Energy

sources
Module 5
 Fuels and Combustion

“For many years to come, the greatest portion of the world’s power will
come from the combustion of fuels”
 Fuels
q Combustible substance (may be solid, liquid or gas) having carbon as major
constituent gives energy while burning.
Energy: Heat or Light

q Reacts with oxygen leading to the formation of the product with the evolution of
heat at a rapid rate.
Fuel + O2 ® Products + Heat

q The energy liberated as heat can be used economically for domestic and
industrial purpose. Example wood, charcoal, kerosene, petrol, natural gas etc.

Classification of Fuel
Fuels can be classified:
a) On the basis of their occurrence
b) On the basis of physical state of aggregation
 On the basis of occurrence
Primary
Fuels which are found
in nature. For e.g.-
Wood, Coal, Petrol,
Natural Gas.

Secondary
Fuels obtained after prcoessing
of natural fuels.For e.g.- Coke,
Charcoal, Kerosene oil, Coal
gas, Petrol
On the basis of physical state
 Units of heat

• Calorie: It is defined as the total amount of heat required to raise the

temperature of 1 gm of water through 1º C.
1 cal = 4.184 Joules

• British Thermal Unit (B.T.U.): It is defined as the total amount of heat

required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water through 1º F.

• Centigrade Heat Unit (C.H.U.): It is defined as the total amount of

heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water through 1º
C.
1 Kcal = 3.968 B.T.U. = 2.2 C.H.U
 Calorific value of fuels
• Total quantity of heat liberated when a unit mass of fuel is burnt
completely is known as Calorific Value.

Calorific values of solid and liquid fuels are usually expressed in calories per
gram (Cals/g) or Kilocalories per kilogram (Kcals/Kg) or British Thermal Units
per pound (B. Th. U./lb.);
whereas the calorific values of gases are expressed as Kilocalories per cubic
metre (K cals/m3) or British thermal units per cubic foot (B. Th. U./ft3) or
Centigrade Thermal Units per pound (C.H.U./lb) or C.H.U./ft3.

These units can be interconverted as follows:

1 cal/g = 1 Kcal/Kg = 1.8 B. Th. U./lb.

1 K cal/m3 = 0.1077 B. Th. U./ ft3
1 B. Th. U./ft3 = 9.3 Kcals/m3
 GCV/HCV– Gross / Higher calorific value

• “Amount of heat produced, when unit mass/volume of the fuel

is burnt completely and the products of combustion have been
cooled to room temperature”.

• If the product of combustion are condensed to the room

temperature, the latent heat of condensation of steam also gets
included in the measured heat, which is then called Gross
Calorific Value or Higher Calorific Value.

• Hydrogen is present in all most all the fuels & when the
calorific value of the fuel is determined experimentally, hydrogen
is converted into steam.
 LCV/NCV– Low / Net calorific value

• It is the net heat produced when unit mass or volume of fuel has
been burnt completely and the products of combustion are
allowed to escape.

• In actual use of any fuel, the water vapour and moisture etc.
escape as such along with hot combustion gases. Since they are
not condensed. Hence a lesser amount of heat is available.

• LCV = HCV – Latent heat of water vapour formed

 LCV/NCV– Low / Net calorific value

H2 + O à H2O
2g 16g 18g

(1 part by mass of hydrogen produces 9 part by mass of water)

LCV = HCV – 9 x Percentage of Hydrogen x Latent Heat of steam

LCV = HCV – 0.09 * %H * 587

Latent Heat of steam= 587 cal/g.

 Determination of Calorific Value by Bomb Calorimeter

A known mass of the fuel is burnt and the quantity of heat produced is
absorbed by water & measured, then the quantity of heat produced by
burning unit mass of fuel is calculated.
 Bomb Calorimeter

Beckmann’s
thermometer Oxygen
valve

Electrically
Electrodes to operated stirrer
which Mg
wire is
attached Copper
calorimeter

Mg fuse wire Stainless

steel bomb

Weighed pellet Stainless steel

of a fuel sample
crucible
 Construction
Steel Bomb
• Stainless steel bomb in which the combustion of fuel takes place
• Two holes for 2 electrodes and one oxygen inlet valve.
• small ring is attached where a Nickel/steel crucible is kept
• fuse wire of Magnesium is connected to both the electrode.
• A cotton thread is tied at one end of the fuse wire while other end remain
in contact with fuel in the stainless crucible.
• Can withstand a pressure upto 50 atm
• Lined with platinum to resist acid corrosion

Copper calorimeter
• The bomb is kept in a copper calorimeter having known quantity of water.

• The copper calorimeter is provided with an electrical stirrer and a

Beckmann’s thermometer.

• The copper calorimeter is surrounded by air-jacket and water-jacket to

prevent loss of heat due to radiation.
 Working

• Known amount of fuel is taken.

• Bomb is filled with Oxygen at 25
atm. Pressure.
• Kept inside the calorimeter having
known amount of water.
• Start the stirring and Initial
temperature of water is noted (t1º C).
• Then electrodes are connected to 6 V
battery.
• Sample burns and heat liberated
which is transferred to water.
• Stirring is continued and maximum
temperature attained is noted (t2º C)
 Calculation
m = mass of fuel pellet
w1 = mass of water in the calorimeter
w2 = water equivalent of calorimeter and others
w1+w2= total weight
t1 = initial temperature of calorimeter
t2 = final temperature of calorimeter
t2-t1 = Increase in temperature
Heat lost by ‘m’ mass of fuel = heat gained by system
= (w1+w2) * Sp. Heat X (t2-t1)
= (w1+w2) * 1 * (t2-t1)

HCV or GCV = (w1+w2) * (t2-t1) / m cal or kcal

LCV of Fuel (L) = HCV – 0.09 * %H * 587 (cal or kcal)

 Corrections
• Fuse wire corrections: Heat liberated & measured includes heat given
by the ignition of fuse wire due to short circuit. Hence it should be
deducted.

• Acid corrections: Fuel containing S and N are oxidised under high

pressure. Formation of acid (H2SO4, HNO3) is exothermic reaction so,
measured heat also includes the heat given out during acid formation.
Hence it should be deducted.

• Cotton Thread corrections: Cotton thread is used for the ignition of fuel,
so its burning also generates heat & it should be deducted.

• Cooling corrections: Time taken to cool the water in calorimeter from

maximum temperature to room temperature is noted. From the rate of
cooling (dT/minute) and actual time taken for cooling (t min.) the
cooling correction of (dT*t) is added to the rise in temperature.

HCV /GCV = {(w1+w2) *(t2-t1 + CC) – FC - AC – CtC} /m

 Problem
Calculate the GCV and NCV of a fuel from the following data:
– Mass of fuel burnt= 750 mg
– Water equivalent = 350 g
– Mass of water taken =1.15 kg
– Initial temperature= 16 0C
– Final temperature = 19.02 0C
– Percentage of hydrogen in fuel = 2.8

ANS: HCV : 6040 cal/g

LCV: 5892 cal/g
 Problem
A Coal sample contains C= 92%; H= 5% and ash = 3%. When this coal
sample was tested in the laboratory for its cv in a bomb calorimeter, the
following data were obtained.

Mass of coal burnt= 0.95 g

Water equivalent = 700 g
Mass of water taken = 2 kg
Initial temperature= 16 0C
Final temperature = 18.48 0C
Acid correction = 60 cal
Fuse wire correction = 10 cal
Cooling correction = 0.02 0C

Calculate the GCV and NCV

Ans: GCV= 7031.57 cal/g

NCV= 6767.43 cal/g
 Boy’s gas calorimeter

• The calorific value of gaseous or volatile liquid fuels is measured by

Boy’s Calorimeter.

• The Boys gas calorimeter is a simple and effective means of

measuring the calorific values of gaseous fuels.

• The principle is to burn the gas at a constant rate in a vessel & the
entire amount of heat produced is absorbed by water which is also
flowing at constant rate.

• From the volume of gas burnt, the volume of water collected and
mean rise in temperature of water, the calorific value of gaseous fuel
can be calculated.
 Construction
A burner situated in chimney which is the
centre of the annual vessel.

A tank where the water condensate from the

product

The product of combustion moves upwards to

the chimney and deflected downward by
water cooled head.

A gasometer measures volume of gas burning

per unit time.

Water: The water flows from outer coil to the

inner coil and the temperature of inlet and
outlet water are measured with different
thermometers.

Outer Jacket: Prevents heat loss by

radiation.
 Calculation
• Volume of gas burn = V m3
• Mass of the water = W kg

• Temperature of inlet water = t1

• Temperature of outlet water = t2

• Specific heat of water S = 1 Kcal

• Heat absorbed by circulating water = W(t2-t1)×S

= W(t2-t1)

• HCV = W(t2-t1) / V Kcal/m3

If ‘m’ kg of steam condensed from V m3 of the fuel

Then, mass of condensation per 1 m3 of the fuel == m/v kg
So, Latent heat of steam= 587* m/V Kcal

LCV = HCV - (587* m / V )

 During the determination of calorific value of a gaseous fuel by Boy’s calorimeter,
the following results were recorded:

Vol. of the gaseous fuel burnt at NTP = 0.093 m3

Wt. of water used for cooling the combustion products = 30.5 kg
Wt. of steam condensed = 0.031 kg
Temp. of inlet water = 26.1 ˚C
Temp. of outlet water = 36.5 ˚C

Determine the GCV & NCV of the gaseous fuel per cubic meter at NTP, provided
that the heat liberated in condensation of water vapour and cooling the condensate is
587 Kcal/kg
SOLUTION:

GCV = [w(t2-t1)] / V = [30.5 (36.5-26.1)]/0.093 = 3410 Kcal/m3

Net Calorific Value = [G.C.V. - {(m x 587)/V}] = 3410 – {(0.031 x 587)/0.093}

= 3214.3 Kcal/m3
 Problem
Following data were obtained in a Boy’s calorimeter
– Volume of gas burn = 0.1 m3
– Mass of the water = 25 kg
– Temperature of inlet water = 20 0C
– Temperature of outlet water = 330C
– Weight of steam condensed = 0.025 kg
Calculate GCV and LCV

ANS:
GCV= 3250 kcal/m3
LCV= 3103 kcal/m3
 Problem
The following data were obtained in the Boy’s gas calorimeter experiments

Specific heat of the water = 4.186 J/gram. K

Volume of gas used = 0.5 m3 at NTP

Weight of water heated = 20 kg

Temp. of inlet water = 22˚ C

Temp. of outlet water = 35˚ C

Weight of steam condensed = 0.021 kg

Calculate the gross and net calorific value per m3 at NTP. The heat liberated in
condensing water is 587 Kcal/Kg
 Theoretical Calorific Value: Dulong’s Formula
The calorific value of fuel can be approximately computed by noting the
amounts of the constituents of the fuel. The higher calorific value of some of
the chief combustible constituents of fuel are:

Constituent Hydrogen Carbon Sulphur

HCV (kcal/kg) 34,500 8,080 2,240

The oxygen, if present in the fuel, is assumed to be present in the form of fixed
hydrogen [H2O]. So, the amount of hydrogen available for combustion

= Total mass of hydrogen in fuel – Fixed hydrogen

= Total mass of hydrogen in fuel – (1/8) Mass of oxygen in the fuel

(As 8 parts of oxygen combine with one part of hydrogen to form H2O)
 Dulong’s Formula
Depending upon the chemical composition of fuel, calorific value can be
estimated using Dulong’s formula

1 ⎡ ⎛ O⎞ ⎤
HCV = ⎢8080 * C + 34500 * ⎜ H − ⎟ + 2240 * S ⎥ kcal/kg
100 ⎣ ⎝ 8⎠ ⎦

Where, C, H, O and S are the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen &

sulphur in the fuel respectively. Here, Oxygen is assumed to be present in
combination with hydrogen as water, and

9
𝐿𝐶𝑉 = 𝐻𝐶𝑉 − 𝐻 𝑥 587 = 𝐻𝐶𝑉 − 0.09𝐻 𝑥 587 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔
100
 Characteristics of a Good Fuel

• Easily available
• Ease of storage, transportation and handling
• Moderate ignition temperature---- Hydrogen content
• Smoke emission should be less---- Carbon content
• Should have low combustion rate-- Chemical composition and O2
• Higher calorific value– energy produced by one unit mass
• High suitability.
• Low combustion residue
• Low moisture content
• Size and Price
 Coal
• Coal is a fossil fuel found under the earth crust commonly known as
coal beds or coal seams. It is formed from the dead plants and animals
by a process called coalification.

• All coals are of vegetable origin and are the remains of prehistoric
forests.

• Dead plants and animals are first converted into peat which in turn is
converted into lignite, after that bituminous coal and then anthracite.
 Coal
• The factors of time, depth of beds, disturbance of beds and the
intrusion of mineral matter resulting from such disturbances have
produced the variation in the degree of evolution from vegetable fiber
to hard coal.

• Coal is classified on the basis of % of carbon which is known as “Rank

of Coal”.

S.No. Coal % Carbon Rank

1 Peat 57 Low
2 Lignite 67
3 Bituminous Coal 83
4 Anthracite 93 High
 Coal Composition
• Some of the C in coal combines with H and together with other gaseous substances
form volatile matter of the coal.

• The uncombined carbon in coal is known as fixed carbon.

• The ash varies in different coals from 3 to 30 per cent and the moisture from 0.75 to 45
per cent of the total weight of the coal, depending upon the grade and the locality in
which it is mined.

• A large percentage of ash is undesirable as it not only reduces the calorific value of the
fuel, but chokes up the air passages in the furnace and through the fuel bed, thus
preventing the rapid combustion necessary to high efficiency.

• Moisture in coal may be more detrimental than ash in reducing the temperature of a
furnace, as it is non-combustible, absorbs heat both in being evaporated and
superheated to the temperature of the furnace gases.

• In some instances, however, a certain amount of moisture in a bituminous coal

produces a mechanical action that assists in the combustion and makes it possible to
develop higher capacities than with dry coal.
 Analysis of Coal
The analysis of coal done to determine the coal’s energy value. Coal’s
heating value is a important factor for deciding the usage of coal.

Analysis of coal done by two methods:

a) Proximate Analysis

b) Ultimate Analysis (Elemental Analysis)

Proximate Analysis of Coal

Proximate analysis gives information about
§ Moisture Content
§ Volatile Content
§ Ash Content
§ Fixed Carbon Content
 Moisture Content:
• Moisture Content quenches the fire and it evaporates during the
burning of coal & takes the liberated heat in the form of latent heat
evaporation & reduces the effective calorific value.

• High percentage lesser will be the calorific value of coal; moisture in

coal consumes more heat in the form of latent heat of
evaporation. Hence more heat is to be supplied to the coal.

Procedure:
• The weight of empty crucible is taken and 1 gm of coal sample is
taken in it (W1 gm).
• The crucible is kept in a oven at 105-110º C for a period of 60 min.
The crucible is then withdrawn from the oven & kept in a desiccator
for cooling. After cooling weight of the crucible is again taken (W2
gm).
% Moisture Content = (W1-W2)*100 / Weight of coal sample
 Volatile Content:
• The volatile matter may be combustible gases (like H2, CO, CH4 &
other lower hydrocarbons) and non-combustible gases (like CO2 & N2).

• The presence of volatile matter is undesirable since they don’t add to

the heating value. Coal with high volatile content burns with long
flame, high smoke & has low calorific value.

Procedure:

• After the analysis of moisture content, the crucible with residual coal
sample is covered with a lid and it is heated at 950 +/- 20º C for 7
minutes in a muffle furnace. The crucible is taken out & air cooled inside
the desiccator and weighed (W3 gm).

% Volatile Content = (W2-W3)*100 / Weight of coal sample

 Ash Content:
• Ash is a non-combustible & useless which is left behind when all the
combustible substance is burnt off & reduces the calorific value.

High percentage of ash content is undesirable because,

• It reduces the calorific value of coal,
• Ash causes hindrance to heat flow as well as produces clinkers, which blocks
the air supply through the fuel,
• It increases the transporting, handling, and storage costs. It involves
additional cost in ash disposal.

Procedure:

• After the analysis of volatile matter, the crucible with residual coal
sample is heated without lid at 700 +/- 50º C for 1 hour in a muffle
furnace. The loss in weight of the sample is found out and the % of ash content
is calculated as,
% Ash Content = Weight of Ash formed *100 / Weight of coal sample
 Fixed Carbon Content:

• After the determination of moisture, volatile content and ash content the
remaining matter is Fixed Carbon.

• Higher % of Fixed carbon, greater is the calorific value.

• The percentage of fixed carbon helps in designing the furnace and the shape of
the fire-box.

% Fixed Carbon = 100 - %(moisture + volatile + ash)

 Problem
• A sample of coal was analyzed as following:
Exactly 2.5 g was weighed into silica crucible. After heating for an hour
at 110 0C, the residue weighed 2.415 gm. The crucible was then covered
and strongly heated for 7 to 10 minutes at 950 0C. The residue weighed
1.528 g. The crucible was then heated without cover until a constant
weight was obtained. The last residue was found to weigh 0.245 g.
Calculate the % of moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon in the
coal sample.

ANS:
Moisture = 3.4 %; Volatile = 36.7%; Ash= 9.8%; Carbon= 50.1%
 Ultimate Analysis
Elemental Analysis of Coal
It involves the determination of percentage of:

• Carbon and hydrogen contents: % of C is the basis for the classification

of coal, higher the %C, better the quality of coal. % of H is associated with the
volatile matter and affects the usability of coal, lower the %H, better the
quality of coal.

• Nitrogen content: Nitrogen is an inert and non-combustible gas & hence is

presence is undesirable. Thus a good quality of coal should have very less/no
Nitrogen content.

• Sulphur content: Presence of sulphur is undesirable in coal as on oxidation

it produces harmful and corrosive SO2 and SO3.

• Oxygen content: High Oxygen content coals have high moisture & low
calorific value. Thus a good quality coal should have low % of oxygen.
 Determination of Carbon & Hydrogen
A known quantity of coal (about 1-2 gm) is burnt in the current of dry oxygen
when carbon and hydrogen in coal are oxidised to CO2 & H2O respectively.
C + O2 ® CO2
H2 + ½ O2 ® H2O
A gaseous product of combustion are passed through CaCl2 tube and potash
bulbs.

The CaCl2 tube contains weighted amount of anhydrous CaCl2 absorbs water.
CaCl2 + 7 H2O ® CaCl2.7.H2O

The Potash tube contains weighted amount of KOH absorbs CO2.

2KOH + CO2 ® K2CO3 + H2O
 Determination of Carbon & Hydrogen

Increase in weight of KOH ∗ 12 ∗ 100

%C=
Weight of Coal sample taken ∗ 44

Increase in weight of CaCl2 ∗ 2 ∗ 100

%H=
Weight of Coal sample taken ∗18
 Determination of Nitrogen
Nitrogen in coal is determined by Kjeldhal’s method
• 1 gm of accurately weighed powdered coal is heated with conc. H2SO4 along with
K2SO4 (Catalyst) in a long necked flask (Kjeldahl’s flask).
• Nitrogen in the coal is converted into ammonium sulphate.
• It is heated with 50% NaOH and it produce NH3
• The liberated NH3 is distilled over and absorbed in a known volume of std 0.1N HCl
• NH3 + HCl ® NH4Cl
• The volume of unused acid is determined by back titration with std. NaOH (0.1N)

Digestion:
Sample (N)+
Conc. H2SO4 +
K2SO4

(NH4)2SO4
 Determination of Nitrogen

14 ∗ Normality of HCl ∗ Volume of HCl used

%N=
Weight of Coal sample taken ∗ 1000
 Determination of Sulphur
A known amount of coal (W1 gm) is burnt completely in bomb calorimeter
in the current of oxygen, by which sulphur is oxidised to sulphates.

The ash from the bomb calorimeter is extracted with dil. HCl. The acid
extracted is treated with BaCl2 to precipitate sulphate as BaSO4.

The BaSO4 is filtered, washed, dried and heated to constant weight.

S + O2 ® SO42- ® BaSO4

weight of BaSO4 ppt formed ∗ 32 ∗ 100

%S=
Weight of Coal sample taken ∗ 233
 Determination ofen
Determination of Oxygen
• Oxygen is present in combined form with hydrogen in coal and thus
hydrogen available for combustion is lesser than the actual one.

• High Oxygen content coals have high moisture & low calorific value.
Thus a good quality coal should have low % of oxygen.

% Oxygen= 100 - % (C + H + N + S + Ash)

43
 Dulong’s Formula
Depending upon the chemical composition of fuel, calorific value can be
estimated using Dulong’s formula

1 ⎡ ⎛ O⎞ ⎤
HCV = ⎢8080 * C + 34500 * ⎜ H − ⎟ + 2240 * S ⎥ kcal/kg
100 ⎣ ⎝ 8⎠ ⎦

Where, C, H, O and S are the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen &

sulphur in the fuel respectively. Here, Oxygen is assumed to be present in
combination with hydrogen as water, and

9
𝐿𝐶𝑉 = 𝐻𝐶𝑉 − 𝐻 𝑥 587 = 𝐻𝐶𝑉 − 0.09𝐻 𝑥 587 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔
100
 Problem
A coal has following composition by weight: C= 90%; O=
3%; S= 0.5%; N= 0.5% and Ash= 2.5%. NCV of coal = 8490.5
Kcal/gm. Calculate the % of H and HCV.

%H= 3.5
HCV= 8675.4 kcal/Kg
 Problem

Calculate the GCV and NCV of coal having following composition:

Carbon= 85%; Hydrogen= 8%; Sulphur= 1%; Nitrogen= 2% and
Ash= 4%

Ans: GCV : 9650 Kcal/Kg

LCV: 9227 kcal/kg
Combustion
 Combustion
Combustion ( burning) is a chemical process in which fuel reacts with an
oxidant to give out heat. The release of heat can produce light in the
form of flame.

Ø Rapid Combustion: Combustion in which a substance burns rapidly

and produces heat & light with the help of external heat.
Burning of LPG

Ø Spontaneous Combustion: Combustion in which a substance burns

spontaneously and produces heat & light without the help of external
heat.
Phosphorous burns spontaneously at RT.

Ø Explosion: Combustion in which a substance burns suddenly and

produces heat, light and sound with the help of heat/pressure.
Explosion of Crackers on applying heat/pressure.
Objective of Combustion:

The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel.
This can be done by controlling the "three T's" of combustion i.e.

(1) Temperature high enough to ignite and maintain ignition of the fuel
(2) Turbulence or intimate mixing of the fuel and oxygen,
(3) Time sufficient for complete combustion.

Too much, or too little fuel with the available combustion air may result
in unburned fuel and carbon monoxide generation.
 Basic Stoichiometry

A very specific amount of oxygen is required for perfect combustion &

some additional/excess air is required to ensure the complete
combustion.

In general a fuel may contain Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen &

Sulphur. During combustion these elements combine with oxygen.

If the % of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen & Sulphur is known

the quantity of oxygen/air required for combustion can be calculated.
 Basic Stoichiometry
Oxygen required for combustion of Carbon
C + O2 ® CO2
12Kg 32 Kg 44 Kg
12 kg Carbon Requires = 32 kg of oxygen
^_ `
x Kg of Carbon requires = = 2.67 𝑥 Kg of Oxygen
a_

Oxygen required for combustion of Hydrogen

H2 + 1/2O2 ® H2O
2Kg 16 Kg 18 Kg
2 kg Hydrogen Requires = 16 kg of oxygen
ad e
y Kg of Hydrogen requires = = 8 𝑦 Kg of Oxygen
_

Oxygen required for combustion of Sulphur

S + O2 ® SO2
32Kg 32 Kg 64 Kg
32 kg Sulphur Requires = 32 kg of oxygen
^_ g
z Kg of Hydrogen requires = = 1 𝑧 Kg of Oxygen
^_
 Basic Stoichiometry
Quantity of oxygen required for combustion of 1 Kg of Fuel

= (2.67 * C + 8 * H + S) Kg

If oxygen is already present in the fuel then this should be reduced.

Quantity of O2 required = (O2 required - O2 present in the fuel)

Minimum Quantity of O2 or Theoretical amount of O2 required for

complete combustion
= (2.67 * C + 8 * H + S - O) Kg
 Air Required
By weight
Air contains 23% by weight.
aii
Hence Air required = * (2.67 * C + 8 * H + S - O) Kg
_^

1 Kg of O2 is supplied by 100 * 1 = 4.35 Kg of air

23

By Volume
Air contains 21% by volume.
aii
Hence Air required = * (2.67 * C + 8 * H + S - O) m3
_a

Non combustible substances like Nitrogen, Ash, CO2 etc.

don’t require any oxygen for combustion.
 Problem
• Calculate the mass of air needed for complete combustion of 5kg of coal
contain C=80% and H= 15%. Find out HCV and LCV.

5 Kg coal contains C= 5*80/100 = 4kg

H= 5* 15/100= 0.75 Kg
O= 5*5/100= 0.25 Kg

aii
Mass of the Air = 2.67𝑋4 + 8𝑋 0.75 − 0.25 = 71.43 kg
_^

a o
GCV = 8080 %𝐶 + 34500 𝐻 − + 2240 𝑆 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔
aii p
a r
= 8080𝑋 80 + 34500 15 − =11423 kcal/kg
aii p

LCV = GCV - 0.09 x H x 587

= 11423 - 0.09 x 15 x 587 = 10630 kcal/gm
 Problem
A sample of coal was found to have the following % composition C = 75%, H =
5.2%, O = 12.1%, N = 3.2%, & ash = 4.5%. (1) Calculate the minimum amount of
air necessary for complete combustion of 1 kg of coal. (2) Also calculate the HCV
& LCV of the coal sample.
Composition Composition in Combustion Weight of O2 needed for
(%) 1 kg of coal Reaction combustion of 1 kg of coal
C = 75% 0.75 C + O2 ® CO2 32*0.75/12 = 2 kg
H = 5.2% 0.052 H2 + ½ O2 ® H2O 16*0.052/2 = 0.416 kg
O = 12.1% 0.121 No Reaction -
N = 3.2% 0.032 No Reaction -
ASH = 4.5% 0.045 No Reaction -
Total O2 needed 2.416

Net O2 required = Total O2 needed – O2 present = 2.416 – 0.121 = 2.295 kg

O2 Required = 2.67* 0.75+ 8*0.052-0.121= 2.295
weight of air = 100 * Net O2 / 23 = 100 * 2.295/23 = 9.9782 kg
GCV = 1/100 [8080 %C + 34500 (%H- %O/8) + 2240% S] = 7332.1875 kcal/kg

LCV = GCV – 0.09 * H * 587 = 7057.47 kcal/kg

 Problem-3
A gas used in an I.C. engine had the following composition by volume, H2
= 45%, CH4 = 36%, CO = 15%, N2 = 4%. Find the volume of air required
for combustion of 1m3 of the gas.

Composition Composition in Combustion Weight of O2 needed for

(%) 1 m3 of fuel Reaction combustion of 1 kg of coal
H2 = 45% 0.45 H2 + ½ O2 ® H2O ½ * 0.45 = 0.22 m3
CH4 = 36%% 0.36 CH4 + 2 O2 ® CO2 + 2H2O 2 * 0.36 = 0.7 m3
CO = 15% 0.15 CO + ½ O2 ® CO2 ½ * 0.15 = 0.07 m3
N2 = 4% 0.04 No Reaction -
Total O2 needed 1.02 m3

Net O2 required = 1.02 m3

aii*
Hence Air required = 1.02 m3
_a
Problem

The composition of petrol by weight was found to be C = 84% & H = 16%,

Calculate
a. Min. air required for complete combustion of 1kg of petrol.
b. Calorific value of fuel.

Problem
1 kg of a fuel oil has the following composition on analysis C = 90%, H =
6%, S = 2.5%, O2 = 1%, ash = 0.5%. Calculate the quantity of the air
required for the complete combustion of 1kg of fuel by weight and by
volume.

Problem
A gaseous fuel has the following composition CO = 46%, CH4 = 10%,
C2H2 = 2%, N2 = 1% and H2 = 40% calculate the volume of air
required for the complete combustion of 1m3 of fuel.
 Alternative Fuel
• Alternative fuel defines as a product that is substantially non-petroleum
which yields energy security and environmental benefits.