Application Note

Understanding Directivity
Vector Network Analyzer Measurements
Models 37000X, MS4620X
Lightning™ and Scorpion™ Vector Network Analyzer

Introduction
In order to measure the quality of the impedance match of a test device (VSWR or Return Loss), the incident signal must be
separated from the reflected signal. Separation of the two signals is performed by directional devices and the accuracy of the
measurement is determined by the directivity of the directional devices. Directivity is defined as the ratio of the leakage of
the incident signal to the desired reflected signal. The lower the leakage signal, the higher the directivity and the better the
accuracy of the reflection measurement. Two devices that may be used to separate the two signals are the resistive bridge and
directional coupler. This paper discusses the use and application of directional devices for impedance measurements and the
factors that contribute to reflection measurement uncertainty. Additional information on Vector Network Analyzer (VNA)
measurements can be obtained in other Anritsu Application Notes.
Directional Devices
The resistive bridge is constructed using the Wheatstone
bridge principle. The resistive network of the Wheatstone
bridge is constructed such that when a perfect 50 Ohm
resistive device is connected at one leg, the bridge network is
balanced. The output of the bridge is an RF signal whose 97A50
amplitude is proportional to the match of the device under
test (DUT); the better the match, the lower the RF amplitude.
A variation on the Wheatstone bridge principle is the
inclusion of a built-in detector which provides a DC output
rather than RF. Anritsu pioneered this concept, known as an
Autotester (Figure 1). Advantages of the Autotester are wider
frequency coverage with improved directivity and the
elimination of the need for an external detector. When
compared to a coupler, the Autotester and bridge offer an
advantage in size since the coupled lines of the coupler must
be extremely long at lower frequencies. The frequency range
of an Autotester can cover from 10 MHz to 50 GHz with up
to 40 dB directivity. For maximum performance, Anritsu 560-97N50-1

balances the Autotester over the specified frequency range

with specific test port connectors for different applications.
Note that adding adapters to the test port upsets the bridge
balance and degrades directivity considerably, even when a
high quality adapter is used. Another advantage of resistive
bridges and Autotesters is that they typically have an
insertion loss of about 6 dB which helps reduce re-reflections
from the source. Low-loss directional devices (e.g. couplers),
allow re-reflections between the source and DUT thereby
increasing measurement uncertainty.
Directional couplers can provide very high directivity
performance especially when designed for narrow-band
applications. Coupler directivity is a function of the line
spacing and electrical length of the lines. One benefit of the
coupler is the insertion loss of the through path is very low.
Low insertion loss provides better dynamic range. However,
the low insertion loss does not reduce the re-reflections from
the generator which can lead to an increase in measurement
uncertainty. Directional couplers can be used to 110 GHz
and beyond. Figure 1. Anritsu Autotesters

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Directional Device Performance
So how does the undesired directivity signal, which is always
present to some degree, impact return loss measurements?
The degree of impact depends on the relative amplitudes and
phase angle between the reflected signal from the DUT and
signal present due to directivity. This is the case regardless of Er

whether the instrument used to perform the measurement is a

Edir

scalar analyzer, a vector analyzer, or a spectrum analyzer

with a tracking generator. Consider the two signals shown in
Resultant (SWR measurement)

Figure 2.
The reflection signal from the DUT is represented by Er and Figure 2. Interaction between the reflected signal and the directivity leakage signal.

the undesired directivity signal from the directional device is

represented by Edir. While Edir and Er are shown as a voltage, the figure could have been drawn using power where Pr and
Pdir are calculated from E2/R. Units of dB are used for return loss measurements. Voltage, as shown above is used for
standing wave ratio.
As the frequency is swept, Edir and Er will add and cancel causing variations in the observed signal (Figure 3). Since factors
that determine the phase relationship between the two vectors, such as directivity and performance of the DUT, vary over
frequency, the resultant vector is random resulting in measurement uncertainty. When performing this measurement at a
single frequency, the same uncertainty applies; one cannot determine if the measurement is at the minimum, the maximum, or
somewhere in between.

Reference Plane
Directional Device

+ or –
Short Measurement
Uncertainty

Edir Er
Edir +
–

Directivity

Edir Er Er

Figure 3. Measurement uncertainty as a result of directivity signal interaction.

The closer the directivity (Edir) is to the reflected signal (Er) in amplitude, the greater the peak to peak excursion and the
higher the uncertainty. The min and max excursions of the resultant occur when the relative phase angles are 0 and 180 degrees.
Taken to the limit where Edir and Er are exactly the same amplitude, the resultant measurement uncertainty will be at the
extreme. When the two equal magnitude signals are in phase, the resultant voltage vector will double, and power will
increase by a factor of four. This translates into a 6 dB reduction in return loss measurement.

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When the signals are 180 degrees out of phase (and subtract) the result is “0 V”. Since we are measuring the amplitude of the
reflected signal and we see no signal return, the device appears to be perfectly matched (Return Loss is infinite). In practical
terms, there is a signal display as the result of noise floor and other leakages. Note the asymmetry of the min and max levels.
This is borne out further by the asymmetry of the two values shown in the Return Loss Uncertainty Chart Figure 4.

4.00
dB dB dB dB dB dB
3.00 20 25 30 35 40 45
dB
2.00 50

0.8 1.00

0.00
-0.9 -1.00
50
-2.00 dB

-3.00

35
20

25

30

40

45
dB
d
d

dB

dB
d
B
B

B
-4.00
0 10 dB 20 dB 30 dB 40 dB

Figure 4. Return Loss Uncertainty Chart. 20 dB Return Loss measured with 40 dB directivity = -0.9 dB worst case measurement uncertainty.

Rule of thumb: when the directivity (Edir) is 20 dB lower than the level of the DUT (Er), the resultant min / max varies by
nearly ± 1 dB. While this may not be an ideal situation, it is a common level of uncertainty for return loss measurements.
For this reason, it is imperative that the directivity be maintained as high as possible, especially when measuring devices with
return loss greater than 20 dB (requiring Directivity > 40 dB to maintain the ± 1 dB uncertainty). Directivity much greater
than 42 dB is unrealistic to maintain over a wide bandwidth.
The rate of change in the relative angle between Er and Edir is a function of the frequency span and/or the electrical length
separating the directivity signal from the DUT. Plotting the measurement with a long electrical length separating the
directivity signal from the DUT produces a display with a prominent ripple pattern. This phenomenon can be used at an
advantage to visually or mathematically separate the directivity error signal from the measurement signal of interest and
thereby improve the effective directivity. This process, known as the ripple technique and pioneered by Anritsu, is used to
achieve >40 dB directivity in a production environment.

Determining Reflection Measurement Accuracy

The Return Loss Uncertainty Chart (Figure 4) provides a quick method of determining measurement uncertainty for different
devices. To use the chart, find the measured return loss of the device on the X axis at the bottom of the graph, move up to the
first intersection of the directivity (stamped on the bridge/coupler or determined from VNA data sheet) and read the
corresponding “min” on the Y axis. Continue moving up the measured return loss until intersecting the directivity again, and
read the corresponding “max” on the Y axis. This min/max range is the return loss measurement uncertainty. Figure 4
demonstrates that the greater the separation between the directivity and the reflected signal, the lower the uncertainty. These
curves, plotted in dB, can be mathematically translated to determine SWR uncertainty.

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Vector Network Analyzer Directivity
Due to instrument complexity and wide range of frequency coverage, uncorrected VNA directivity performance is often less
than typically required. In order to improve the directivity performance of the VNA, vector error correction techniques are
utilized. Calibration techniques using known devices such as a Short, Open, Load, and Thru (i.e. SOLT calibration), can be
used to identify the error vectors in the system. During the measurement, these error vectors are extracted and thereby
improve measurement accuracy. Various calibration techniques are stored in the Anritsu VNA to facilitate the calibration
process. Depending on the type of algorithm used and the quality of the calibration devices, system performance such as
directivity can be vastly improved. While SOLT is a common algorithm used due to the availability of calibration
components, advanced methods such as LRL/LRM can provide even further increase in measurement accuracy. In fact, using
the LRL/LRM technique together with the only commercially available coaxial LRL calibration kit, the Anritsu Model 3657
Multiple-line Cal Kit, corrected directivity of 50 dB at 40 GHz is achieved.

Uncorrected (Raw) Directivity

Since directivity of a coupler is defined as the ratio of the forward leakage signal to the reflected signal of a short attached to
the test port, a reduction in the amplitude of the reflected signal will reduce the directivity of the coupler. If a lossy cable is
attached to the test port of the VNA in order to extend the location of the test port, then the loss of the cable will result in an
attenuation of the test signal and thereby degrade directivity. Since this occurs before calibration the result is a decrease in
the uncorrected directivity of the system.
Although the reduced uncorrected directivity can still be calibrated to the same performance level of a normal uncorrected system,
the reduced ratio of the two signals will have an impact on calibration and measurement stability. Notice in Figure 5 how the
loss of the cable reduces the amplitude of the test signal and consequently reduces the ratio of the test signal to the directivity
signal. Even though the error signal is identified and subtracted by the calibration process, consider the case when the test
cable is moved after calibration. Any phase change in the measurement signal will affect the phase relationship between the
two signals. Now that the two signals are closer in amplitude the percent variation between the two signals will be much
larger. Since this change in phase interaction between the two signals cannot be predicted or modeled, it will have a direct
impact on the stability of the calibration. The result is an unstable calibration whenever the cable is moved. This is why even
though the VNA calibration process corrects for system directivity, it is best to locate the DUT as close to the system
directional device as possible, especially at higher frequencies where insertion loss and phase shifting is most pronounced.

Reference Plane
Directional Device

2X Insertion Loss Short

Edir Er

Directivity

Edir Er Cable loss degrades directivity. Error vector interaction is

a much larger percentage. Phase changes after calibration
(e.g. cable movement) results in significant measurement
instability.

Figure 5. Moving test port away from the directional device decreases calibration stability

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Additional Directional Device Considerations
• Directional devices fall into two main categories: directional resistive bridges (lumped elements) and directional couplers
(distributed elements). While all four ports are designed to operate in a 50 Ohm environment, Port 3 is generally supplied
with a 50 Ohm termination permanently attached when the device is to be used to measure Return Loss/SWR.
• Coupling ratio should not be confused with directivity. Coupling ratio (dB) is the nominal level of the signal at the coupled
port. In Figure 6 below, Port I is shown as the port to which the signal is applied. At Port 3 a reduced level of the signal at
Port I is present, reduced by the coupling ratio (10, 20, 30 dB coupling ratios are typical coupling ratios for directional
couplers). Directivity, on the other hand, is the level of the signal which appears at Port 4 and is undesired. It is due to
inherent imbalances in directional devices. Port 4 is the port which provides the reflected measurement (Return Loss/
VSWR), when the device is configured with the DUT connected to Port 2.

Port 1 (E Source) Port 2 E Incident*

Directional Device

Port 3 (E Coupled) Port 4 (E Reflected)

* Incident signal is incident to the device under test for reflection measurements

- Port 1 is connected to the source generator

- Insertion Loss (dB) = 20 log (E Incident / E Source) = 10 log P Incident / P Source
- Coupling Ratio (dB) = 20 log (E Coupled / E Source) = 10 Log P Coupled / P Source**

** Coupling Ratio (dB) for ports 2 and 4 are calculated in similar manner when Port 2 is the driven port.

Figure 6. Four port directional device

• Directivity requires two measurements at Port 4: one with Port 2 terminated in a perfect termination and one with a perfect
short. Since the coupling ratio is the same for the short and termination, it does not enter the calculation for directivity.
Note that when measuring the short, coupler match will have an affect on accuracy.
Directivity = 20 log E reflected short / E reflected perfect termination or
Port 4 (dBm) short minus Port 4 (dBm) perfect termination
For example, the reflection port (Port 4) of a directional coupler measures -20 dBm when Port 2 is terminated with a short
and -55 dBm with a perfect termination, the directivity is simply the difference of the two, 35 dB.
• Keep in mind that when the directional device has low insertion loss, the reflected signal from Port 2 can traverse back to
the source where it may be reflected back to Port 2 causing ripples in the data. Waveguide couplers are notorious for re-
reflections due to their extremely low loss and special techniques should be employed for testing waveguide.

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