Heliyon 8 (2022) e08986

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Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Research article

Are customers happy with robot service? Investigating satisfaction with

robot service restaurants during the COVID-19 pandemic
Osman El-Said a, b, *, Sara Al Hajri a
a
Department of Logistics, Tourism, and Service Management, German University of Technology (GUtech), Oman
b
Department of Hotel Management, Faculty of Tourism and Hotels, Alexandria University, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The COVID-19 virus has led to a rapid increase in demand for robot service restaurants. However, given the
Autonomous services novelty of both, little is known regarding the impact of this technology on consumer attitudes in the time of the
Clients pandemic. Using a sample of customers with dining experiences in Muscat-based robot service restaurants, the
Covid-19
current study investigates the factors that affect experience satisfaction and experience extension. The results
Customers
Experience
demonstrate that perceived usefulness, speed of service, and experience novelty directly influence experience
Pandemic satisfaction, while perceived enjoyment and experience satisfaction directly influence experience extension.
Restaurants in Muscat Moreover, novelty seeking moderates the effects of experience novelty and perceived enjoyment on experience
Robots satisfaction, as well as the impact of perceived enjoyment on experience extension. Lastly, perceived risk
Satisfaction reduction of infection and trust are found to moderate the impact of experience satisfaction on experience
extension. Theoretical and practical implications are offered.

1. Introduction viral infection prompted consumers to seek out restaurants where there
was less exposure to other humans (Wan et al., 2020), and the demand
In the last few years, as the technology has become ever more feasible for establishments with robot services surged (Wang and Wang, 2021).
(Jang and Lee, 2020), the subject of robot service has gained increasing Some commentators (e.g., Kim et al., 2021; Wang and Wang, 2021) have
attention from both academics and industry practitioners. In the hospi- suggested that increased public awareness of global health risks has
tality industry especially, the potential of replacing humans with robots resulted in a permanent paradigm shift for the hospitality industry. That
in front line service positions has produced convincing arguments from is to say, the danger of the pandemic has become so engraved in the
proponents as well as opponents (Kim et al., 2021). Before the onset of public consciousness, that people are likely to maintain their adopted
the COVID-19 pandemic, most researchers concluded that there was a cautious behaviors long after the virus has dissipated (Kim et al., 2021).
general preference for human service. While technological advancements Consequently, as Matthews (2020) states, it should be expected that more
had meant that robots could indeed perform the same basic functions as and more restaurants will embrace robot services to meet the technol-
humans, compelling evidence suggested that they were, so far, unable to ogy's growing popularity.
recreate important elements of the hospitality experience. Specifically, The recency of the technology has meant that, so far, very few sci-
robots could not mimic the personalized service (Ariffin, 2013), human entific studies have addressed the subject of customer satisfaction with,
touch (Kattara and El-Said, 2013), service quality (Choi et al., 2020), or acceptance of, robot service in restaurants (e.g., Lee et al., 2018; Park,
sincere interactions (Shin and Jeong, 2020), and experience enrichment 2020; Seo and Lee, 2021). Of these, an even fewer number have inves-
(Chan and Tung, 2019), that humans brought into their service delivery. tigated the post-experience behavior of customers (e.g., Hwang et al.,
With the arrival of the pandemic, however, preferences quickly 2020; Jang and Lee, 2020). Moreover, due to the recency of COVID-19,
changed (Kim et al., 2021; Wang and Wang, 2021). All high contact few empirical studies have been conducted to explore customer satis-
service industries including restaurants witnessed a severe decline in faction, or experience extension intention, with robot service restaurants
patronage (Al-Mughairi et al., 2021; Hou et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2021; in the context of the pandemic. Therefore, to support the long-term
Wan et al., 2020; Salem et al., 2021; García-G
omez et al., 2021). Fear of commercial viability of the hospitality industry, there is a need to

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: osman.barghouth@gutech.edu.om, Osman_ahmed12@yahoo.com (O. El-Said).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e08986
Received 8 December 2021; Received in revised form 27 January 2022; Accepted 15 February 2022
2405-8440/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
O. El-Said, S. Al Hajri Heliyon 8 (2022) e08986

study the emerging trend of robot service adoption in a time of global will be able to meet consumer concerns and improve customer attraction,
health risks. Particularly, the findings of previous researchers urgently allowing them to overcome the negative effects of the COVID-19 virus, as
need to be confirmed and extended upon, to build a body of literature well as any future pandemics.
capable of guiding practice, both during and after the COVID-19
pandemic. 2. Literature review
To address this need, the current study seeks to answer the questions
“In the time of the COVID-19 pandemic, what are the factors that affect 2.1. Theoretical background
customer satisfaction with robot service restaurants?” and “In the time of
the COVID-19 pandemic, what are the factors that influence customer First, introduced by Davis (1985), the technology acceptance model
intention to revisit or recommend robot service restaurants?“. Three (TAM) predicts a person's adoption of new technologies using three
objectives have been adopted to answer the research questions. First, to factors, namely perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and
build a comprehensive model that will measure satisfaction with robot perceived enjoyment. In previous research on the public's acceptance of
service restaurants during the COVID-19 pandemic. Second, to widen the robots, these three factors have proven particularly effective (e.g., De
model to measure experience extension intentions. Third, to empirically Graaf, 2016). In hospitality contexts, however, researchers have sug-
test the model on a sample of customers with recent experiences in gested that additional factors may be needed to fully explain the adoption
Muscat-based robot service restaurants. of robot technology (Go et al., 2020). For example, the speedier service
The city of Muscat, in the Sultanate of Oman, provides a useful op- that robots offer could impress customers (Lee, 2011). Similarly, the
portunity for this study. Previous research on robot service restaurants novelty of the robot service experience itself could have a positive impact
has, so far, covered South Korea (Hwang et al., 2020; Seo and Lee, 2021; on customer satisfaction (Bello and Etzel, 1985; Duman and Mattila,
Jang and Lee, 2020), Taiwan (Lee et al., 2018), the United States of 2005).
America (Park, 2020), and China (Qiu et al., 2020). The Arabian gulf For our study, we have adopted and expanded on the TAM to measure
region, however, has remained completely uninvestigated. As such, the experience satisfaction (ES) and experience extension (EE) of robot
conducting the study in this part of the world will provide valuable in- service restaurant (RSR) customers. We have maintained the three
sights into the generalizability of previous research. Furthermore, though original factors of perceived ease of use (PEOU), perceived usefulness
the concept is still fresh throughout the region, Muscat already features (PU), and perceived enjoyment (ENJ), and added experience novelty
two robot service restaurants. Therefore, with customers from the two (EN) and speed of service (SOS) as independent variables. We have also
different restaurants, a sizeable sample can be extracted, allowing the included three moderating variables. Respectively, these are novelty
proposed model to be tested with greater accuracy. seeking (NS), perceived risk reduction of viral infection (PRR), and trust
Ultimately, the findings of the current study will have theoretical and (TRST). Figure 1 depicts the theoretical model of the study.
practical utility. From a theoretical perspective, a valuable addition will
be made to the emerging, but sorely limited, body of knowledge 2.2. Hypotheses development
regarding customer satisfaction and experience extension behavior in
robot service restaurants. Furthermore, a pioneering contribution will be 2.2.1. Effect of perceived ease of use on perceived enjoyment and usefulness
made regarding reactions to robot service in restaurants during the Davis (1989, p. 320) defines perceived ease of use as the “the degree
COVID-19 pandemic, providing much needed understanding of con- to which a person believes that using a particular technology would be
sumer attitudes towards the technology during a global health crisis. free of effort”. He further notes that the factor should be operationalized
From a practical perspective, the results of the current study will offer as a predictor of perceived usefulness rather than a predictor of attitude
restaurant managers guidance that, if applied, will improve business towards a technology. Previous research in the context of robot service
performance in a period of particular economic sensitivity. From the has validated this statement (e.g., Park and Pobil, 2013; Lee et al., 2018).
recommendations contained within this study, robot service restaurants For example, exploring customer attitudes towards robot service in

Figure 1. Theoretical model of the current study.

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O. El-Said, S. Al Hajri Heliyon 8 (2022) e08986

Korean restaurants, Seo and Lee (2021) demonstrated the strong effect of brought on by the novelty of the technology (Qiu et al., 2020). In the
perceived ease of use on perceived usefulness. The impact of perceived current study, we assume that experience satisfaction will be positively
ease of use on perceived enjoyment has been confirmed in several service influenced by experience novelty for patrons of Muscat-based robot
sector contexts as well. For example, in their investigation of visitor at- service restaurants.
titudes towards virtual tours for heritage sites, El-Said and Aziz (2021)
Hypothesis 4. Experience novelty has a positive effect on experience
found that perceived ease of use had a positive impact on perceived
satisfaction.
enjoyment. Likewise, Rodrigues et al. (2016) determined that perceived
The extent to which a specific technology is considered to be enjoy-
ease of use and perceived enjoyment were interrelated in their study of
able, regardless of its performance, is understood as perceived enjoyment
bank customer intentions to adopt gamification software. In much the
(Davis et al., 1992). Across multiple service sectors, perceived enjoyment
same way, in the current study, we assume that perceived ease of use will
has proven to be a significant predictor of customer acceptance of new
have a positive influence on perceived usefulness and perceived enjoy-
technologies. In their study, Hwang et al. (2019) found that perceived
ment for customers of Muscat-based robot service restaurants.
enjoyment affected consumer attitude towards drone food delivery ser-
Hypothesis 1a. Perceived ease of use has a positive effect on perceived vices. Similarly, Hwang et al. (2020) found that perceived enjoyment, or
usefulness. hedonically motivated consumer innovativeness in their study, had a
significant impact on customer attitude towards robot service. In our
Hypothesis 1b. Perceived ease of use has a positive effect on perceived
study, we assume that perceived enjoyment has a positive effect on
enjoyment.
experience satisfaction for customers of Muscat-based robot service
restaurants.
2.2.2. Determinants of experience satisfaction (perceived usefulness, speed of
service, experience novelty and perceived enjoyment) Hypothesis 5. Perceived enjoyment has a positive effect on experience
Perceived usefulness refers to the extent to which individuals believe satisfaction.
that implementing a specific technological invention would ultimately
improve their work performance (Davis, 1985). Previous studies focusing 2.2.3. Factors affecting experience extension
on robot service in the hospitality industry have found that perceived Experience extension refers to “visitors’ efforts to share the perceived
usefulness bears a strong influence on customer evaluations of the service affective and/or cognitive benefits from the experience, often by telling
experience. In their exploration of robots and AI in hotels, Tavitiyaman their friends” (Dong and Siu, 2013, p. 544). Previous research reveals
et al. (2020) found that the accuracy of information, efficiency of infor- how customers are more likely to share and extend their experience if
mation, and multi-lingual functions positively influenced adoption of the their expectations are met (Dong and Siu, 2013; El-Said et al., 2021).
technologies. Similarly, El-Said and Al Tall (2020) found that customers' Similarly, the more enjoyable the experience, the more likely a person is
perceptions of the good performance of self-service kiosks in fast food to share and extend it with others. This is supported by the work of Mihi
c
restaurants has a positive impact on their perception of value which in and Kursan Milakovi
c, 2017, who demonstrated the positive impact of
turn affects their intention to re-use the kiosks. For restaurants, robot enjoyable shopping experiences on word-of-mouth (WOM) recommen-
service possesses many potential advantages. In particular, these include dations among Croatian customers. Such findings are reinforced by
improvements to performance, efficiency, and productivity (Park and Rouibah et al. (2021) who similarly revealed the positive influence of
Pobil, 2013). In this study, we assume that the perceived usefulness of enjoyable e-commerce experiences on electronic WOM. As such, we as-
robot service, as capable of performing tasks accurately and efficiently, sume that both experience satisfaction and perceived enjoyment will
will have a positive effect on experience satisfaction for patrons in have a positive effect on experience extension.
Muscat-based robot service restaurants.
Hypothesis 7. Experience satisfaction has a positive effect on experi-
Hypothesis 2. Perceived usefulness has a positive effect on experience ence extension.
satisfaction.
Hypothesis 6. Perceived enjoyment has a positive effect on experience
In general, robots perform tasks faster than humans. In restaurants,
extension.
this means that the waiting time for orders can be reduced considerably,
potentially leading to improved experience satisfaction (Wirtz et al.,
2.2.4. The moderating effects of novelty seeking, trust, and perceived risk
2018). The link between quicker service and experience satisfaction in
reduction
restaurants has previously been identified by Furtado et al. (2020) who
In the current study we define the concept of novelty seeking using
explored customer attitudes towards online reservations and online
the personality approach. Accordingly, there are two main forms of
payments. In addition, it should be appreciated that, in restaurants with
novelty seeking: inherent and actualized (Hirschman, 1980). “Inherent
robot service, the efforts of human staff can be diverted to other, more
novelty seeking is viewed as the desire of the individual to seek out novel
complex, tasks. In their Turkish study, Vatan and Dogan (2021) reveal
stimuli; actualized novelty seeking represents the actual behavior by the
how the efficient distribution of tasks, between robots and humans, re-
individual to acquire novel stimuli” (Hirschman, 1980, p. 284). There-
duces service time and improves overall efficiency. In this study, we as-
fore, novelty-seeking is based on the need to shift from common to
sume that the quicker service offered by robot service will have a positive
unique experiences. This is exemplified by the work of Keaveney (1995).
effect on experience satisfaction for customers of Muscat-based robot
In the former, it is shown that consumers sometimes switch products, not
service restaurants.
because they are dissatisfied with their current product, but simply to
Hypothesis 3. Speed of service has a positive effect on experience fulfill their need for novelty. In the latter, it is revealed that the search for
satisfaction. the “strangeness” and “novelty” of further landscapes, cultures and life-
Customer feelings of having tried something new and different is ways, is what motives tourists to leave their usual environment.
understood as experience novelty (Crompton, 1979). Other synonyms for Preceding researchers have often identified novelty seeking as a
novelty include curiosity, adventure, new, and different (Crompton, moderating factor rather than an independent one. For example, Chang
1979). As noted by previous researchers (e. g., Hwang et al., 2020), et al. (2006) found that customers with high levels of novelty seeking
experience novelty is one of the main motivators for visiting new places tended to evaluate new experience more favorably than customers with
and trying new technologies. Regarding the latter, customers who seek low levels of novelty seeking. Assaker and Hallak (2013) found that, in
novel experiences tend to have positive perceptions after trying new Mediterranean destinations, the level of novelty seeking held by Euro-
technologies (Domina et al., 2012). In hospitality contexts, the intro- pean visitors moderated the relationship between destination image,
duction of robot service is associated with enhanced guest experiences, satisfaction, and re-visit intention. Similarly, exploring the behavior of

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Chinese tourists at restaurants in Macau, Ji et al. (2016) found that during the pandemic, Kim et al. (2021) found that guest attitudes were
novelty seeking moderated the relationship between willingness to try more positive in hotels staffed by robots than in hotels staffed by humans.
ethnic food and experience satisfaction. Unfortunately, literature on the Likewise, Hou et al. (2021) identified a preference for robot, rather than
moderating effect of novelty seeking in the context of robot service is human, services in highly crowded touristic destinations. In their study,
lacking. Therefore, based on studies in other contexts, we assume that as robot service reduced the need for interaction with other people,
novelty seeking will moderate the relationship between experience customers felt less at risk of exposure to the virus. In much the same way,
satisfaction and experience novelty, as well as experience satisfaction and for the current study, we assume that the perceived risk reduction of viral
perceived enjoyment. Moreover, we assume that the impact of perceived infection will moderate the impact of experience satisfaction on experi-
enjoyment on experience extension will be moderated by novelty seeking ence extension for patrons of Muscat-based robot service restaurants.
as well.
Hypothesis 9b. Perceived risk reduction of viral infection moderates
Hypothesis 8a. Novelty seeking moderates the relationship between the relationship between experience satisfaction and experience
experience novelty and experience satisfaction. extension.
Hypothesis 8b. Novelty seeking moderates the relationship between
3. Methodology
perceived enjoyment and experience satisfaction.
Hypothesis 8c. Novelty seeking moderates the relationship between 3.1. Research context
perceived enjoyment and experience extension.
In their research on robot service, Tussyadiah et al. (2020) define Data was collected from customers within dining experiences at one
trust as the judgment a person makes about the technology's ability to of two robot service restaurants located in Muscat during the Covid-19
perform according to their expectations. In their work they also expose pandemic. The details of these two robot service restaurants, which we
how trust has a direct impact on the adoption of and satisfaction with have labelled Restaurant #1 and Restaurant #2, are as follows. Restau-
new technologies. Similarly, Park's (2020) work demonstrated the posi- rant #1 is a stand-alone establishment located in the commercial zone
tive impact of trust on consumer intention to dine in robot service res- near the city center with a lively restaurant scene. In this restaurant,
taurants. Unfortunately, within this context, there is a lack of studies robot service is used to compliment human service. Robots deliver food
investigating the moderating effect of trust on the relationship between items to tables, while human staff take orders and payments. Restaurant
experience satisfaction and experience extension. However, some insight #2 is a coffee shop that is located in a large shopping mall and serves
can be withdrawn from exploring trust in the context of media and pol- different beverages. In this coffee shop, robot service completely replaces
itics. Ard
evol-Abreu et al. (2018) found that trust of traditional media human staff. A robot takes orders, payments, and delivers beverage
moderated the impact of user generated news on online political items. Images of the two robot service restaurants are exhibited in
participation. In this vein, for our study, we assume that trust will Figure 2. Despite the different nature of the service in the two restau-
moderate the impact of experience satisfaction on experience extension rants, the homogeneity of the sample can be confirmed by a number of
for customers of Muscat-based robot service restaurants. factors. The study only concentrated on the robot service component of
the greater restaurant experience, and all the survey questions were
Hypothesis 9a. Trust moderates the relationship between experience
geared towards the direct interactions that customers had with the ro-
satisfaction and experience extension.
bots. Other aspects of the restaurant experience, such as food quality and
Studies have shown that, in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic,
decoration, were not within the scope of this study, and, therefore, the
consumer attitudes towards technology-based solutions, like robot ser-
differences between the two restaurants were negligible. However, to
vice, have become more favorable (Kim et al., 2021; Zeng et al., 2020).
verify the normal distribution of the data, the data was tested by calcu-
Concerns of viral exposure have prompted a great many people into
lating the values for both kurtosis and skewness, which demonstrated
seeking out human-less alternatives for everyday activities, like restau-
that the data was normally distributed.
rant dining (Lee et al., 2021). In their experimental study of hotel stays

Figure 2. Images for the two robot service restaurants in Muscat.

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3.2. Data collection procedure eligible to participate in the following sections of the survey. Those who
answered “No, I have not tried any robot service restaurants during
Due to COVID-19 related restrictions, such as the city-wide lockdown, COVID-19” were not eligible to complete the survey. Data was collected
it was not possible to distribute the survey physically. Therefore, the data from the beginning of March until the end of May 2021 and a total of 637
collection was carried out using an online survey. Convenience sampling surveys were collected, of which 191 were incomplete and subsequently
was used, and the sampling frame included customers who had visited eliminated. Therefore, there were 446 completed and useable surveys for
one of the robot service restaurants after the start of the COVID-19 the data analysis.
pandemic, and still remembered the experience. A link to the survey
was posted on different social media platforms, such as Twitter, Face- 3.3. Research instrument
book, Instagram, Snapchat, and WhatsApp, to ensure that data was
collected from a diverse demographic group. Before collecting the data, The survey was designed and structured to determine experience
all the ethical considerations mandated by the Research Ethics Com- satisfaction with different characteristics of the robot service restaurants.
mittee at the German University of Technology in Oman were followed, The survey was composed on an introduction and three sections. In the
and required ethical approvals were obtained. The study took into ac- introduction, the purpose of the research was stated, followed by a brief
count the following ethical considerations. Respondents were informed description of the questions in the following three sections. The first
that their participation in the study was voluntary, all data would be used section focused on the demographic attributes of the respondents. The
for research purposes only, and that their data would be treated strictly second section consisted of five closed-ended multiple choice questions.
confidential. Before starting the survey, respondents were briefed about The third section of the survey included questions that captured the
the purpose and context of the study. Specifically, of the two robot ser- latent variables of the study. The factors of perceived usefulness,
vice restaurants in question, and the COVID-19 virus. Respondents were perceived ease of use and perceived enjoyment were measured using four
informed in the introduction that they should participate in the survey items each drawn from previous TAM models (e.g., Davis, 1989; Davis
only if they had dined in one of the two robot service restaurants. et al., 1992) and adapted in subsequent research concentrating on service
Furthermore, an eligibility question asked the respondents if they had robots (e.g., Lu et al., 2019; Hwang et al., 2020). speed of service was
visited either of the two relevant robot service restaurants since the start measured using three items adapted from the work of Lee (2011) and
of the COVID-19 pandemic. Pictures of the two robot service restaurants Sheu et al. (2003). Trust was measured using four items derived from the
in question were displayed next to this question to avoid any confusion. work of Mcknight et al. (2011). Perceived risk reduction of viral infection
Participants who answered “Yes, I have tried at least one of them,” were was measured using three items adapted from Terpstra and Lindell (2013)
and Wan et al. (2020). Experience novelty was measured using five items
derived from Bello and Etzel (1985) and Duman and Mattila (2005).
Novelty-seeking was measured using seven items adapted from Lee and
Table 1. Profile of respondents.
Crompton (1992) and Jang and Feng (2007). Experience satisfaction was
Total (N ¼ 446) measured using a three-item scale adapted from Tussyadiah et al. (2020)
N % and Dong and Siu (2013). Finally, experience extension was measured
Gender using four items derived from the work of Dong and Siu (2013). The re-
Male 213 47.8 sponses of this section were measured on a Likert scale consisting of five
Female 233 52.2
options that ranged from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree".
Marital Status
3.4. Sample characteristics
Single 214 48.0
Married 209 46.9
Table 1 below displays the respondent demographics. The final sample
Other 23 5.1
had 213 males (47.8%) and 233 females (52.2%). Regarding age, 39.5%
Age
were between 18 and 30, 26.9%, were between 31 and 45, 13.7% were
Less than 18 56 12.6
between 46 and 60, 12.6% were below 18, and 7.4% were 61 years and
18–30 176 39.5
above. Concerning marital status, 48% were single and 46.9% were mar-
31–45 120 26.9
ried. Most of the respondents, 83.2%, found the restaurants family-friendly,
46–60 61 13.7 while the remaining 16.8% did not. For visit frequency, 47.3% of the re-
61 and above 33 7.4 spondents had visited a robot service restaurant visited once, 32.7% had
Did you find the restaurant/Cafe family-friendly? visited twice, and 20% had visited more than two times. In terms of com-
Yes 371 83.2 pany, 45.5% of the respondents went alone to the restaurant robot service
No 75 16.8 restaurants, 37.2% went with family or relatives, and 17.3% went with
How many times did you visit a robot service restaurant/cafe? friends. Most of the respondents, 76.7%, were pleased with the food offered
More than two times 89 20.0 at the robot service restaurants, and 23.3% were not pleased. Regarding
Once 211 47.3 general dining habits during the COVID-19 pandemic, 43.8% went out to
Twice 146 32.7 restaurants often, 26.2% always ate out, and 30% ate out rarely.
With whom did you visit the restaurant/cafe?
Alone 203 45.5 4. Results
With family/relatives 166 37.2
With friends 77 17.3 4.1. Data screening and analysis
Were you pleased with the quality of food/drinks served?
No 104 23.3
The data was analyzed using SPSS version 25, AMOS version 24, and
PROCESS Macro for SPSS version 3.2. The data was assessed for any is-
Yes 342 76.7
sues affecting the quality of the research findings before starting the
How often do you eat out during the COVID-19 pandemic?
analysis process. Namely, the data was tested for common method bias,
Always 116 26.0
normality, and multicollinearity. To test for common method bias, Har-
Often 195 43.7
man's Single Factor test was performed using Principal Axis Factoring as
Rarely 134 30.0
the method of extraction. Results indicated that a single factor, on which

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Table 2. Reliability and validity.

Latent and observed variables Loading Skew Kurt α CR AVE

Perceived Usefulness (PU) .931 0.931 0.819
PU1: Service robots are useful in Muscat-based restaurants .891 -.264 -.436
PU2: Service robots were able perform same functions as employees .919 -.429 -.130
PU3: Service robots enhanced my service experience .904 -.496 -.095
PU4: Service robots had all functionalities needed to do its job dropped
Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) .940 0.938 0.792
PEOU1: Using the service robot did not require a lot of mental effort .870 -.505 -.335
PEOU2: I found the service robot to be easy to use .930 -.585 -.186
PEOU3: My interaction with the service robot was understandable .896 -.690 .024
PEOU4: It was easy to learn how to use the service robot .863 -.618 -.226
Perceived Enjoyment (ENJ) .897 0.892 0.674
PE1: Using the service robot gave me lots of pleasure .796 -.312 -.755
PE2: The service robot experience was pleasant .841 -.349 -.799
PE3: The technological newness of the restaurant service robot made me happier .821 -.371 -.618
PE4: The interaction with the service robots in the restaurant was fun .826 -.410 -.526
Speed of Service (SOS) .774 0.776 0.536
SOS1: The robot was efficient in serving my food/drinks on time .717 -.325 -.842
SOS2: Enjoying the experience made the time pass quickly and I didn't feel the waiting time .730 -.288 -.792
SOS3: I did not wait long till my food/drinks arrived .749 -.326 -.880
Trust (TRST) .792 0.850 0.654
TRST1: The robot had the required features to serve food/drinks .784 -.262 -.945
TRST2: The robot provided me with the help I needed dropped
TRST3: The robot served food/drinks error-free (without mistakes) .792 -.431 -.895
TRST4: I trust that the service robots in the restaurants are safe .849 -.373 -.778
Perceived Risk Reduction of Viral Infection (PRR) .835 0.812 0.591
PRR1: Service robots are a safe alternative that protect me from catching COVID-19 .764 -.538 -.564
PRR2: Compared to human employees, service robots can limit the spread of COVID-19 in restaurants .808 -.462 -.610
PRR3: I prefer being served by robots instead of human employees during COVID-19 .733 -.446 -.701
Experience Novelty (EN) .860 0.854 0.595
EN1: Eating at the robot restaurant was a unique experience for me .772 -.433 -.850
EN2: I think most people would describe this experience as different dropped
EN3: Being served by a robot was a new experience for me .767 -.566 -.510
EN4: The service at this restaurant is different from the service at other restaurants .739 -.356 -.891
EN5: After eating at this restaurant, I believe that I did something new and different .805 -.346 -.866
Experience Satisfaction (ES) .837 0.874 0.699
ES1: My overall experience was satisfactory .777 -.494 .434
ES2: My overall experience was memorable .848 -.538 .182
ES3: My overall experience was enjoyable .880 -.602 .194
Experience Extension (EE) .907 0.898 0.688
EE1: I would recommend this robot service restaurant to someone .750 -.551 -.159
EE2: I would encourage friends and relatives to visit this robot service restaurant .876 -.439 -.286
EE3: I would share this experience with my friends and relatives .799 -.584 .048
EE4: I will visit this robot service restaurant again .886 -.427 -.233
Novelty Seeking (NS) .915 0.920 0.697
NS1: Change of environment allows me to experience something new .792 -.392 -.481
NS2: I like to visit new places .844 -.499 -.508
NS3: I like to learn about different cultures from my own .867 -.438 -.732
NS4: I like trying new food dropped
NS5: I like Experiencing new and different things .839 -.460 -.597
NS6: I Feel an urge to explore the unknown dropped
NS7: I like visiting a place I can talk about when I get home .832 -.411 -.848

all the observed variables were loaded, attributed for less than 40 % of values confirmed the non-existence of multicollinearity (Hair et al.,
the variance, confirming the absence of common method bias (Harman, 2010).
1967). To check for data normality, the values for both kurtosis and
skewness were calculated and found to be less than 1. The deviation 4.2. Confirmatory factor analysis
confirmed the normal distribution of the data collected (Hair et al.,
2010). To check for multicollinearity between the independent variables, A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to test the
Variable Inflation Factor (VIF) values were calculated. At less than 3, the convergent validity, discriminant validity and reliability of the study's

6
O. El-Said, S. Al Hajri Heliyon 8 (2022) e08986

Table 3. Inter construct correlations and square roots of AVE.

MSV EE PU PEOU PE SOS TRST PRR EN ES NS

EE 0.461 0.830
PU 0.333 0.412 0.905
PEOU 0.483 0.483 0.577 0.890 Read Caveats and
Assumptions below,
and then click me.
ENJ 0.517 0.592 0.547 0.661 0.821
SOS 0.508 0.679 0.569 0.648 0.713 0.732
TRST 0.564 0.596 0.519 0.695 0.666 0.678 0.809
PRR 0.564 0.607 0.575 0.678 0.649 0.671 0.751 0.769
EN 0.555 0.584 0.385 0.655 0.719 0.640 0.745 0.684 0.771
ES 0.423 0.650 0.434 0.409 0.400 0.544 0.416 0.534 0.458 0.836
NS 0.288 0.537 0.187 0.367 0.327 0.381 0.428 0.512 0.412 0.409 0.835

Note: square root of AVE is shown in the diagonal and in bold.

constructs. An initial CFA indicated an average fit to the data. After between the latent variables in the structural model. Results of the
checking the loadings of the observed variables and the cross-loadings structural model revealed a good model fit to the data and all the fit
among variables from different constructs, PU4 was excluded from the indices were acceptable (χ2 ¼ 622.530, df ¼ 260, p < .001, χ2/df ¼
perceived usefulness construct, TRST1 was excluded from the trust 2.394, GFI ¼ 0.903, CFI ¼ 0.957, TLI ¼ 0.950, IFI ¼ 957, SRMR ¼
construct, EN2 was excluded from the experience novelty construct, and 0.0737, RMSEA ¼ 0.056). As shown in Table 4, both standardized
NS4 and NS6 were excluded from the novelty seeking construct. Previous regression weights and p-values were used to test the different hypoth-
variables were excluded due to poor loading (below. 6) or high cross eses of the study. The results show that perceived ease of use has a
loading with other variables. A second CFA was performed, and the re- positive and significant impact on perceived usefulness (β ¼ .594, p <
sults indicated that the adjusted model showed a good fit to the data with 0.001) and perceived enjoyment (β ¼ .680, p < 0.001), supporting hy-
acceptable fit indices values (χ2 ¼ 939.710, df ¼ 539, p < .001, χ2/df ¼ potheses H1a and H1b. Moreover, the results indicate that perceived
1.743, GFI ¼ 0.901, CFI ¼ 0.966, TLI ¼ 0.961, IFI ¼ 967, SRMR ¼ usefulness (β ¼ .208, p < 0.001), speed of service (β ¼ .361, p < 0.001),
0.0334, RMSEA ¼ 0.041) (Hair et al., 2010). and experience novelty (β ¼ .204, p < 0.01) have a positive and signif-
Tables 2 and 3 show the reliability and validity of the constructs. All icant impact on experience satisfaction, supporting hypotheses H2, H3
the values of the Cronbach's alphas (α) and composite reliability (CR) for and H4. However, perceived enjoyment has no significant impact on
the different constructs were greater than the threshold value of .70, experience satisfaction (β ¼ -.076, p > 0.05), hence H5 was rejected.
confirming the reliability of all constructs (Hair et al., 2010). Further- Finally, both perceived enjoyment (β ¼ .393, p < 0.001) and experience
more, all the observed variables had high loadings on the respective satisfaction (β ¼ .529, p < 0.001) have a positive and significant impact
latent variables with all factor loadings greater than .70, confirming the on experience extension, providing support for hypotheses H6 and H7.
convergent validity of the constructs. In addition, the AVE for all the
constructs was higher than the cut-off value of 0.50, further confirming 4.4. Testing the moderating effects
the convergent validity of the constructs (Malhotra and Dash, 2011).
Finally, discriminant validity was assessed and confirmed in two ways. The moderating effects were tested using the Process Macro version
First, the square root of the AVE for each construct was greater than the 3.2, model 1 (Hayes, 2017). Results of the moderating effects from these
inter-construct correlations (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Second, the tests are reported in Table 5 and plotted in Figures 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. Model
Maximum Shared Variance (MSV) for each construct was lower than the 1 shows that there is a significant positive moderating effect for novelty
Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for the same construct. Therefore, seeking on the relationship between experience novelty and experience
there were no validity concerns for the instruments. satisfaction (R2-chng ¼ .0315, F ¼ 18.37, p < 0.001). Furthermore, the
result of the conditional analysis, which is plotted in Figure 3, shows that
4.3. Structural model and hypothesis testing when novelty seeking is high, the positive impact of experience novelty
on experience satisfaction increases (b ¼ .357, t ¼ 7.68, p < .001), and
After confirming the validity and reliability of the model, the hy- when novelty seeking is low, the positive impact of experience novelty on
potheses of the study were tested by analyzing the path coefficients experience satisfaction significantly decreases (b ¼ .026, t ¼ .479, p >

Table 4. Results of testing the structural model.

Predictor Dependent Estimate t-value P-value R2 Decision

Variable
H1a: PEOU —> PU .594 12.682 .000*** .353 Supported
H1b: —> PE .680 13.610 .000*** .462 Supported
PEOU
H2: PU —> ES .208 3.975 .000*** .355 Supported
H3: SOS —> ES .361 4.739 .000*** Supported
H4: EN —> ES .204 2.960 .003** Supported
H5: ENJ —> ES -.076 -1.400 .161 Not
Supported
H6: PE —> EE .393 9.008 .000*** .543 Supported
H7: ES —> EE .529 11.041 .000*** Supported

Note; ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

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O. El-Said, S. Al Hajri Heliyon 8 (2022) e08986

significant positive moderating effect for novelty seeking on the rela-

Table 5. Moderation analysis. tionship between perceived enjoyment and experience extension
Coefficient SE t p LLCI ULCI (R2-chng ¼ .0528, F ¼ 41.67, p < 0.001). Moreover, the conditional
Model 1: Impact of EN on ES at different levels NS analysis results, which are plotted in Figure 5, show that perceived
Constant 5.653 0.768 7.359 0.000 4.144 7.163
enjoyment has a stronger positive effect on experience extension for
EN -0.620 0.197 -3.139 0.002 -1.008 -0.232
customers with higher levels of novelty seeking (b ¼ .595, t ¼ 11.95, p <
.001) than those with lower levels of novelty seeking (b ¼ .078, t ¼ 1.42,
NS -0.534 0.182 -2.928 0.004 -0.892 -0.176
p > .05). Therefore, hypothesis 8c is supported.
EN X NS 0.196 0.046 4.287 0.000 0.106 0.285
Model 4 shows that there is a significant positive moderating effect
R2/Sig. .4915/.000
for trust on the relationship between experience satisfaction and expe-
R2 change/Sig. .0315/.000
rience extension (R2-chng ¼ .0081, F ¼ 6.67, p < 0.05). Additionally, the
Model 2: Impact of ENJ on ES at different levels NS
conditional analysis results, plotted in Figure 6, show that the positive
Constant 7.002 0.740 9.462 0.000 5.548 8.457
impact of experience satisfaction on experience extension increases when
PE -1.005 0.192 -5.235 0.000 -1.382 -0.628
trust is high (b ¼ .678, t ¼ 9.30, p < .001), and the positive impact of
NS -0.849 0.177 -4.801 0.000 -1.196 -0.501 experience satisfaction on experience extension decreases when trust is
PE X NS 0.286 0.045 6.368 0.000 0.198 0.374 low (b ¼ .468, t ¼ 9.10, p < .001). Therefore, Hypothesis 9a is supported.
R2/Sig. .2680/.000 Model 5 shows that there is a significant positive moderating effect for
R2 change/Sig. .0672/.000 perceived risk reduction of viral infection on the relationship between
Model 3: Impact of ENJ on EE at different levels of NS experience satisfaction and experience extension (R2-chng ¼ .0100, F ¼
Constant 5.935 0.779 7.614 0.000 4.403 7.466 7.80, p < 0.01). Furthermore, conditional analysis plotted in Figure 7,
PE -0.929 0.202 -4.596 0.000 -1.327 -0.532 show that experience satisfaction has a stronger effect on experience
NS -0.780 0.186 -4.191 0.000 -1.146 -0.414 extension for customers with higher levels perceived risk reduction of
PE x NS 0.305 0.047 6.455 0.000 0.212 0.398 viral infection (b ¼ .683, t ¼ 9.12, p < .001) than for those who have
R2/Sig. .6636/.000 lower levels (b ¼ .460, t ¼ 8.55, p < .001). Therefore, hypothesis 9b is
R2 change/Sig. .0528/.0007 supported.
Model 4: Impact of ES on EE at different levels of TRST
Constant 2.171 0.630 3.445 0.001 0.932 3.410 5. Discussion
ES 0.154 0.153 1.010 0.313 -0.146 0.454
TRST -0.126 0.173 -0.730 0.466 -0.466 0.214 The positive and significant impact of perceived ease of use on
ES X TRST 0.105 0.041 2.584 0.010 0.025 0.185 perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment is an expected finding
R2/Sig. .6825/.000 given its basis in the TAM. Regarding the effect on perceived usefulness,
R2 change/Sig. .0081.0101
it should be appreciated that the easier the technology is to use, the more
Model 5: Impact of ES on EE at different levels of PRR
useful it is for the user. This result is consistent with the findings of
previous researchers (Park and Pobil, 2013; Lee et al., 2018). For
Constant 2.475 0.606 4.086 0.000 1.285 3.665
example, based on a sample of general managers and deputy managers in
ES 0.127 0.151 0.843 0.400 -0.169 0.423
more than 100 restaurants in Taiwan, Lee et al. (2018) found that
PRR -0.208 0.168 -1.243 0.215 -0.537 0.121
perceived ease of use significantly increased perceived usefulness of
ES X PRR 0.111 0.040 2.795 0.005 0.033 0.190
restaurant service robots. Interpreting the impact on perceived enjoy-
R2/Sig. .6573/.000
ment, it is understood that the easier the technology is to use, the more
R2 change/Sig. .0100/.0054
enjoyable it is for the user. This finding is also aligned with the work of
previous researchers (El-Said and Aziz, 2021). The strong positive impact
.05). Therefore, Hypothesis 8a is supported. Model 2 shows that there is a of perceived usefulness on experience satisfaction indicates that, to a
significant positive moderating effect for novelty seeking on the rela- high degree, acceptance of robot service is related to the technology's
tionship between perceived enjoyment and experience satisfaction ability to perform as expected. Essentially, this translates into the robot's
(R2-chng ¼ .0672, F ¼ 40.55, p < 0.001). Additionally, the result of the ability to take and serve orders accurately. It stands, therefore, that in
conditional analysis, which is plotted in Figure 4, shows that when restaurants with poorly performing robots, where orders are inaccurately
novelty seeking is high, the positive impact of perceived enjoyment on or poorly delivered, there will be non-acceptance of the technology from
experience satisfaction increases (b ¼ .423, t ¼ 8.49, p < .001), and when customers. Accordingly, the work of Tavitiyaman et al. (2020) is rein-
novelty seeking is low, the positive impact of perceived enjoyment on forced. However, in a surprising outcome, perceived enjoyment does not
experience satisfaction significantly decreases (b ¼ -.061, t ¼ -1.17, p > exhibit any significant impact on experience satisfaction. A possible
.05). Therefore, hypothesis 8b is supported. Model 3 shows that there is a explanation is that the relationship is affected by other factors, as some of

4.8

4.3 Low NovSeek

ExpSat

High NovSeek

3.8
Low NovExp High NovExp

Figure 3. Simple slope between EN and ES at different levels of NS.

8
O. El-Said, S. Al Hajri Heliyon 8 (2022) e08986

4.8

4.3 Low NovSeek

ExpSat
High NovSeek

3.8
Low Enjoyement High Enjoyement

Figure 4. Simple slope between ENJ and ES at different levels of NS.

the qualitative comments suggested. As one respondent stated, “what and vice versa. Therefore, the findings of Furtado et al. (2020) are
made the experience at this restaurant less enjoyable is the quality of corroborated. In addition, respondent satisfaction with the quick service
food more than the service, since it's a restaurant the food quality is very could indicate the improved productivity and efficiency that robot ser-
important, and not only the experience of robots”. Therefore, the findings vice brought into the restaurants, allowing human-staff to concentrate
of the current study disagree with those of preceding researchers (Hwang their attentions on other elements of the experience, as mentioned by
et al., 2019). Vatan, and Dogan (2021). The general rarity of robot service explains the
Speed of service displayed the strongest impact on experience satis- positive and significant impact of experience novelty on experience
faction. This indicates that the time required for robots to take and serve satisfaction. Given that restaurants with such technologies are both new
orders was the most important factor for customers. Accordingly, the and few, customers are mainly motivated to eat in these establishments
faster the service, the more satisfied customers will be with robot service, to enjoy different experiences. Therefore, for robot service restaurants,

4.5
Low NovSeek
ExpExt

High NovSeek
4

3.5
Low Enjoyement High Enjoyement

Figure 5. Simple slope between ENJ and EE at different levels of NS.

4.3
Low Trust
High Trust
ExpExt

3.8

3.3
Low ES High ES

Figure 6. Simple slope between ES and EE at different levels of TRST.

4.3
Low PRR
ExpExt

3.8 High PRR

3.3
Low ES High ES

Figure 7. Simple slope between ES and EE at different levels of PRR.

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O. El-Said, S. Al Hajri Heliyon 8 (2022) e08986

the more uncommon the experience, the more satisfied the customers of customer satisfaction with robot service restaurants during the COVID-
will be. As such, the findings of the current study agree with those of Qiu 19 pandemic. Moreover, it is the first empirical investigation of customer
et al. (2020). intention to extend the experience, after eating in a robot service
With respect to the impact on experience extension from both restaurant, during the COVID-19 pandemic. Accordingly, valuable un-
perceived enjoyment and experience satisfaction, it is clear that the more derstanding of post-experience behavior and attitude have been added to
enjoyable and satisfactory the experience, the more likely a customer will the body of literature, which had, until now, only investigated pre-
seek to extend the experience. Thus, the results reinforce the work of experience preferences (e.g., Kim et al., 2021; Wan et al., 2020). In
Mihi
c and Kursan Milakovi
c, 2017 and Rouibah et al. (2021), who doing so, the model used in the current study offers future researchers a
similarly found that enjoyable experiences had a positive impact on foundation for assessing robot-technologies, not only for the COVID-19
customer willingness to make recommendations to family and friends. pandemic, but for future global health crises as well.
Likewise, the results also support the work of Dong and Siu (2013) and Second, the current study represents the first application of robot
El-Said et al. (2021), such that satisfied customers are more willing to service restaurant research in the Arabian gulf region. As such, the
share their experiences with others. generalizability of factors identified in previous work, such as perceived
An interesting finding of the study is related to the moderating effects ease of use (Park and Pobil, 2013; Lee et al., 2018; Seo and Lee, 2021)
of novelty seeking on the relationships between perceived enjoyment and and perceived usefulness (Tavitiyaman et al., 2020), is extended to a
experience satisfaction, perceived enjoyment and experience extension, region that had previously been neglected. The current study has also
and experience novelty and experience satisfaction. In all these relation- introduced new factors, from other hospitality contexts, into the discus-
ships, as could be clearly observed from the results of the moderation sion on robot service restaurants. These include experience novelty
analysis, novelty seeking was found to moderate the relationship between (Hwang et al., 2020; Qiu et al., 2020), novelty seeking (Assaker and
the independent variables (experience novelty, perceived enjoyment) and Hallak, 2013; Ji et al., 2016), speed of service (Furtado et al., 2020), and
the dependent variables (experience satisfaction, experience extension). trust (Park, 2020). Therefore, the current study has provided valuable
The impact of the independent variables on the dependent variables were evidence to support the generalizability of previous research, both across
stronger for customers with higher levels of novelty seeking, and geographies and contexts.
noticeable weaker, and even non-existent, for customers with lower levels Third, the current study has brought new understanding of the
of novelty seeking. This can be interpreted in the following way. Cus- perceived enjoyment factor. The findings demonstrate that, for robot
tomers with high levels of novelty seeking visit robot service restaurants service restaurants, perceived enjoyment only exhibits an effect when
to interact and use the robots, to enjoy an experience that is uncommon in customer novelty seeking is high. This is a unique finding with far-
other establishments. For these customers, other factors related to the reaching implications. On the one hand, a contribution is made to-
dining experience, such as food quality or restaurant d
ecor, are over- wards the body of knowledge on the TAM, improving general under-
shadowed by the excitement of experiencing something new. In contrast, standing of technology acceptance. On the other hand, the finding
for customers with low levels of novelty seeking, the robot service is not suggests that consumer attitudes towards technology in robot service
the main motivation for eating at the restaurant. Therefore, they remain restaurants, and perhaps in other hospitality settings as well, are more
critical of all the usual factors of the dining experience. This result is greatly affected by user personality traits and motivations.
supported by the academic literature, which indicates that customers with Fourth, the current study has demonstrated the moderating effect of
high levels of novelty seeking tend to evaluate the new experiences more trust and perceived risk reduction of viral infection. Regarding the
favorably than customers with low levels of novelty seeking (e.g., Chang former, this is the first study to introduce trust as a moderating variable.
et al., 2006; Assaker and Hallak, 2013; Ji et al., 2016). Accordingly, understanding of the applications for this factor have been
Finally, perceived risk reduction of viral infection and trust were also broadened. Regarding the latter, beyond robot service, this is the first
proven to have moderating effects on the relation between experience study to examine the influence of customer COVID-19 concerns on post-
satisfaction and experience extension. With respect to perceived risk experience behavior in restaurants. Therefore, the findings of the current
reduction in viral infection, it can be concluded that because of the spread study deepen understanding of consumer behavior during the pandemic,
Covid-19, people became more concerned about their safety, and they and highlight the fact that, it is not just demand for restaurant services
prefer services that incorporate technologies that can minimize the spread that is affected, but how people decide to repeat and recommend their
of the virus. Therefore, customers who more strongly believe that service experiences as well.
robots are a safe alternative to humans and can limit the spread of the virus
will be more satisfied with these restaurants and will be eager to pass the 6.2. Practical implications
experience on to their friends and families who are also looking for a safe
place to dine. The previous conclusion is similar with the findings of recent Whether looking to adopt robot service in a traditional restaurant
studies that found that People's preferences have shifted towards or trying to improve the performance of an existing robot service
technology-based restaurants because they represent less risks to public restaurant, the findings of the current study offer managers and
health, and they will recommend those restaurants to others as well (Hou owners numerous insights. In this study, 69.7% of the respondents
et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2021). Regarding the moderating admitted to eating at restaurants one or more times per week.
effects of trust, we follow a similar reasoning, where customers with higher Therefore, it should be appreciated that the COVID-19 pandemic has
levels of trust in the service robots and their ability to perform their tasks not dissuaded a significant portion of people from eating out. How-
efficiently will be satisfied with the service and eager to pass their expe- ever, as evidenced by the moderating effect of perceived risk reduction
rience to others and vice versa. In a different context, with the use of similar of viral infection, though many are still willing to risk going out, they
logic, Seo and Lee (2021) found that trust in restaurant service robots has a are aware of the danger, and may experience greater stress, worry, and
significant positive impact on customers' satisfaction, which in turn posi- guilt than usual. In turn these affects their decision to dine again at the
tively affects their intention to visit these restaurants in the future. restaurant, or to recommend it to others. As such, managers who
which to improve the performance of their robot service restaurants
6. Implications need to focus on both the recreational needs and hygienic concerns of
their customers.
6.1. Theoretical implications Careful attention should be given to the perceived ease of use of
using the robot services. Screens could be installed at each table
The results of the current study provide a four of novel contributions through which brief introduction and orientation videos are played,
to theory. First and foremost, this study is the first empirical investigation informing the customer of how to use the robots. These screens could

10
O. El-Said, S. Al Hajri Heliyon 8 (2022) e08986

use touch technology, and orders to robots, and the restaurant, could 7. Conclusion and directions for future research
be conducted directly through these screens. On-screen commands
should be straightforward and could use simple point and click func- This study set out to achieve three research objectives. A model was
tions. Efforts should be made to improve the perceived usefulness and successfully built, extended, and empirically tested on a sample of cus-
perceived enjoyment of the robots. Regarding the former, the robots tomers with experiences in Muscat-based robot service restaurants.
must be designed to customize orders and take special requests. For Overall, this study aimed to answer two research questions. Regarding
example, the robot service must be able to add extra items, remove the first question, the factors that affect customer satisfaction with robot
specific ingredients, swap items. The robot service should also be able service restaurants in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic are as follows.
to offer different order sizes and prioritize orders. Moreover, the robot Perceived ease of use has a strong direct impact on both perceived use-
service should have a function for quickly and easily reporting service fulness and perceived enjoyment. In turn perceived usefulness, along
errors. Concerning perceived enjoyment, the robot service experience with speed of service and experience novelty, have strong direct impacts
should be stimulating and engaging. The use of multimedia can on experience satisfaction. Moreover, the effect of experience novelty on
enhance the enjoyment of basic functions, like making and receiving experience satisfaction is moderated by the novelty seeking tendency of
orders. Music could be played, or lights could flicker, when orders are customers. However, perceived enjoyment does not influence experience
completed or when food arrives at the tables. While waiting for food, satisfaction, except when customers have high levels of novelty seeking.
guests could play digital games, through their robot, or using other Regarding the second question, the factors that affect customer intention
interfaces at their table. Furthermore, guests could customize their own to revisit or recommend robot service restaurants in the time of the
eating space. COVID-19 pandemic are as follows. Both experience satisfaction and
Managers should concentrate on improving the experience novelty at perceived enjoyment have strong direct impacts on experience extension.
their robot service restaurants. The restaurant itself could be uniquely The impact of experience satisfaction on experience extension is
themed to reflect the novelty of using robots, or even use multiple themes moderated by both perceived risk reduction of viral infection and trust.
in rotation. The food itself could also be used to enhance the novelty of The effect of perceived enjoyment on experience satisfaction is moder-
the robot services. This could include creative menu items and unique. In ated by the novelty seeking tendency of customers.
addition, certain activities could highlight the strangeness of the expe- However, it should be noted that the current study was constrained by
rience. For example, the service robot could take a photo of the customer several limitations. The limited mobility of the researchers, affected by
and send it to the customers telephone, so that they can share it on social Oman's COVID-19 restrictions, necessitated that the data collection be
media. Also, diners could leave digital notes for the next customers using conducted using online means. As such, future researchers should
their table to read. As speed of service exhibits the strongest influence on recreate the present study by using physical methods of data collection
ES, special attention should be paid to this factor. On the one hand this instead. Moreover, the current study was essentially limited to Muscat
requires making systems and processes more efficient, and, on the other, city. As can be identified in the work of Tuomi et al. (2020), culture plays
highlighting the quick service time. For the former, systems to reduce a crucial role in the way that people perceive robot service. Therefore,
cooking time, table turnover time, and errors. For the latter, menus could future researchers should replicate this study in various other locations to
mention the preparation time of each item, and timers could be installed confirm the applicability of the results. Lastly, this study followed a cross
at each table to inform the customer of the wait. sectional design, and there might, therefore, be issues concerning result
As novelty seeking influences both experience satisfaction and bias, causality and incidence. As such, future researchers should inves-
experience extension, robot service restaurant managers should target tigate customer satisfaction with robot service restaurants should using
these customers more intensely than others. Advertisements could be longitudinal designs.
made on particular social media and web platforms that discuss tech-
nological innovations and/or uncommon hospitality experiences. Declarations
Moreover, partnerships could be made with other nearby, novelty-
focused, product and service providers. For example, a computer Author contribution statement
gadget shop could offer customers a discount coupon for the robot
service restaurant with every purchase, or a nearby robot service hotel Osman El-Said: Conceived and designed the experiments; Analyzed
could package their accommodation with an experience at the robot and interpreted the data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools
service restaurant. or data; Wrote the paper.
Customer perceptions are particularly important for revisit and Sara Al Hajri: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed
recommendation intentions. Therefore, trust and perceived risk reduc- the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Wrote the paper.
tion of viral infection need to be addressed appropriately. To improve
trust perceptions, robot service restaurant managers should link all of
Funding statement
their online distribution channels to suitable rating and review platforms
(e.g., Trip Advisor, Trustpilot, etc.). Furthermore, positive scores should
The German University of Technology in Oman financed the Article
be highlighted to customers within the restaurant before their experience
Publishing Charges (APC).
begins. For example, when the robot first comes to the guest, reference to
the trustworthiness of the service can be incorporated into a greeting, as
in “Welcome to … Enjoy our 5-star service, as rated on Trip Advisor!“. For Data availability statement
perceived risk reduction of viral infection, managers should ensure that
hygiene procedures are satisfactory, and then make sure to communicate Data will be made available on request.
these measures to all customers. Regarding the former, there are
numerous ways to improve COVID-19 related hygiene in restaurants.
Declaration of interests statement
Regarding the latter, it is crucial that customers understand the protec-
tive measures taken during their dining experience. On arrival at a table,
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
a small video or infographic could be played reviewing all the disinfec-
tion procedures used between each group of diners. Furthermore, when
the robots take orders, they could give a very brief introduction into how Additional information
they are cleaned at each trip to and from the kitchen, as well as the hy-
giene procedures used by the kitchen staff. No additional information is available for this paper.

11
O. El-Said, S. Al Hajri Heliyon 8 (2022) e08986

Acknowledgements Jang, H.W., Lee, S.B., 2020. Serving robots: management and applications for restaurant
business sustainability. Sustainability 12 (10), 3998.
Jang, S.C., Feng, R., 2007. Temporal destination revisit intention: the effects of novelty
The authors would like to thank the German University of Technology seeking and satisfaction. Tourism Manag. 28 (2), 580–590.
in Oman for financing the Article Publishing Charges (APC). Ji, M., Wong, I.A., Eves, A., Scarles, C., 2016. Food-related personality traits and the
moderating role of novelty-seeking in food satisfaction and travel outcomes. Tourism
Manag. 57, 387–396.
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