers with abc square-free. quadratic forms the structure of a finite Abelian group. This
The bhāvanā is also involved in the Lorentz transformation in result was accomplished by Gauss several decades before the
the theory of relativity.† concept of an abstract group emerged formally during the
A version of the bhāvanā identity was generalized in 1965 second half of the nineteenth century. It is considered to be
by A. Pfister using, what are now called, “Pfister forms”. one of his deepest discoveries.
Pfister’s discovery opened up new directions in the theory of Gauss’s composition had not only a profound influence
quadratic forms, an account of which is presented by Manuel on classical number theory, it paved the way for ideal theory
Ojanguren in Chapter 5 of his monograph [8]. The chapter and modern algebraic number theory whose foundations
begins by quoting Brahmagupta’s original Sanskrit verses on were eventually laid in an elegant form by R. Dedekind
the bhāvanā and is titled “Also sprach Brahmagupta”.‡ (c. 1871). It was the first major attempt to address the
� To see this, note that the equation for the line EC is y − 1 = mx, where m = (y2 − y1 )/(x2 − x1 ). Hence if C = (u, v), then (1 + mu)2 − N u2 = 1,
giving u = a/b, where a = 2(y2 − y1 )(x2 − x1 ) and b = N (x2 − x1 )2 − (y2 − y1 )2 = 2(y1 y2 − N x1 x2 − 1). Now, setting x3 = x1 y2 + x2 y1 (as
prescribed by bhāvanā), one can verify that x3 b = a, showing that u = x3 . √
† A special case of the identity in equation (3) is (a2 − b2 )(x2 − t2 ) = x′ 2 − t′ 2 , where x′ = ax + bt, y ′ = at + bx. Now setting k = 1/ 1 − v 2 ,
a = k, b = −kv, the expressions for x′ , y ′ are precisely the Lorentz transformation which keeps the form x2 − t2 invariant, i.e., x2 − t2 = x′ 2 − t′ 2 .
(See “A Simple Non-Euclidean Geometry and Its Physical Basis” by I.M. Yaglom, p. 167.)
‡ In English, “Thus spake Brahmagupta”.

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historical

e f
nonuniqueness of factorization in certain extensions of Z.
(This nonuniqueness has been the stumbling block in the a b
quest for a valid proof of “Fermat’s Last Theorem” through
elementary number theory.)
g h
By a work of Dirichlet (1838), the group that was implicit
in Gauss’s work was shown to be isomorphic to the “oriented c d
(or narrow)
√ ideal class group” of the quadratic number
field Q( D). The ideal class group, that was formulated by
Bhargava associates with them the six 2 × 2 matrices given
Dedekind refining the work of Kummer, is a measure of
by the six faces:
the extent to which uniqueness of factorisation
√ of elements ( ) ( ) ( )
fails in the ring of integers of Q( D). Again, based on M1 =
a b
, M2 =
a c
, M3 =
a e
;
ideas implicit in Gauss’s work, Minkowski developed the c d e g b f
“geometry of numbers” (1896) which reduces various number and ( ) ( ) ( )
e f b d c g
theory problems to counting lattice points in appropriate N1 = , N2 = , N3 = .
g h f h d h
regions.
He uses the six matrices to define three quadratic forms Q1 ,
Q2 , Q3 by
Bhargava’s Composition Law Qi (x, y) = −Det (Mi x + Ni y), 1 ≤ i ≤ 3.
For 200 years, Gauss’s composition law appeared to be For instance, Q1 (x, y) = −(ax + ey)(dx + hy) + (bx +
an isolated curiosity peculiar to binary quadratic forms f y)(cx + gy).
and no one had any hunch that there could be other It can be verified that the three forms Q1 , Q2 , Q3 have
composition laws for polynomials of higher degree. To the the same discriminant. In case the forms are primitive,
pleasant surprise of mathematicians, Manjul Bhargava has Bhargava observes that −Q3 is equivalent to the “product”
now introduced (2001) a completely new way of looking at of Q1 and Q2 defined by Gauss’s composition.
the principle of composition which gives an insightful and Conversely, Bhargava shows that any three primitive
simpler presentation of the classical Gauss composition and binary quadratic forms Q1 , Q2 and Q3 , with −Q3 equivalent
reveals thirteen new laws of composition for higher degree to the Gauss composition of Q1 and Q2 , arise as above from
polynomials. Bhargava has also developed powerful methods an integral cube, now called “Bhargava’s cube”.
in the geometry of numbers. Applying his composition laws The following simple and elegant example of Bhargava’s
and his new tools in the geometry of numbers, Bhargava cube
made breakthroughs in some of the fundamental open
1 0
problems of number theory.
One of the central problems in number theory is to obtain 0 1
an asymptotic formula for the number of number fields of a
fixed degree n with bounded discriminant (i.e., the absolute
value of the discriminant is less than a fixed number D). 0 N
Progress on this question had stopped after Davenport and 1 0
Heilbronn solved the case n = 3 in 1971. Bhargava applied his
new methods to solve the cases n = 4 and n = 5.
Another problem pertains to finding or counting the defines the quadratic forms Qi (x, y) = x2 − N y 2 for each i,
number of points with rational coordinates satisfying the 1 ≤ i ≤ 3, and thus represents Brahmagupta’s bhāvanā.
hyperelliptic curve y 2 = f (x), where f (x) is a polynomial
of degree n with rational coefficients having n distinct
roots. This is a generalisation of ancient problems like the
Epilogue
Brahmagupta–Pell equation (where f (x) = N x2 + 1 and
The Sanskrit meanings of the word gupta include “protected”
the curve has infinitely many rational solutions). The case
and “preserved” as well as “hidden” and “secret”. While the
n = 3 is that of the elliptic curve which has been a subject of
name Brahmagupta literally means “protected by Brahma”,
much research and has played an important role in Andrew
the genius of Brahmagupta has hitherto remained “hidden”
Wiles’s proof of Fermat’s Last Theorem. Bhargava and his
from modern students of mathematics and history and,
collaborators have obtained striking results on elliptic and
of course, from the general public. With the sensational
hyperelliptic curves. For instance, Bhargava showed that
discoveries of Bhargava, and the connection between an
when n ≥ 6, most (in a precise sense) hyperelliptic curves
important aspect of his works and an important contribution
do not have rational solutions.
of Brahmagupta, there is now a possibility that the legacy
The highly technical accomplishments of Bhargava
of the genius would no longer remain a forgotten “secret”;
have their genesis in an inspired idea coming from his
rather, it may be “preserved”.
contemplations on a cube (Rubik’s cube). Given a cube with
While receiving the Cole Prize (2008), Bhargava
integers a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h attached to the eight vertices,
acknowledged, after the citation:

18 bhāvanā · jan 2017

 historical

Box 5. Excerpts from Fermat’s Letter to English Mathematicians

“There is hardly anyone who proposes purely arithmetical questions, hardly anyone who understands them. Is this due to the fact that up to now
arithmetic has been treated geometrically rather than arithmetically? This has indeed been the case both in ancient and modern works; even
Diophantus is an instance. For, although he has freed himself from geometry a little more than others have in that he confines his analysis to the
consideration of rational numbers, …

Now arithmetic has, so to speak, a special domain of its own, the theory of integral numbers. This was only lightly touched upon by Euclid in his
Elements, and was not su ficiently studied by those who followed him …; arithmeticians have therefore now to develop it or restore it.

To arithmeticians therefore, by way of lighting up the road to be followed, I propose the following theorem to be proved or problem to be solved.
If they succeed in discovering the proof or solution, they will admit that questions of this kind are not inferior to the more celebrated questions in
geometry in respect of beauty, di ficulty or method of proof.

Given any number whatever which is not a square, there are also given an infinite number of squares such that, if the square is multiplied into the
given number and unity is added to the product, the result is a square.”

The papers cited above build on ideas that go M.D. Srinivas), Hindustan Book Agency, New Delhi (2005),
way back, starting with the mathematical works pp. 77–114.
of Brahmagupta, Gauss, Dirichlet, Eisenstein,
[3] A.K. Dutta, Kuṭṭaka, Bhāvanā and Cakravāla, Studies in the
and Dedekind, and leading up to the works of
History of Indian Mathematics (ed. C.S. Seshadri), Hindustan
modern mathematicians such as Delone-Faddeev, Book Agency, New Delhi (2010), pp. 145–199.
Davenport-Heilbronn, Sato-Kimura, Wright-Yukie,
and Gan-Gross-Savin. I gratefully acknowledge my [4] B. Datta and A.N. Singh, History of Hindu Mathematics Part
indebtedness to all these mathematicians! II, Motilal Banarasidass (1938); reprinted by Asia Publishing
House (1962) and Bharatiya Kala Prakashan (2004).
One may recall the dates of the works of the mathematicians
[5] K.S. Shukla, Ācārya Jayadeva, The Mathematician, Gaṇita 5
in the first list: Brahmagupta (628), Gauss (1801), Dirichlet
(1954), pp. 1–20.
(1838), Eisenstein (1844) and Dedekind (1871).
The word bhāvanā brings to our mind a brilliant [6] A.K. Dutta, Nārāyaṇa's treatment of varga-prakṛti, Indian J.
mathematical concept from a bygone era along with its History of Science 47.4 (2012), pp. 633–677.
sublime spirituo-cultural ambience. It also provides a
[7] A. Weil, Number Theory: An Approach through History from
link between one of the highest peaks of ancient Indian
Hammurapi to Legendre, Birkhauser (1984).
mathematics and one of the most celebrated achievements in
contemporary mathematics. May it inspire more and more [8] Manuel Ojanguren, The Witt Group and The Problem of Lüroth,
profound bhāvanā in future!  Dottorato di ricerca in Matematica, ETS EDITRICE PISA,
University of Pisa (1990).
acknowledgements The author thanks Manjul Bhargava, [9] Brahmagupta, Brāhma-sphuṭa-siddhānta (628). Printed
Raja Sridharan, Avinash Sathaye, C.S. Rajan, C.S. versions have been edited and published by S. Dvivedi,
Aravinda, V. Balaji and Prithwindra Mukherjee for valuable Varanasi (1902) and R.S. Sharma, Indian Institute of
suggestions and stimulating discussions on the theme. Astronomical Research (1966).

[10] C.F. Gauss, Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801).

Bibliography [11] M. Bhargava, Higher Composition Laws and Applications,
Proceedings of the International Congress of Mathematicians,
[1] A.K. Dutta, Bhāvanā from Brahmagupta to Bhargava, under Madrid (2006), pp. 271–294.
preparation.
[12] L.E. Dickson, History of the Theory of Numbers Vol II, Carnegie
[2] A.K. Dutta, Brahmagupta's Bhāvanā, Contributions to the Institute Publ. 256 (1920), reprinted by Chelsea Publishing Co.
History of Indian Mathematics (ed. G.G. Emch, R. Sridharan, NY (1952) and AMS Chelsea (1999).

“Break the moulds of the past, but keep safe its genius and its spirit, or else thou hast no future.”— Sri Aurobindo

bhāvanā · jan 2017 the ̓̊͘Ͻ˱΅̊ in mathematics | 19