Part

Writing a coherent
paragraph

Coherence

Coherence is an important quality of good writing. ln a coherent paragraph,

the reader can follow the writer's thoughts easily because:
. all the sentences are ordered logically.
. the transition from one sentence to another is smooth.
o the relationships between ideas are clearly shown.

There are several ways you can make your paragraph coherent:
. Organize supporting sentences in a logical order (See Unit 1, Part 2).
. Use conjunctions to show the relationship between ideas in the same
sentence.
. Use transitional expressions to show the relationship between sentences.
. Use pronouns (See Unit 2, Part 3).
ffi Using conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that combine two or more clauses into one sentence
and show how the clauses relate to each other. For example, some conju nctions
show how two clauses:
. are similar or different.
. have a cause-effect relationship.
. have a chronological (time) relationship.

Clauses
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. There
are two kinds of clauses: independent and dependent.

. An independent clause expresses a complete meaning and can

stand alone as a sentence.
Examples:
Dormitory life involves various constraints.
Some students study abroad.

. A dependent clause does not express a complete meaning and

cannot exist on its own. lt begins with a subordinating
conjunction, and it has to be attached to an independent clause in
order to make a grammatically correct sentence.
Examples:
... although dormitory life involves various constraints.
... because they can develop foreign language skills.

There are two kinds of conjunctions: coordinating and subordinating.

1 . Coordinating coniunctions
The coordinating conjunctions for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so join two
independent clauses. A comma is placed between the first clause and the
coordinating conjunction.

independent clause + comma + coordinating conjunction + independent clause

Working part-time gives students extra spending money, and it helps them
learn about society.
Many smokers know about the risk of smoking, but they still cannot break
the addiction.
 Unitl . Part3

Expresses a reason Marta had to talk to her

(Note: for is more professor to arrange a make-
commonly used as a up exam, for she missed the
preposition) final exam.
Expresses ideas or Students can save money by
things that do not living in a dormitory, and
contrast they can learn skills to get
along with other people.
Expresses negative The room in the dormitory
ideas or things that did not have a private
do not contrast bathroom, nor did it have a
kitchen.

Expresses contrast or Emma wanted to go to a

exceptions university in a different city,
but she decided to go to the
one in her hometown to stay
with her family.
Expresses an Students who live in this
alternative dormitory can cook their
own meal, or they can buy it
at the cafeteria.
Expresses (often Aisha was told that people
unexpected) contrast in big cities were unfriendly,
or exceptions yet she found that they were
as kind as people in her
village.

Expresses There are hundreds of

consequence students in university, so
it seems difficult to make
friends at first.

A Oo not use a coordinating conjunction to begin a sentence in academic

writing.
NOTE: Coordinating conjunctions also join words and phrases (a group of
words that does not contain both a subject and a verb).

Remembe; when the coordinating conjunctions

r join two words or phrases, a comma is not necessary:
Students have ta take advanced reading and writing c/asses thrs
semester.
When having a problem, students can consult the course instructor or gp
to the writing center.
. join three or more words or phrases in a list, commas are used:
When having a problem, students can consult the course instructor. check
the course syllabus. or qo to the writing center.
Choose coordinating conjunctions to complete the following sentences.
Add a comma when necessary.

'1. Everyone in our class gets along really well preparing for the
group presentation was easy.

2. Kaori started to attend free classes at the Writing Center she

had received poor grades on her essays in the first semester.

3. -
Wirat's economics professor is very easy-going during lectures
he seems annoyed answering students' questions.

4. Essays can be submitted directlyto myoffice-theycan be emailed

to me as a pdf file.

5. The cost of tuition living arrangements are significant factors

when students decide where to attend university.

5. At first, Kyung-Eun had planned to join the tennis club she

joined the volunteer society instead.

7. Lin thought his family would distract him from his studies - too much
he decided to study at a university in another city.

8. To receive a'lOYodiscount, students have to prr.h"r"nthe college's meal

vouchers by the month by the semester.

9. Students may not speak during the exam may they use a
dictionary.

10. Trang did not study very hard for the exam he got the highest
mark in the class.

2. Subordinating coniunctions
When subordinating coniunctions begin a clause, the clause becomes
dependent. All dependent clauses:
. must be connected to an independent clause in one sentence.
. can be placed before or after the independent clause.
lf the dependent clause is before the independent clause, a comma is used:

subordinating conjunction + subject + verb + comma + independent clause

dependent clause

Because parking space is often limited in universities, very few students go to

school by car.
Although many smokers know about the risk of smoking, they still cannot
break the addiction.
 Unitl . Part3
lf the dependent clause is after the independent clause, a comrna is not
necessary:

independent clause subordinating conjunction + subject + verb

dependent clause

Very few university students in large cities go to school by car because parking
space on campuses is limited.
Many smokers cannot break the addiction although they know about the risk
of smoking.

Common subordinating conjunctions incl ude the fol lowing:

a similar idea

an opposite or contrasting idea although, even though, whereas,

while
a cause or reason

a condition
a time relationship after, as, as soon as, before, since,
until, when, while

Note that some subordinating conjunctions have more than one function:
While dormitory life involves various constraints, it also brings numerous
benefits to students. (showing an opposite idea)
While the professor was talking, the students were listening and taking
notes. (showing a time relationship)

See Appendix B (page 120) for a complete list of conjunctions.

Circle the best conjunction.

1. Some students study abroad (even though / because / so that) they are
interested in the culture of the country.

2. Studying abroad develops students' language skills, (and / but / so) it gives
them an opportunity to live in a different culture.

3. (As / Although / lf) people realize the dangers of smoking, the number of
non-smokers is increasing.

4. Students who live in a dormitory have to accept many restrictions, (and /

but / or) they can learn social skills that might be useful in the future.

5. (Since / lf / While) students have much more personal freedom by living

alone, they are also responsible for doing all the housework.
6. Social networking sites are interesting and easy to use, (but / or / so) they
have rapidly become popular among young people.

7. Many students carry their cell phones all the time (after / so that / unless)
they can keep in touch with their friends.

8. (Because / lf /
Unless) many governments take action to stop global
warming, the problem will continue to worsen.

Choose one of the following subordinating conjunctions to complete the

sentences.

ds, although, since, while, so that, if, whereas, unless

1. most fathers feel obliged to work full-time, not many choose to

stay home and raise their children.

2. Students are encouraged to submit their study abroad applications now

any problems can be solved before the deadline.

3. Along with his famous Ninth Symphony, many of Beethoven's later piano
works were also composed he was deaf.

4. soccer is loved around the world] it is still not popular in many

parts of North America.

5. lndia's population exceeds one billion does China's.

6. the health benefits of drinking tea are widely accepted, the

possible benefits of drinking coffee are still being debated.

7. Attending university and working full-time will be difficult the

student has high motivation and excellent time-management skills.

8. global warming continues, it could contribute -to the mass

extinction of many animal species worldwide.
 Unitl . Part3

Jointwo of the following sentences with a coordinating or subordinating

conjunction to make logical sentences. Use commas correctly.

Example:
Because underage drinking can lead to serious health problems, stores are
prohibited from selling alcohol to minors.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
Using transitional expressions

Transitional expressions are words and phrases that show the last sentence is
related to sentences that come before it. They can be categorized into several
groups according to their function.

Most transitional expressions are adverbs or adverbial phrases. They are often
used at the beginning of a sentence, followed by a comma. Some transitional
expressions, however; are noun phrases (adjectives + noun) and are used as a
subject.

1. Listing ideas (first, second, finally)

First, students whose homes are close enough to school often live with
their families. Second, students who live too far away from school to
commute might move into a dormitory.

2. Adding an idea (also, another, in addition, moreover)

People with university degrees tend to find better-paying jobs than those
without them. ln addition, some universities provide their students with
opportunities to acquire practical skills that can be useful in the real
world.

3. Showing a similar idea (like ..., likewise, similarly)

Students who live with their parents can depehd on them for cooking.
Similarly, those who live in a dormitory do not have to cook because many
d o rm ito ri es h ave cafete r i as.

4. Showing an opposite or contrasting idea (however, in contrast, on the

other hand, unlike ...)

Students who live with their parents can depend on them to do

housework. ln contrast, those who live alone have to do all the
housework by themselves, even when they are busy.

5. Showing an effect or result (as a result, because of, therefore, thus)

People with university degrees tend to find better-paying iobs than

those withaut them. Therefore, many parents wish to send their children
to university.

6. Showing an example (for example, for instance)

The latest technologies and applications have made communication

instant. For example, people who live on opposite sides of the world can
be in contact all day through portable devices.

7. Concluding or summarizing (in short, in conclusion, to sum up, to

summarize)

To sum up, students go to university for a variety of reasons: to study a

particular field, to find a good job, or to make friends.
 Unitl . Part3

Note that the transitional expressions on the last page are followed by a
comma. The following transitional phrases are not followed by a comma:
Another common reason for going to university is that college education
often /eads to a better career in the future.
The last advantage of working part-time is that students can learn about
different occupations through their jobs.
See Appendix C (page 121) for a complete list of transitional expressions.

Fill in the blanks with appropriate transitional expressions and commas.

1. School cafeterias are always crowded, and restaurants outside the

campus are expensive. many students bring a lunch
from home.

2. Eating fish regularly has numerous health benefits.

fatty acids contained in fish reduce the risk of cancer and heart disease.
eating fish helps maintain eyesight and makes bones
stronger.

3. small universities can provide students with a friendly atmosphere and

personalized care. large schools can offer a wide
selection of courses and extra-curricular activities.

4. Tennis is played both individually and in pairs, and requires players to hit
a ball over a net. table tennis has singles and doubles
and involves players hitting a ball over a net.

5. Many people believe that having eight hours of sleep every day is ideal
for maintaining theirhealth. research has found a
higher death rate among people who sleep eight hours or longer every
day than among people who sleep six or seven hours daily.

5. Backpacking overseas is an interesting and attractive way for students

tospend their vacations. lt gives them a chance to see the world and
experience other cultures. many students enjoy
meeting local residents and other travelers.

Avoiding run-on sentences and sentence fragments

Run-on sentences and sentence fragments are two common types of sentence
structure errors. They often occur when a writer misuses a conjunction or
transitiona I expression.

1. Run-on sentences
A run'on sentence is made up of two (or more) sentences joined without a
conjunction. sometimes the two sentences have been joined incorrectly with
only a comma in between:
X Becoming a university student is an entirely new experience. some people
adapt quickly while others struggle to fit in.
Another common mistake is to join two sentences with a transitional
expression. Transitional expressions are not conjunctions; they cannot combine
two sentences into one.
X People with university degrees tend to find better-paying jobs than those
without them, therefore. many parents wish to send their children to
universities.

To correct a run-on sentence, do one of the following:

. Break it into two separate sentences.
. Use a conjunction.

{ Becoming a university student is an entirely new experience. As a result,

some people adapt quickly while others struggle to fit in.

{ Because becoming a university student is an entirely new experience,

some people adapt quickly while others struggle to fit in.

/ People with university degrees tend to find better-paying jobs than

those without them. Therefore, many parents wish to send their children
to universities.
{ People with university degrees tend to find better-paying jobs than those
without them, so many parents wish to send their children to universities.

2. Sentence fragments
Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences. They are often missing a
subject or a verb, or both:
X There are a variety of clubs in most universities. For example. sports
teams. drama clubs. and music groups.

Sentence fragments like the following have a subject and a verb. HoweveL
they are not complete sentences because conjunctions are used incorrectly.
As you learned in the previous section, conjunctions are words that join two
clauses, so do not use a conjunction with only one clause.

X Working part-time gives students extra spending money. And helps them
learn about society.

X Very few students in large cities go to school by car. Because parking

space on campuses is limited.

To correct a sentence fragment, do one of the following:

. Make it a complete sentence by adding the missing words.
. Use atransitional expression instead of a conjunction.
o Connect the sentence fragment to a nearby sentence.

{ There are a variety of clubs in most universities. For example, sports

teams, drama clubs, and music groups can be found in almost every
school.

{ There are a variety of clubs in most universities, such as sports teams,

drama clubs, and music groups.
 Unitl r Part3

{ Working part-time gives students extra spending money. Moreover, it

helps them learn about society.

{ Working part-time gives students extra spending money, and it helps them
learn about society.

I Very few students in large cities go to school by car. This is because parking
space on campuses is limited.

,/ Very few students in large cities go to school by car because parking space
on campuses is limited.

Some of the following sentences are correct, but some are run-on sentences
or sentence fragments. ldentify these sentences and correct them.

'1. University internship programs are extremely popular because they

provide valuable work experience.

2. Many students use their vacation time to do something they cannot

usually do. For example, getting a job, taking a trip, and learning to drive.

3. By working part-time, students can earn extra money and learn about
society. Although working while attending school is sometimes stressful.

4. One advantage of living alone is that it gives complete freedom to

students, another advantage is that students can become independent.

5. Computers are essential tools in today's education. Even elementary

school children are using them.

5. Email makes communication faster and cheaper; howevel it decreases

the opportunities for face-to-face communication.

7. Rent is extremely high in many large cities. So, many students choose to
live with their parents.

8. By studying abroad, students can learn about the culture of another

country, and they can gain self-confidence.