INTRODUCTION

A. DEFINITION

What is Ethics?

 Ethics is from the Greek word “ethos” which means custom or a manner of acting and behaving. Mores
is the root word of morality that means custom or practice. This might be the reason that ethics and
morality are used interchangeably. However, there is a thin line that makes the two terms different from
one another. Ethics is focused on the general principle, rules and theories on determining what is right
on wrong. While morality is the praxis, the application of those principles ( Fernandez, 2012)

 Ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos, which means “a characteristics way of acting”. Now the
characteristics mark of human conduct is found in the free and deliberate use of the will: in a word, this
characteristics is found in human acts. Thus, we perceive that the name Ethics is suitably employed to
designate the science of human acts, of human conducts. – The Latin word mos ( stem: mor-) is the
equivalent of the Greek ethos. Hence we understand why Ethics is sometimes called Moral Science or
Moral Philosophy.
 Ethics is a science of human conduct. By human conduct we mean only such human activity as is
deliberate and free. A deliberate and free act, an act performed with advertence and motive, an act
determined (i.e. chosen and given existence) by the free will, is called a human act. Acts preformed by
human beings without advertence, or without the exercise of free choice, are called acts of man, but
they are not human acts in the technical sense of that expression which is here employed. Ethics treats
of human acts; human acts make human conduct: Ethics is therefore a science of human conduct.

 Ethics is the science of the morality of human conduct. Human conduct is free, knowing, deliberate
human activity. Such activity is either in agreement or disagreement with the dictates of reason. Now
the relation (agreement or disagreement) of human activity to determine what it must be to stand in
harmony with the dictates of reasons. Hence, Ethics deals with the morality of human conduct.

What is morality?

Morality is a system of beliefs about what is right behaviour and wrong behaviour (Rubin, 2015).
Morality deals with how a person relates with others and with the world to promote what is good (Thiroux
and Kraseman, 2009). In his book, Elements of Moral Philosophy, Dr. James Rachels asserted that at the
very least morality is the effort to one’s conduct by reason – to act based on the best reasons for doing –
while giving equal weight to the interests of each individual affected by one’s decision.

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B. OBJECT

EVERY SCIENCE HAS A MATERIAL OBJECT AND A FORMAL OBJECT.

The Material Object is the subject-matter of the science: the thing, or things, with which the Science
deals. The Material Object of Ethics is human acts, that is to say, human conduct.

The Formal Object of a science is the special way, aim, or point of view that the science employs in
studying or dealing with its Material Object. Now, Ethics studies human acts (its Material Object) to
discover what these must be in order to agree with the dictates of reason. Hence the special aim and point of
view of Ethics is the right morality, or rectitude, of human acts. We assert, then, that the Formal Object of
Ethics is the rectitude of human acts.

C. IMPORTANCE

Ethics employs the marvellous faculty of human reason upon the supremely important question of what
an upright life is and must be. It is therefore a noble and important science.

The principles of Ethics are in perfect harmony with the morality of Christianity, and this fact appeals to
many minds when employed as a means of approach to the demonstration of the truth of the Catholic
Religion. Faulty ethical theories, as well as the lack of definite ethical principles, have been and are still the
cause of great disorders in the political and social world. Ethics is therefore a science deserving of careful
study.

D. DIVISION

Ethics has two divisions, to wit: General Ethics and Applied or Special Ethics.

The first deal with morality of the human act that mainly focuses on the basic concepts. On the other
hand, the second division refers to the application of the moral principles, standards and norms in various
specific areas of human life and activity. Ethics is then both a theory and practice. One has to know the
theories or ethical principles of knowing what is right and wrong and good and bad action. However, one
has to translate these theories into actions. Knowing what is right without changing the way one’s behave
morally is a useless knowledge (Fernandez, 2012) Moral principles must have following characteristics:

1. Prescriptivity – refers to the action-guiding nature of morality. The principles should intend to guide
and direct people what to do or should not do. Like “obey your parent” or “thou shall not kill”

2. Impartially – means that moral rule should be neutral. It should apply to anyone regardless of status
or situation.

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 3. Overridingness – should mean that moral principles should tower over all other norms or standards
of evaluation. They must have hegemonic authority. Therefore, should be given primary and ultimate
importance.

4. Autonomous from Arbitrary Authority – moral standards should be independent, hence be able to
stand on its own. Regardless of what the majority says or decides, something is moral or immoral.

5. Publicity – since moral standard guide people what to do, they should be made public, Reason
dictates that rules are made and promulgated to advice as well as praise or blame certain actions

6. Practicability – rules are made for men to follow. Hence, moral standards exist in which human
beings are capable of doing. Otherwise, if they are too heavy it will be impossible for individuals to obey in
which it may result for men to do another act that is illicit in order to obey the norms set forth.

It is important to determine on what kind of act which man is morally accountable and responsible.
There are two acts: act of man and human act.

 A HUMAN ACT is an act which proceeds from the deliberate free will of man. It refers to those acts of
which man has no control. Those actions which are within the control of man like walking, talking,
thinking, eating and biting are examples of the latter. It is deliberate, hence, voluntary act.
In a wide sense, the term human act means any sort of activity, internal or external, bodily or
spiritual, performed by a human being. Ethics, however, employs the term in a stricter sense, and calls
human only those acts that are proper to man as man. Now man is an animal, and he has many activities
in common with brutes. Thus, man feels, hears, sees, employs the senses of tastes and smell, and is
influenced by bodily tendencies or appetites. But man is more than animal; he is rational, that is to say,
he has understanding and free will. Hence it is only the act that proceeds from the knowing and freely
willing human being that has the full character of a human act. Such an act alone is proper to man as
man. And therefore Ethics understands by human acts only those acts that proceed from a deliberate
(i.e., advertent, knowing) and freely willing human being.

 Man’s animal acts of sensation (i.e., use of the senses) and appetition (i.e., bodily tendencies) , as well
as acts that man performs indeliberately or without advertence and the exercise of free choice, are called
ACTS OF MAN. Therefore, it is involuntary act. Like emotions, circulation of the blood, the pumping
of the heat, grinding of the stomach and breathing. Thus, such acts as are affected in sleep, in delirium,
in the state of unconsciousness; acts performed in infancy; acts due to infirmity of mind or the
weakness of senility - all these are acts of man, but they are not human acts.

EXAMPLE

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 It is to be noticed that acts which are in themselves acts of man may sometimes become human acts
by the advertence and consent of the human agent (and by agent is meant the one who does or
performs an act). Thus, if I hear words of blasphemy as I walk along the street, my act of hearing is
an act of man; but the act becomes a human act if I deliberately pay attention and listen. Again, my
eyes may fall upon an indecent sight, or upon a page of obscene reading matter. The act of seeing,
and even of reading and understanding the words, is an act of man; but it becomes a human act at the
moment I deliberately consent to look or read.

There are three essential elements of act of man and human act:

(1) Knowledge – where the doer is aware of what he/she is doing; obviously, one cannot hold a person
fully responsible for something that he or she is not aware of. But if he does an action with
awareness, that is, doing the action knowingly, then the issue of moral responsibility is inevitable. It
is because the action knowingly, then the issue of moral responsibility is inevitable. It is because the
action has been acted upon within the level of the person’s awareness, thus, what he does is a human
act which can either be moral or immoral. Without the knowledge of the doer, the act is ordinarily
taken as an act of man.

Consider an illustration: A hunter flushes game; the birds rise; the hunter whips up his gun and
fires. The act of firing is the work of a split second, and yet it is a deliberate act. The hunter adverts
to what he is doing, and so adverting, wills and does. In other words, the hunter knows what he is
doing. No human act is possible without knowledge.

(2) Freedom – in which the act is not done by force; It is a state of being unrestricted from the internal
impulse and external and over his action, that is, he can make a wide range of choices whether to do
it or not. It is an act, therefore, that is under control of the will, an act that the will can do or leave
undone. A human act is therefore a free act. Without freedom in the performance of the act, a person
can never be held responsible for his action: In fact, it is the amount of freedom present in the act
that determines the amount of responsibility of the doer. Thus, without freedom, there can be no
responsibility.

(3) Will – the Latin word for will is “voluntas”, and from this word we derive the English terms,
voluntary and voluntariness. To say, therefore, that a human act must be voluntary, or must have
voluntariness, is simply to say that it must be a will act. Will is which the doer has given its consent
to do the act. Consent can be seen as something emanating from freedom. They may be used
interchangeably though they do have instinct function in the determination of the morality of the act.
Unless the act is done with consent, no action can be considered a human act.

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 To illustrate the place of the three elements just considered in a particular human act, the following
example is proposed:

A Christian is aware that today is Sunday and that he has the obligation of hearing Mass
(knowledge). He is free to attend Mass or to stay away —not, indeed, free from duty in that matter,
but physically free to perform the duty or leave it unperformed (freedom). He wills to do is duty and
to hear Mass (voluntariness).

VOLUNTARINESS OF HUMAN ACTS

Voluntariness is very much akin to consent. Without the action of the will, an act is considered
involuntary, hence, the doer in this case cannot be held liable for his action. Only an act that proceeds from
the command of the will is voluntary. Needless to say, only a voluntary act is a human act. Conversely, an
involuntary act is obviously considered an act of man.

A) KINDS OR DEGREES OF VOLUNTARINESS OF HUMAN ACTS

1. Perfect voluntariness – where all the elements of human act are present. Man is fully accountable of
the act committed. It is present in the human act when the agent (i.e., the doer, performer, and actor)
fully knows and fully intends the act.

2. Imperfect voluntariness – where knowledge is absent. It is present when there is some defect in the
agent’s knowledge, intention, or in both. Thus, a deliberate lie is a perfectly voluntary act; while a lie
of exaggeration in a lively narrative, in which the narrator, full of the story, adverts only partly, or in
passing, to the fact that he may be stretching matters a little, is a human act imperfectly voluntary. A
man who is not aware of the act that he has done may not be answerable of his act or no
accountability at all. A boy giving a box of chocolates to a lady not knowing it is poisoned is
absolved from liability.

3. Simple voluntariness - it is simple doing or not doing the act since one has cannot do anything about
it. It is present in a human act performed, whether the agent likes or dislikes doing it. It is either
positive or negative. A male student whose house is 10 kilometres from the school will either ride a
Jeepney or not.

4. Conditional voluntariness – this is when the person is forced to do an act in which in normal
condition it should not be done. It is present in the agent’s wish to do something other than that
which he is actually doing, but doing with repugnance or dislike. When a female employee was
forced to give her cellphone to the robber pointing knife to her chest being afraid of her life.

MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACTS

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  By the modifiers of human acts we mean the things that may affect human acts in the essential
qualities of knowledge, freedom, and voluntariness and so make them less perfectly human. Such
modifiers lessen the moral character of the human act, and consequently diminish the
responsibility of the agent.

Generally, circumstances could be aggravating, justifying, mitigating or exempting. The act of self-
defence is justifying since the person doing the act has no intention of killing at all. It is mitigating when a
person is forced to slap the face of another because he was boxed. A wife, due to rush of emotions, killed her
husband and her paramour catching them of having sexual intercourse falls under exempting.

Man is an organism that does not act in a vacuum. He responds and reacts to stimulus. His personal
background, education, social upbringing, political persuasion, religion, personal aims and experiences
contributed largely to his development and behavioural preferences (Agapay, 1991). Thus, accountability of
the commission of an act can be modified. The liability can be greater, great, less, lesser or none at all.

The following are the modifiers of human acts:

1. Ignorance is the absence of knowledge. Everyone are ought to possess and be responsible to have
knowledge. There are two kinds of ignorance: (a) vincible ignorance is where the lack of knowledge
can easily be rectified. There are some students who do not know the name of their instructors; and
(b) invincible ignorance is difficult to rectify. There is no way of knowing. A courier delivering an
item with no knowledge that what is inside the box is a bomb which killed a lot of people inside a
house. When a person is vincibly ignorant and no effort on his/her part to repair the loss for the
reason of escaping one’s responsibility as greater liability. The vincible ignorance becomes affected
ignorance. The same with pretended ignorance, professing of not knowing when one really knows in
order to flee from being blamed.

2. Concupiscence or passion refers to emotions whether negative positive desire. Here concupiscence
means those bodily appetites or tendencies which are called the passions, and which are enumerated
as follows: love, hatred; joy, grief; desire, aversion or horror; hope, despair; courage or daring, fear;
and anger. They are neither moral nor immoral. But man has to control or regulate his emotions and
must be submitted to the control of reason. Passions can either be antecedent or consequent. The
former tend to weaken the will power of the person and so interfere with the freedom of the will.
Man tends to become irrational. There are so called “crimes of passion”. Though, they are voluntary
bus diminished the accountability of man. Like a wife caught his husband on the act of having sexual
intercourse with another woman and immediately stabbed them due to extreme emotion felt is
exempting from her act due to the circumstances. The later are intentionally are aroused and kept
where the doer willfully plays his emotions. A man intentionally aroused himself sexually by
watching sex videos and reading pornographic magazines and eventually committed the crime of

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 rape, or a woman besmirching the personality of her neighbour due to cultivated resentment. In these
scenarios, both are morally accountable.

3. Fear is the disturbance of the mind when a person is confronted by danger or harm to oneself or
loved ones. It is also a form of emotion. However, it is important to discuss this separately since it is
important to make a distinction between an act done with fear and act done out of or because of fear.
Car racing, sky diving, class reporting, or mountain climbing are activities performed with fear.
These are fear reactions and are therefore voluntary and further accountable of the act. However, fear
is an instinct for self-preservation. When a child runs upon seeing a mad dog and fell in a manhole
because of fear, then that child is not accountable of his act. Or when a girl hurt herself by jumping
from the window of her boarding house due to fire is not liable.

4. Violence happens when physical force is exerted to a person by another for the purpose of
compelling or forcing the person to act against his will. When a father was forced to kill somebody
for being threaten that his children will be killed if he will perform the act is extinguished of his
liability. When a accused was compelled to be a witness against himself to stop the bodily torture
done against him by the authority is not accountable of his act. Such confession is not admissible in
court.

5. Habits are frequently repeated acts. It may be bad or good. In most cases, habits are becoming
involuntary since they assume the role of a second nature. It is not easy to overcome or alter habits. It
takes a strong-willed person to correct a bad habit. Drug addicts, alcoholics or smokers are having
difficulty to reform. Nevertheless, the person is still accountable of one’s habits since the first time
the act was done there is already awareness of the consequences or effects of the act. Thus, a man
who has always endeavoured to speak the truth, has a habit of truthfulness, and it goes against his
habit —“against the grain” —to lie. Such a man finds it necessary to make a distinct effort in order to
utter a deliberate falsehood. Again, a man who has the habit of lying, finds it very easy to falsify or
evade the truth, and it is difficult for him to tell the truth when a lie would prove convenient. Again,
a man who has the habit of cursing finds profane words slipping from him with great ease and
readiness, while it requires a special watchfulness on his part to avoid uttering them.

THE MORALITY OF HUMAN ACTS

Morality of an act can either be moral, immoral or amoral. Moral, of course if it’s a good act.
Immoral if it is bad. If it is indifferent or neither good nor bad, then it is amoral. An indifferent act may
either become moral or immoral depending on it is amoral. An indifferent act may either become moral or
immoral depending on the motive or intention of the doer. Playing volleyball is amoral. But when one plays
volleyball knowing class is being skipped becomes immoral.

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 How do we know the morality of the act then?

The following are the determinants of morality:

1. The Object or Act itself – this refers to the deed done by the doer of the action. It is either good or
bad. The act of giving as to the act of killing are examples.

2. Motive or Intent – the purpose or reason of doing the act. Like a daughter gave a bouquet of flower
to her mother celebrating a birthday. Whereas, due to revenge, a certain boy stabbed his neighbour.

3. Circumstances – this involves the situations that surround the commissions of the act. They are
basically practical answers to particular questions. The key questions that will help understand the situation
and context.

a. WHO – refers to the persons the situations that surrounds the commission of the act. They are
basically practical answer to particular questions. The key questions that will help understand the situation
and context.

b. WHY – it the reason or motive of doing the act. Stealing food because of extreme hunger has lesser
accountability as to someone who stole due to greediness and selfishness.

c. BY WHAT MEANS – though the intention is good but attaining the end is unlawful or illicit, then
the act is still immoral. “The end does not justify the means.”

d. WHERE – refers to setting of the action. An act done in open places like in the market has greater
liability than in quiet places like in the mountain.

e. WHEN – refers to the time of the commission of the act. Time element is important and in most
cases vital to asses and judge morally the human act. Killing a person when he was sleeping connotes
greater accountability compared to when the person killed was conscious and still has time to defend
himself. Performing the act in a broad daylight has different liability while doing it during night time.

f. HOW – raping a woman in front of her husband is greater. Stabbing a person many times indicates
an extreme hatred. Whereas, defaming the person through the use of media is more accountable than doing it
in front of one’s friends.

NORM is used to measure whether an act done is good or bad, right, or wrong, moral or immoral. It is a
rule or standard in gauging the goodness or badness of an act. There are two types.

The first norm is the Eternal Divine Law which is objective and is the ultimate and absolute norm of
morality. It is God’s eternal plan and providence for the Universe. It is governed by Divine Reason that
reveals the necessary relations between the creator and the creatures. It includes beings in the physical and

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 moral order. In its broadest sense, it governs nature and action of things
(Montemayor, 1994) The eternal law is made known to man through his reason
and conscience known as the natural law (lex naturalis) By his rational nature, man
is able to law what is right and wrong. Moral law is ordinance of reason
promulgated by those who have the authority and care of the community for
promotion of the common good. This necessitates obedience on the part of those
who are expected to follow it.

Human Law are those laws enacted by men. This includes rules not only in the
government but also in private agencies as well as in the churches. The churches
help in promoting the eternal law and in real sense should not come up with their
own set of doctrines since everything about divine law is already found in the
Holy Scriptures. The role of the church is to implement what has been
promulgated by God. Further, the difference with the moral law and human law is
that the former covers both the external and internal actions of man. Whereas, the
former only covers external actions of man. A married man having a mere thought
is translated into action then it where human law comes in. Thus, not all immoral acts are necessarily illegal
Vis-a Vis. When a man commits immoral act, he feels guilty with a feeling of remorse but may not be
imprisoned. However, violating a human law implies corporal or physical punishment.

HUMAN REASON is the second norm of morality. This is related to person’s conscience which is
proximate norm of morality telling person internally what to do and should not do. It is like a signpost that
guides and directs a person to their destination. This norm is subjective since it is found in the subject itself.
It has to require proper formation and education on our part to attain a level of true and correct conscience.
Such should in accord with the objective standard or risk falling into the realm of immorality.

As to the firmness in its judgement of the morality of the act, CONSCIENCE is either:

(a) Certain conscience – the judgement is sure that the action is morally good or bad. When conscience
is an altogether firm and assured judgment, in which the agent has no fear whatever of being in
error. Conscience, when certain, must be obeyed, whether it be correct or invincibly erroneous. For
reason demands that we obey law as manifested with certainty by the intellect, and the dictate of
certain conscience is such a manifestation, even though the conscience be invincibly erroneous.

(b) Doubtful conscience – conscience that is not certain, i.e., that is hesitant, that is a judgment in which the
agent is aware of the possibility of error. The agent whose conscience is dubious is said to be in doubt. The

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person hesitates in making a particular judgement since he/she is not certain or unsure whether something is
good or bad, moral or immoral. If a person has this kind of conscience, he/she must never act;

(c) Scrupulous conscience – this type of judgement is a described as very cautious or extremely
fearful that the individual tends to judge something as right or wrong when in fact there is none.
It is constantly afraid of committing evil. An example is when a person thinks they sin when
they actually don’t, or somebody thinks a temptation is a sin. In other words, a scrupulous
person sees sin everywhere they think that almost everything they do is a sin. It is not healthy to
have a scrupulous conscience. It’s a lack of confidence in God, and in God’s goodness;

(d) Lax conscience – is very different from the scrupulous conscience since the person takes
sinful act very lightly and considers it as good and okay. It always takes things for granted
when it comes to grave moral importance. It tends to follow the easy way and to find excuses
for omissions and mistakes. These are people who act on the impulse of “bahala na” on
matters of moral, The person is in most cases, insensitive, lazy and negligent. A person who
has lax conscience must reform his/her stare of mind.

Norms are formal or material as derived from natural law. Formal Norms refers to “what ought to
be” like we should be sensitive, giving and obedient. “What ought to be done” is referring to material norms.
Examples are “do not lie, do good, and do not be selfish”

It is worthy to note that whenever there is a conflict between the civil authority and the divine law
(moral natural law), the person has “to obey God rather than men” as base from the Word of God.

SUMMARY

Ethics is not concerned with acts of man, but only with human acts. Human acts
are moral acts. For human acts man is responsible, and they are imputed to him
as worthy of praise or blame, of reward or punishment. Human acts tend to
repeat themselves and to form habits. Habits coalesce into what we call a man’s
character.

Thus we find verified the dictum, of Ethics:

“A MAN IS WHAT HIS HUMAN ACTS

MAKE HIM.”
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 WORKSHEET

NAME: ____________________________________________________________ DATE: ____________

COURSE/YEAR/SECTION:
___________________________________________SCORE:____________

A. CLASSIFICATION. Classify the following as to whether they are a human act or an act of man.
Write only the acronym HA for Human Act and AM for Act of Man on the space provided before
each number.

______ 1. The boy is day dreaming

______ 2. His heartbeat goes on rapidly
______ 3. She becomes conscious of her breathing that she finds it so difficult to breath.
______ 4.The servant pays his debt on his master
______ 5. A female teaches is making herself available for a remedial class.
______ 6. I can’t help but think of you, night and day.
______ 7. After an hour of running, he sweated out profusely
______ 8. She dreamed of you last night
______ 9. A manager accepts the job applicants on the basis of their qualifications
______ 10. The cab driver sneezes off involuntarily

B. True or False. On the space provided before the number, write Yea or Nay.

______ 1. The formal objects of ethics is human act or conduct.

______ 2. The material object of Ethics is the acts of man
______ 3. General Ethics is a practical science that deals purely with theories and principles.
______ 4. One of the postulates of Ethics is the mortality of the human soul

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 ______ 5. What is legal may not be necessary moral
______ 6. One may know what is right but do not actually apply the knowledge learned.
______ 7. Ethics and morality does not have any distinction whatsoever.
______ 8. Moral principles should take precedence over other standards or norms of evaluation
______ 9. A person may become so expert on moral principles without ever becoming moral.
______ 10. Ethics consists of the application of general moral principles.

II. True or False. On the space provided before the number, write Yea or Nay.

______ 1. An example of human act is an act of charity.

______ 2. Children are automatically free from all moral accountability

______ 3. Circumstances deals with the various external conditions of the act

______ 4. Acts of man are those that we share with animals

______ 5. In the absence of one elements of human act, man’s accountability is diminished.

______ 6. The other determinant of morality is the purpose or intention

______ 7. Man is morally accountable of the acts done out of fear

______ 8. Acts done without knowledge of the doer is an imperfect voluntariness

______ 9. Every action come from habit partakes of the voluntariness of those previous acts

______ 10. Affected ignorance does not excuse the person from his/her bad actions

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 C. EXPLAIN BRIEFLY:

1. How would you explain this saying “Ignorance of the Law excuses no one”?

2. “THE END DOES NOT JUSTIFY THE MEANS.”

LESSON 1
WHY DO YOU NEED TO STUDY ETHICS AND THE IMPORTANCE OF RULES?

A moral experience is any encounter wherein a person understands that the values he or she believes

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to be important are either realized or thwarted (Hunt and Carnevale,2011). This concept of moral
experience, however, asserts that the encounter is not limited to situation fraught with ethical questions, but
that moral experience happens even in mundane everyday settings wherein you take action based on your
moral standards. For instance, when you decide to give a poor person some money because you feel that it is
right thing to do, is a moral experience.

Now, what you if you were in this situation:

You are a junior executive for a firm. As was your habit, you are still in the office working while
most of your officemates have gone home. Soon, you find yourself in need for a file for your presentation;
so you texted Michael, your fellow junior executive, to ask if he has a copy. Several minutes have passed,
but Michael did not reply. You called his mobile phone, but you only got the automated voice saying the
number can’t be reached.

Then you remembered that a few days ago, you unintentionally saw Michael’s password when he
logged into his office computer. Since you absolutely need the file now (or else your project presentation
will fail), you decided to log into Michael’s computer without asking permission. As soon as you gained
access, you see that he left his email open. Something in the email caught your eye, so you read it. You see,
based on what you have read that Michael is making anomalous transaction in the company’s name.

You thought about reporting him but you realize you will have to admit violating company
regulations on logging in to someone else’s computer. Even if you report him anonymously, the
investigation will ultimately lead back to you and the fact that you invaded Michael’s privacy. If you
confront Michael about his illegal transaction, you will have to admit that you logged into his computer
without his permission. However, if you decided not to do anything, you will have to carry the burden in
your conscience and continue working with Michael even though you know he is doing something illegal.
You will have to live with the knowledge that the company is losing money because of his dishonest
transactions, and that you did not do anything to stop him just because you knew about it by invading his
privacy. What will you do?

To keep patients from being addicted to certain pain medication like morphine, most doctors would
prescribe alternated dosage of morphine and plain normal saline solution. Both will create a cessation of
pain sensation, morphine exerting its pharmacotherapeutic effects and the normal saline creating a
psychological effects to the patient thinking that it was morphine being injected.

In a surgical unit of a certain hospital, a nurse found new application of the “Placebo Effects”. Nurse
Lucky was a newly hired registered nurse in the surgical unit of the hospital. He was hired immediately
because of his brother who is a nurse supervisor for five years of that hospital. He was being oriented on the
floor by his senior nurse. His senior nurse told him that some of the patients in their floor will ask for pain

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medications a lot but pain medications are not given liberally because of its addictive properties. They
sometimes administer Nss solution as placebo for morphine. The senior nurse demonstrated how placebo is
carried out and administered to their patients. He was instructed to do it under the prescription of a doctor.

One of his duty days one night, Lucky decided to do an extra effort of cleaning the nurses’ station in
line with the 5s program of the hospital. As he began his task, he found vials of pain relievers and IV
antibiotics under the sink. The medicines were not expired, so he wondered why it was kept under the sink.
He also found out that these medicines cost ₱ 2,000 per vital. He decided to place it back under the sink and
decided to ask his senior nurse later about it.

One day, a patient’s relative approached him and asked where he can find Lucky’s brother. Lucky
asked him why and introduced himself as his brother. The patient’s relative then said “Good that he is your
brother. Will you kindly hand him over these three vials of medicines I brought from him at half a price? My
sister who is in the surgical unit would no longer use it because she died this morning. Kindly ask him if I
could get a refund because I really need the money to arrange interment”

Lucky was shocked when he hear the patients relative. He remembered the medicines he found the
other night. He looked for it under the sink and it was no longer there. When he asked his senior nurse about
it he replied: “Just pretend you did not see it. Everybody is doing it anyway. Welcome to the club”

Lucky could not quite comprehend what his senior nurse was talking about. He decided to
investigate. He found out that there are some nurse who do not administer these expensive medications as
ordered. They administer instead a placebo even if it was not ordered by the physician. They also charge the
patient with the medicine even though they administer placebo. These extra vials are kept and later sold to
other patients who need it half the price. The money is then divided among those who are involved. These
occurrences are not recorded in the medication audit being conducted by nurse supervisor for their floor is
no other than his brother who is also involved in the case.

Lucky confronted his brother, he has this to say: “If it weren’t for these activities that I am doing,
you wouldn’t have gone to college and graduate as a nurse… so just keep your mouth shut because no one
else had benefited more from this than you.” Lucky was dumbfounded. He does not know whether he would
just keep silent and join the group to protect his brother and earn more too or make noise and make it known
to the detriment of his brother to whom he owes a lot.

THE NEED TO STUDY ETHICS

The Commission on Higher Education states “ethics deals with principles of ethical behaviour in
modern society at the level of the person, society, an in interaction with the environment and other shared

MODULE IN ETHICS 15
resources.” (CMO 20 series 2013) going back to our story above, assuming you decided on a course of
action to resolve your dilemma, what was your reason for choosing such action? Why did you do it?

Understanding your moral compass in order to develop better judgment is the aim for studying
Ethics. Upon entering college, students are not blank sheets, devoid of pre-existing beliefs and values.
College students already have developed a set of moral standards by which they use to understand the world
and a moral compass to navigate in it (Bilett, 2006; Campbell. 2009). This reality makes it important for
students to study, explore, understand, and critically reflect on their personal value systems. The end goal for
studying Ethics is for the students to become a person who makes sound judgments, sensitive to the common
good.

Relevance of Studying Ethics in your Chosen Profession

Ethics ensure a generally greed standard of work-related behaviour that empowers professionals to
foster moral values through their work. Ethics gives a sense of justification in one’s judgment, and helps
ensure that decisions at work are not made base on purely subjective factors. Without the study of Ethics, the
practice of one’s profession will fall prey to vastly conflicting individual interpretations.

Importance of Rules to Social Beings

Humans, in general, do not live in isolation. Instead, an individual is a member of a community of

people whose common goal is to survive and thrive. As human societies evolved, they found that human
communities have better chances to survive if they work together; and that working together is more
effective when there is a system in place. One of the systems that humans developed are standards that guide
human activities, or simply, “rules”.

In the simplest sense, rule is defined as a “statement that tells you what is or is not allowed in a
particular, situation.” (Merriam-Webster, 2017) For example, traffic rules regulate how motorists should
behave in the road. Sports rules not only determine the winner, these also ensure that players play fair and
safe. Most human societies have rules and its system of implementation allow people to productively
function in the community despite the existence of conflict within its members. In a broad sense, rules are in
place to manage harmful behaviours; it hopes to prevent chaos; and it aims to encourage stability.

MODULE IN ETHICS 16
 WORKSHEET

NAME: ____________________________________________________________ DATE: ____________

COURSE/YEAR/SECTION:
___________________________________________SCORE:____________

1. Give at least three (3) school rules. Describe each. Why are these rules important to your school?

2. Give at least three (3) rules in your community. Describe each. Why are these rules important to
your community?

LESSON 2
MORAL VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS

Pre-discussion:

MODULE IN ETHICS 17
The keywords you need to know here are etiquette, policy, law, and commandment. As a group, discuss
among yourselves the meaning of the assigned keyword (for example, if you were given “etiquette”, then
discuss among your group your understanding of etiquette). Come up with a scenario that will depict your
keyword and then act it out in class.

Characteristics of Moral Standards

One definition of moral standard is “a code of what is right or wrong without reference to specific
behaviors or beliefs” (O’Connor, Lynn, 1997) It has been observed that this intrinsic code of honor is
already present in children, and it continually
undergoes revisions as the child matures and influenced by his or her surroundings. Moral standards deal
with matters that the person thinks have serious consequence. However, these standards are not hinged on
external authority or rules, but based on good reason and impartial considerations overriding self-interest.
Feelings of guilt and shame are often associated when the person goes against his or her moral standards
(Mandal, 2010; Velasquez, 2012)

Moral standards have six characteristics that set it apart from non-moral standards (Velasquez, 2012)
these are:

1. Moral standards involved behaviors that seriously affect other people’s well-being. It can either
profoundly injure or benefit a person or persons. For example, lying, stealing and killing are actions that
hurt people. While treating people with respect and kindness uplifts them.

2. Moral standards take more important consideration than other standards, including self-
interest. For example, because trust is important to you than revenge you refuse your friend’s terrible
secret even though she offended you.

3. Moral standards do not depend on any external authority but it how the person perceives the
reasonableness of the action. For example, you will not copy your classmate’s answers during the
exam not because your teacher will fail you if you do, but because you personally believe cheating is
wrong and demeaning to you as a student.

4. Moral standards are believed to be universal. Thus, when you truly believe an act is wrong you
also will not agree or consent when other people commit what you consider a wrongful act. On the other
hand, if you believe an action is morally right, then you will also support other people doing such acts.
For example, you believe lying is wrong therefor you will also not agree when someone is not telling the
truth. On the other hand, you tend to trust the person whom you know as someone who is true to his or
her word

MODULE IN ETHICS 18
 5. Moral standards are based on objectivity. This means what you consider as right or wrong does not
depend on whether the action advances the interest of a particular person or group, but your action
depends on a universal standpoint where everyone’s interest is counted as equal.

6. Moral standards are associated with vocabulary that depicts emotion or feelings. For example,
when you go against your moral standards you will say you feel guilty, remorseful, or ashamed. You
may describe your behaviour as immoral or sinful. If you see other people going against your moral
standards you feel indignant or perhaps with that person.

MORAL VERSUS NON-MORAL STANDARDS

Whether your computer can download a movie from the internet is a factual question. On the other
hand, should you pirate movies from the internet is a moral question. When judgement is founded on the
rightness or wrongness of an action the criteria is based on one’s moral standards.
When you take a picture in the dark with no flash; when you wear a sleeveless shirt and shorts on a
very formal occasion; or you write a grammatically incorrect essay- you have violated certain standards. In
the sample situations, you violated non-moral standards in: technique, fashion, and grammar.
What are non-moral standards? Non-moral standards can be considered as relative standards by
which something or someone is judged as either good or bad. The rules of non-moral standards vary because
these rules depend on the guidelines agreed by a particular group.

Moral Standards versus Other Rules in Life

Although the six characteristics of moral standards distinguish it from other life rules, It is useful to
discuss other standards with which moral standards are sometimes confused with.

Etiquette, Policy, Law, and Commandment

Etiquette is a set of rules on how an individual should responsibly behave in the society (Taylor and
Williams, 2017). Table manners such as the proper use of utensils and the proper manner of eating are
examples of etiquette. Meanwhile, a policy is a clear, simple statement of how an organization plans to
handle its services, actions, or business. Policies are guiding rules to help with decisions making (The
University of Sydney, @ 2002-2017). When schools require their students to wear the proper school uniform
and school ID before being allowed inside the campus (no. the No Uniform , No ID, No Entry rule posted in
your school’s entrance) is an example of a policy . On the other hand, a law is a rule created and enforced by
the government and its agencies to maintain order, resolve disputes, and protect a person’s liberty and rights
(Robertson, 2008; Brickley and Gottlesman, 2 @ 2017). Can you give an example of a law in the

MODULE IN ETHICS 19
Philippines? Finally, a commandment is a rule that is to be strictly observed because it was said to be set by
a divivne entity, such as those in the Ten Commandments (Stahl, 2009)

What is the advantage of owing moral standards over merely abiding by moral standards?

For most people, the fundamental moral question is, “What should I do?” or “How should I act?”
Ethics are presumed as moral rules on how a person should act. For example, “every person is obligated to
do the greatest good for the most number of people.” There is also the philosophy that “everyone is
obligated to act in ways that upholds the human dignity for all people” Moral principles like these guide the
practice of various professions (professional ethics)

MODULE IN ETHICS 20
 WORKSHEET

NAME: ____________________________________________________________ DATE: ____________

COURSE/YEAR/SECTION:
___________________________________________SCORE:____________

Based on the topics discussed, explain:

1. How are moral standards different from non-moral standards?

2. How do moral standards differ from etiquette, policy, law, and commandment?

LESSON 3
MORAL DILEMMA

Pre-discussion

MODULE IN ETHICS 21
The keywords you need to know here are personal, organization, and structural. Your teacher will assign a
keyword to your group. Depending on your keyword, present in class a scene showing moral conflict faced
by:

1. A person whose choice will adversely affect very important people in your life (personal)
2. A business owner whose choice will adversely affect either the company or the employees
(organizational); or
3. A high-ranking government official who needs to choose between implementing or not implementing
a policy not because it will affect the poor communities but not implement it will also impact the
environment (structural)

Dilemma Defined

By definition, DILEMMA is “a situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two or
more alternatives, especially equally undesirable ones” (Dictionary.com 2017) Thus, when you find
yourself facing a problem but the solutions available to you will only create another problem or worse
create more problems, then you are in a dilemma.
A moral dilemma is a situation where:
1.There are two or more actions that you can possibly do.
2.There is a moral reason(s) for doing such actions
3.You cannot do all the possible actions presented to you. You only need to choose one.
Since there is a moral reason(s) for doing each of the possible course of action that you can do, it
follows that no matter what action you choose you will go against your sense of what is right or wrong.
That somehow, no matter what you do, you are doing something morally wrong, but at the same time
you are also doing something right.

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

Personal moral dilemma is when your decision or members of the organization is in a situation
where there is moral conflict, and the decision will potentially harm either some members of the group
or the entire organization (syn. Company, coorperative, association) itself. For example, a garments
factory is not hitting its target profit. If the company keeps on missing its target, the factory will also not
achieve its five-year expansion plan which will severely affect the factory’s future financial standing.
One plan to solve the factory’s imminent financial crisis was to cut cost by laying-off some of its
employees. The CEO and the members of the board now need to decide. Should they lay off the people
who work for them to save the factory? Or keep the people working and just find other means to
hopefully increase profit and prevent their financial crisis in the future?

MODULE IN ETHICS 22
 Structure moral dilemma is when a person or group of persons who holds high-level positions in
the society faces a morally conflicting situation wherein the entire social system is affected. An example
of this level of dilemma would be the controversy in the Social Security System in 2016. The SSS
members have been asking for a two thousand pesos SSS pension increase. Several lawmakers supported
the call because they see that it will benefit the senior citizen member. On the other hand, the SSS
executives opposed it saying the institution cannot sustain such amount in the long run, and the SSS will
go bankrupt in 2024. Being the president of the Philippines, the final decision was in the hands of then
President Benigno Aquino III. In the end, President Aquino voted the bill passed by Congress to hike the
SSS pension because he believed “the stability of the entire SSS benefit system will be seriously
compromised in favour of two million pensioners and their dependent” (CNN Philippines, 2017).

MODULE IN ETHICS 23
 WORKSHEET

NAME: ____________________________________________________________ DATE: ____________

COURSE/YEAR/SECTION:
___________________________________________SCORE:____________

A. Based on what you have learned so far, how will you decide when you are faced with
a dilemma? Why will you decide in such manner?
Cite a specific scenario, either a personal, organizational, or a structural dilemma to
illustrate how decide in morally conflicting situations.

What to expect: LESSON 4

When talking about freedom and responsibility, aren't these contrasting words? Freedom connotes no
FREEDOM
ties, no hindrances, no blocks. Responsibility connotes doing something not because you want to but because
it is expected of you. There are Eastern and Western philosophers who viewed that responsibility follows
freedom. What does this mean?

MODULE IN ETHICS 24
WHY ONLY HUMAN BEING CAN BE ETHICAL

There has been some claim that morality is not unique to human beings. For example, Dame Jane
Morris Goodall DBE, a British primatologist, ethologist, anthropologist and UN Messenger of Peace
reported that sometimes chimpanzees show a truly selfless concern for the well-being of others (Goodall,
1990). However, other thinkers such as Immanuel Kant, René Descartes, Thomas Aquinas, Peter Carruthers,
and various religious theories believe that only human beings can be ethical (Wilson, 2017). According to
St. Thomas Aquinas, the fundamental difference between animal ethics and human ethics is that animals
behave instinctively while human behavior is rational (BBC © 2014).

Instinctive behavior is a hard-wired, inborn, characteristic response to specific environmental

stimuli; an example is the altruistic behavior of social animals (Spink, 2010). However, researchers found
that the animal's intent of self-sacrifice is more on ensuring reproductive success (kin selection) rather than
out of true selfless motive (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009). An example of this would be the suicide attacks
of worker honeybees in defence of their colony against intruders. There is also reciprocal altruism where the
animal will provide for another animal's need because it expects the similar act in a similar manner at a later
time. Chimpanzees scratching each other's back are an example of reciprocal altruism (Trivers, 1971).
Rational behavior is a decision-making process where the person acts in ways that best achieve his or her
needs in accordance with his or her set preferences, priorities, and principles (Information Resources
Management Association, 2015). Rational behavior is tied to moral standards. Additionally, the human
person in his or her decision making process is free to decide what to do and free to act on his or her
decisions. Thus, only human beings can be ethical because only humans have the capacity for free moral
judgment.

The Foundation of Morality

C.S. Lewis, a novelist, poet, academic, medievalist, literary critic, essayist, lay theologian, broadcaster,
lecturer, and Christian apologist used an interesting metaphor to explain morality. He likened morality to a
fleet of ships. According to Lewis, though each ship must sail well on its own, each must also coordinate
with the other ships at all times to stay in formation and avoid collisions. Finally the fleet must have a
destination or purpose for the journey (Lewis, 2012) because if the ship was just aimlessly sailing then it has
failed its ultimate purpose, - that of getting from one point to the next. This is a very helpful way to think
about morality in relation to self, to others, and your ultimate end. However, there is one crucial difference
between a ship and a person (aside, of course, from the obvious) - a ship is under the command of a ship
captain. However, a person is someone who is free to decide his or her course.

Why is freedom crucial in your ability to make moral decisions?

MODULE IN ETHICS 25
 The personal aspect of morality is about developing virtue so that thinking morally performing moral
acts, and choosing to do what is good becomes a habit. The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (2016)
explained that virtue is your thought or behavior guided by, and displays, high moral standards. Virtues are
habits developed through learning and practice. Once you have your virtues become your Moreover, a
virtuous person characteristically acts in ways consistent with his her moral principles. Thus, a virtuous
person goes beyond moral behavior. A virtuous person not only does what is right but his or her behavior
also becomes a standard for everyone to follow.
An efficiently run ship is like a virtuous both have internalized the practices that make them weather
storms. However, a ship is under the control of a captain while a virtuous person is free to cultivate his or
her values. At the same time he or she is also free to abandon it. Hence, there is no virtue in self-restraint if,
in the first place, you are prohibited from indulging. And there is no virtue in giving if someone is forcing
you to give up possessions. Although cultural traditions and social institutions can guide virtues, it cannot be
coerced. Freedom, then, is the foundation of moral acts. For a person to be virtuous, he or she must also be
free.

Meanwhile, when talking about the interpersonal aspect of morality, the discussion turns to
following rules. We have previously discussed the importance of rules in human societies. It is important to
note that even in following rules freedom is essential Rules help people live together in relative harmony. It
makes a person recognize that apart from personal rights, other people's rights are equally important. If
people are allowed to dominate others, then people become mere tools - a means to an end. Not only does
this fail to respect a person's dignity, it also stifles the development and progress of the human potential.
Only when a person is free to recognize that he or she has rights that other people equally have rights; and
both need to be respected will the person be able to pursue projects, be creative, and reach his or her full
potential for the benefit - not just of the self - but also of others.

Finally, there is the question of the ultimate end. Why are you here? What is your purpose? The
human person's final end is always a debatable topic because it often goes hand in hand with specific
religious views. However, the debate does not negate the fact that freedom remains essential with one's view
of his or her ultimate purpose. To paraphrase Acton - an English Catholic historian, politician, and writer the
human freedom is precious that God will not take over and take control of the person's life, even when that
person badly misuses his or her freedom (1967). Whatever influences the person's view of his or her
ultimate purpose, one aspect is only a free person can understand his or her ultimate end. Enlightenment
cannot be forced

The Human Person as a Free Being

First, what does "human person want In philosophy, a human being is more than biological
components The human being is a period endowed with characteristic that are material, spiritual, rational,

MODULE IN ETHICS 26
and free A human person is a being (the Aristotelian Idea of being connotes actuality existence, an actual
condition or circumstance) with in properties that he or she uses to direct his or her own development toward
self-fulfilment. One of the inborn properties of the human person is freedom

Philosophical Insights on Freedom

We have mentioned freedom numerous times. What is your understanding of freedom! Philosophers
talked about this concept extensively. Here are some philosophical insights on freedom

Freedom is a Gift

According to Gabriel Marcel, freedom is the ability to act significantly. Free acts are significant
because they help to make us who we are as human beings, Freedom is not merely the ability to make
arbitrary choices because we are not free if everything that we can choose to do is insignificant in the first
place. Freedom is the ability to make significant choices and according to Marcel, it is a gift given to as by
God. (Hernandez, 2009)

Freedom is Complementary to Reason

One of Aristotle's ethical doctrines asserted that freedom and reason are complementary, In
Aristotle's view, the human person as a moral agent must exercise practical rationality in order to determine
how to pursue his or her ultimate end (telos). Self-direction, rather than bare spontaneity, is the crucial
characteristic of the free person. Aristotle considered freedom and reason as necessary faculties for
consciously making sense of things tevents, occurrences, phenomena, situations). Walsh. 1997).

Freedom is Absolute

Existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre's concept of freedom is not the freedom to do something
or anything. In Sartre's view, the human person is absolutely free" Freedom sets the human person apart
from other creatures. You might say "But what about animal freedom? Animals unless caged - are also free.
Animals just roam around, eat when they need to, and sleep where they want. Animals are not tied down
with responsibilities like humans." Yes, it is true that animals are - unless caged - free. In fact, animals also
have a notion of freedom.

When they are caged, animals will try to escape from their cages. This kind of freedom is called
freedom from restrictions. It is a primitive kind of freedom It is freedom for mere survival Humans, on the
other hand, have a higher kind of freedom. The freedom of the human person is beyond freedom from
restrictions. In fact, a person in jail is still free. He is free to think, to change, and to become a better person.
A prisoner is free to redefine himself. As human persons, we are free to make choices. We are free to decide.
And we are free to use this freedom to attain goals higher than satisfying basic needs

Freedom Demands Responsibility

MODULE IN ETHICS 27
 Jean-Paul Sartre said "You are free" because he believed a person always has a choice. Thus,
according to Sartre, you must choose. His idea was that freedom is the capacity to choose that even not
choosing is a choice (Gallinero, 2014). It is important to note however, that he also added the concept of
responsibility to freedom. According to Sartre, even though individuals must make their own choices
because they are free these choices (though freely made) also have consequences to it. These consequences
to freedom are something that the person must endure. Therefore, it can be said that in Sartre's concept,
responsibility follows freedom (Gallinero, 2014).

Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu also discussed freedom and responsibility. Lao Tzu advocated that a
person can and should choose to act, but his or her actions should be that which would result in harmony
Lao Tzu's idea was that in any society, the exercise of one's freedom is not absolute. The person is free to do
anything, but it is not without consequence of one's actions (Gallinero, 2014). Responsibility, as a moral
quality serves as a voluntary check and balance of one's freedom. Without proper balance limitless freedom
is as dangerous as an extremely controlling social group. Great social injustices have resulted from such
radical mindsets.

MODULE IN ETHICS 28
 WORKSHEET

NAME: ____________________________________________________________ DATE: ____________

COURSE/YEAR/SECTION:
___________________________________________SCORE:____________

A. Multiple choice . Encircle the letter corresponding your answer.

1. When do you say a situation is a moral experience?
a. Participating in political rallies
b. Watching a movie
c. Eating healthy food
d. Taking a vacation
2. Why study Ethics
a. It's a required course
b. To understand my moral compass
c. To learn how to judge others
d. To take a stand moral issues that affect society

3. Why are rules important to social beings?

a. Rules are what makes human beings superior creatures

b. Rules control people to do something they do not want.
c. Rules make people know their place.
d. Rules make a person become a productive member of society even when there is conflict

4. What are moral standard

a. Action that advances the interests of certain people or group.

b. It involves behavior that seriously affect other people
c. Are self-preserving behaviors,
d. Originate from higher authority.

5. Which of the statements below best describe non moral standards?

a. Non moral standards are objective

b. Non moral standards are personal beliefs.
c. Non moral standards vary and are dependent on how a particular group set the rules
d. Non moral standards help us live a moral life

6. How do moral standards differ from other rules in life?

MODULE IN ETHICS 29
 a. Moral standards are believed to be universal.
b. Moral standards are rules on how a person should behave around others
c. Moral standards are policies that help with decision making.
d. Moral standards are enforced to maintain peace and order

7. What is a moral dilemma?

a. It is knowing that cheating is wrong but you cheat anyway.

b. It is about feeling guilty that you have an edge over your competitors.
C. You are faced with difficult choices but you have a moral reason for both actions.
d. These are situations that are neither right nor wrong.

8. Why is it that only human beings are ethical?

a. It is instinctive.
b. It is altruistic behavior.
C. Our belief in a Superior Being taught us to be ethical.
d. Only humans have the capacity for free moral judgment.

9. Why is freedom crucial in making decisions?

a. So that you will not commit a crime.

b. Only a free person can understand the meaning of his or her life.
C. Freedom results to peace and prosperity.
d. It is our basic human right.

10. Which of the statements below does not describe freedom?

a. Freedom is the ability to make significant choices.

b. Self-direction is a characteristic of freedom.
C. Freedom is absolute.
d. Freedom has no responsibility.

B. Word Search. Find and encircle the word described by the clues below (5 pts each).

P U W S Z Z W H R U E L E O V
T O Z F X Y X I X X B W R I P
J U L I K S T W X N C G U J B
B M A I A J Z I F Q A I GH V

MODULE IN ETHICS 30
 Q N A I CH N J L N K B L E L
L R S N L Y Z F I A Y U O V S
A E T H I C S Z C K R M B L V
N WA L V R AC D C A O E B I
O L A R U T CU R T S H M U R
S T G L I T X I H X C X W Y T
R A E O J N L S A A J M U M U
E S N G E B Z E R S X F I R E
PA S W MJ T X D I G L M L S
L V F Y N T S V S V R N D L Q
S R P Y P Y K B C B I X U P F

1. The effort to guide one's conduct by reason

2. Deals with moral principles

3. These are in place to manage harmful behaviors, hopes to prevent chaos, and encourage stability

4. Guiding rules that help in decision making

5. A level of moral dilemma where all the choices in a moral conflict available to you could negatively
affect you or another person

6. Thoughts or behavior that is guided by and displays high moral standards.

7. The philosopher who said described morality as the effort to guide one's conduct through reason and
giving equal weight between personal interest and that of other people

8. Rule created by the government to maintain order

9. A level of moral dilemma wherein all available choices in a moral conflict will adversely affect the
organization

10. A level of dilemma wherein organizations or persons holding high-level positions in society are faced

MODULE IN ETHICS 31
with a moral conflict and all the choices available will adversely affect the social system.

C. ENUMERATION

a. Give at least four characteristics of moral standards.

1.

2.

3.

4.

b. What is a moral dilemma?

5.

6.

7.

c. What are the levels of moral dilemma?

8.

9.

10.

D. Essay.

Briefly explain these philosophical insights on freedom (5 pts. each).

1. Freedom is a gift.

MODULE IN ETHICS 32
2. Freedom is complementary to reason.

MODULE IN ETHICS 33