1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS

1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work

Good to Know

• Manual tasks usually consist of a work cycle that is : • There is no clear boundary
between repetitive and
nonrepetitive work.
• Repeated with some degree of similarity, and
• When referring to repetitive
• Each cycle usually corresponds to the processing of work cycles, we usually
mean a cycle time of a few
one work unit. minutes or less, and the
motion patterns are intended
to be identical for every
• Repetitive and Nonrepetitive Work cycle, so that cycle-to-cycle
variations in time and work
content tend to be random.
Time Similarity
Repetitive Short Similar Trainer

Nonrepetitive Long Not Similar

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know

• Repetitive or not, the task can be divided into work • There is no clear boundary
between repetitive and
elements that consist of logical groupings of nonrepetitive work.
• When referring to repetitive
motions performed by the worker. work cycles, we usually
mean a cycle time of a few
minutes or less, and the
• The cycle time Tc = motion patterns are intended
to be identical for every
cycle, so that cycle-to-cycle
Number of work variations in time and work
elements into which content tend to be random.
the cycle is divided.
Trainer

Time of
Work Work
Element Element K

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know
Example 1 • There is no clear boundary
between repetitive and
• An assembly worker performs a repetitive manual nonrepetitive work.
task consisting of inserting 8 plastic pegs into 8 holes • When referring to repetitive
work cycles, we usually mean a
in a flat wooden board. cycle time of a few minutes or
less, and the motion patterns
• A slight interference fit is involved in each insertion. are intended to be identical for
every cycle, so that cycle-to-
• The worker holds the board in one hand and picks cycle variations in time and
work content tend to be
up the pegs from a tray with the other hand and random.
inserts them into the holes, one peg at a time.
• The workplace layout is shown in Figure 2 (a), and Trainer
the sequence of work elements is given in the table
below.
• Calculate Cycle Time
• Can the work method be improved in order to reduce the
cycle time?

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know

• Solution • There is no clear boundary

between repetitive and
nonrepetitive work.
• Calculate Cycle Time • When referring to repetitive
work cycles, we usually mean a
cycle time of a few minutes or
less, and the motion patterns
are intended to be identical for
every cycle, so that cycle-to-
cycle variations in time and
work content tend to be
random.

Trainer

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know

• Solution • One of the primary

objectives in work
• Can the work method be improved in order design is to
to reduce the cycle time? determine the one
best method to
minimize the time
for the task, and then
to standardize its
use in the workplace.

Trainer
• The cycle time is reduced from 0.62 min to
0.37 min, a reduction of 40%,
• This reduction corresponds to an increase in
production rate of almost 68%. (review LPR,
LPI in Chapter 1)

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know

• Normal Time and Standard Time. • Variability is

• Once the work cycle and associated method are defined, the actual time taken for a inherent in any
given manual cycle is a variable. Variation reasons include: repetitive human
activity, and this
variability is
manifested in the
time to perform
Differences in worker
Variations in hand and body Variations in the starting work
the activity.
performance from one cycle to Worker blunders and bungles
motions units
the next
Trainer

Differences in the physical and Variations in the methods used

Inclusion of extra elements that
cognitive attributes among by different workers to perform The learning curve phenomenon.
are not performed every cycle
workers performing the task the task

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know
• Worker Performance:
• The pace or relative speed with which the worker does the task • A common
• As worker performance increases, the time to accomplish the work cycle decreases. benchmark of
normal
• Normal performance (or normal pace) means a pace of working that can be maintained by a properly performance is
trained average worker throughout an entire work shift without deleterious short-term or long-term effects on
the worker’s health or physical well-being. walking on level
• When a worker works at a normal performance level, we say he or she is working at 100% performance.
ground at three
• The term standard performance is often used in place of normal performance. They both refer to the same
miles per hour.
pace while working, but standard performance acknowledges that periodic rest breaks are included in the
work shift. Trainer

• When a work cycle is performed at 100% performance, the time taken is called the normal time for the cycle.
• The actual time to perform the work cycle is a function of the worker’s performance as indicated in the equation
• Tc = actual cycle time, Tn = normal time, Pw = pace of performance, compared to normal performance %

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know

Example 2 • There are various types

of work systems used
• A man walks 1.85 miles in the early morning for health and fitness. in production, services,
offices, projects, and
other work situations.
• A typical time to walk the 1.85 miles is 30 min. • All of these work
systems utilize the
• Use the benchmark of 3 miles/hr as normal performance physical and mental
capabilities of humans.
• (a) how long the route would take at normal performance and
• (b) the man’s performance when he completes the route in 30 min.
Trainer

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know

• Solution • For part (b), we

• (a) how long the route would take at normal performance and could determine
the man’s velocity
• 3 miles ➔ 1 hr and compare it to
• 1.85 miles ➔ ? the benchmark of
• At 3 miles/hr, 1.85 miles can be covered in 1.85/3.0 = 0.6167 hr or 37 min 3.0 miles/hr in
• (b) the man’s performance when he completes the route in 30 min. order to determine
his performance.
Trainer

Tn 37
• Pw = = = 1.23 = 123%
Tc 30

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know
• Standard Work • The employer allows these
A typical work shift is eight hours (e.g., 8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M) breaks because it has been
found that the overall
productivity of the worker
during the shift is greater if rest
breaks are provided.
Lunch
Break 1hr • More work is accomplished by
the end of the day and fewer
mistakes are made if the
Rest Breaks worker can take time out
periodically from the normal
• The total time actually worked during the shift will be less than the full eight hours due to work routine.
the work breaks and other interruptions such as (equipment breakdown, receiving
instructions, personal calls, etc.)
• To account for these delays and rest breaks, an allowance is added to the normal time in Trainer

order to determine an “allowed time” for the worker to perform the task throughout the
shift.
• Standard Time ➔ Tstd = Tn(1 + Apfd), Apfd ➔ Allowance factor (personal, fatigue, delay)
• Manual work cycles often include irregular work elements, which are elements
performed with a frequency of less than once per cycle. These cycles are also should be
accounted for, in the normal time

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know

Example 3 : Standard Time and Standard Output • More work is

accomplished by the
• The normal time to perform the regular work cycle for a certain manual end of the day and
fewer mistakes are
operation is 3.23 min. made if the worker
can take time out
• In addition, an irregular work element whose normal time is 1.25 min must periodically from the
normal work routine.
be performed every 5 cycles. The PFD allowance factor is 15%.
• Determine
Trainer
(a) the standard time and
(b) how many work units are produced if the worker’s performance in an 8-hour shift
is standard.

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know

(a) the standard time • More work is

accomplished by the
• Standard Time ➔ Tstd = Tn(1 + Apfd) end of the day and
fewer mistakes are
• Tn = 3.23 + 1.25/5 = 3.48, for a cycle, including the irregular element made if the worker
• Tstd = 3.48 * (1+0.15) = 4.00 min can take time out
periodically from the
(b) how many work units are produced if the worker’s performance in an 8- normal work routine.
hour shift is standard
8 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 × 60𝑚𝑖𝑛
• Qstd = = 120 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 Trainer
4

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know

Example 4 : Determining Lost Time Due to the Allowance Factor • More work is
accomplished by the
• Determine the anticipated amount of time lost per 8-hour shift when an end of the day and
fewer mistakes are
allowance factor of 15% is used, as in the previous example. made if the worker
can take time out
Solution periodically from the
normal work routine.
• 8.0 hr =(actual time worked) x(1 + 0.15)
• Actual time worked = 8.0 / 1.15 = 6.956 hr
• Time lost = 8.0 - 6.956 = 1.044 hr Trainer

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know

Example 5 : Production Rate When Worker Performance Exceeds 100% • When a worker works at a
performance level greater than
100% and his or her actual
• How many work units would be produced if the worker’s average performance time worked during the shift is
consistent with or greater than
during an 8-hour shift were 125%, during the 6.956 hours what is provided by the
allowance factor,
Solution • then the number of standard
hours accomplished will be
• Based on the normal time Tn = 3.48 min, the actual cycle time with a worker greater than the number of
hours in the shift.
performance of 125% is
3.48
• 𝑇𝑐 = = 2.78 𝑚𝑖𝑛
1.25 Trainer

• The corresponding production units (Rp – daily production rate)

6.956 (60)
• 𝑅𝑝 = = 150 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
2.78
(150 units = 125% of 120 units at 100% performance

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know

• Standard Hours (Hstd) • When a worker works at a

performance level greater than
100% and his or her actual
• Represents the amount of work actually accomplished by the worker, converted time worked during the shift is
consistent with or greater than
into time. what is provided by the
allowance factor,
• Hstd = Q x Tstd • then the number of standard
hours accomplished will be
• Worker Efficiency (Ew) greater than the number of
hours in the shift.
𝐻𝑠𝑡𝑑
• 𝐸𝑤 = , Hsh is the actual worked hour / shift
𝐻𝑠ℎ
Trainer

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 1 MANUAL WORK SYSTEMS
1.2 Cycle Time Analysis of Manual Work
Good to Know

Example 6 : Standard Hours and Worker Efficiency • Worker

performance and
• For the worker performance of 125% in the previous example (Tstd = 4.00 worker efficiency
min), determine are different if the
time lost is
(a) number of standard hours produced and different from
what is accounted
• Hstd = 150(4.0 min) = 600 min = 10.0 hr for by the PFD
(b) worker efficiency. allowance factor
• E = (10.0 hr)/(8.0 hr) = 1.25 = 125%
w Trainer

In reality, the number of hours actually worked by a worker in an 8-hour shift

varies each day, depending on the amount of time lost due to personal
reasons, rest breaks, and delays.

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