Krishna's

TEXT BOOK on

Complex Analysis
(For B.A. and B.Sc. V th Semester students of Kumaun University)

Kumaun University Semester Syllabus w.e.f. 2018-19

By

A.R. Vasishtha A.K. Vasishtha

Retired Head, Dept. of Mathematics M.Sc., Ph.D.
Meerut College, Meerut C.C.S. University, Meerut

Kumaun

KRISHNA Prakashan Media (P) Ltd.

KRISHNA HOUSE, 11, Shivaji Road, Meerut-250001 (U.P.), India
 Jai Shri Radhey Shyam

Dedicated
to

Lord

Krishna
Authors & Publishers
 P reface
This book on Complex Analysis has been specially written according to the latest
Syllabus to meet the requirements of B.A. and B.Sc. Semester-V Students of all
colleges affiliated to Kumaun University.
The subject matter has been discussed in such a simple way that the students will find
no difficulty to understand it. The proofs of various theorems and examples have been
given with minute details. Each chapter of this book contains complete theory and a fairly
large number of solved examples. Sufficient problems have also been selected from various
university examination papers. At the end of each chapter an exercise containing objective
questions has been given.
We have tried our best to keep the book free from misprints. The authors shall be
grateful to the readers who point out errors and omissions which, inspite of all care, might
have been there.
The authors, in general, hope that the present book will be warmly received by the
students and teachers. We shall indeed be very thankful to our colleagues for their
recommending this book to their students.
The authors wish to express their thanks to Mr. S.K. Rastogi, M.D., Mr. Sugam Rastogi,
Executive Director, Mrs. Kanupriya Rastogi, Director and entire team of KRISHNA
Prakashan Media (P) Ltd., Meerut for bringing out this book in the present nice form.
The authors will feel amply rewarded if the book serves the purpose for which it is
meant. Suggestions for the improvement of the book are always welcome.

— Authors
 Syllabus

Complex Analysis
B.A./B.Sc. V Semester
Kumaun University
Fifth Semester – Second Paper
B.A./B.Sc. Paper-II M.M.-60

Complex Variables: Functions of a complex variable; Limit, continuity and differen-

tiability.

Analytic functions: Analytic functions, Cauchy and Riemann equations, Harmonic

functions.

Complex Integration: Complex integrals, Cauchy's theorem, Cauchy's integral formula,

Morera’s Theorem, Liouville’s Theorem, Taylor's series, Laurent's series, Poles and
singularities.

Residues: Residues, the Residue theorem, the principle part of a function, Evaluation of
Improper real integrals.
 B rief C ontents
Dedication.........................................................................(v)
Preface............................................................................(vi)
Syllabus (Kumaun University)............................................(vii)
Brief Contents ................................................................(viii)

Chapter 1: Functions of a Complex Variable....................................C-01—C-42

Chapter 2: Analytic Functions........................................................C-43—C-84

Chapter 3: Complex Integration...................................................C-85—C-144

Chapter 4: Poles, Zeros and Singularities....................................C-145—C-174

Chapter 5: The Calculus of Residues...........................................C-175—C-230

 Krishna's

COMPLEX ANALYSIS
C hapters

1. Functions of a Complex Variable

2. Analytic Functions

3. Complex Integration

4. Poles, Zeros and Singularities

5. The Calculus of Residues

 S-3

F unctions of a C omplex V ariable

1 Complex Numbers
he equation x2 = − 1has no solution in the set of real numbers because the square
T of every real number is either positive or zero. Therefore we feel the necessity to
extend the system of real numbers. We all know that this defect is remedied by
introducing complex numbers.
Complex Numbers: Definition: A number of the form x + iy, where i = √ (−1) and
x, y are both real numbers, is called a complex number. A complex number is also defined
as an ordered pair ( x, y) of real numbers. A complex number x + iy or ( x, y) is usually
denoted by the symbol z. If we write z = x + iy or ( x, y) then x is called the real part and y
the imaginary part of the complex number z and these are denoted by R (z ) and I (z )
respectively. Thus in the complex number z = √ 3 + 5 i, we have R (z ) = the real part of
z = √ 3, and I (z ) = the imaginary part of z = 5.
A complex number is said to be purely real if its imaginary part is zero, and purely
imaginary if its real part is zero.
The complex number a + 0 i is simply written as a.
We shall denote the set of all complex numbers by C.
 C-4

Equality of Two Complex Numbers:

Definition: Two complex numbers
z1 = x1 + iy1 or ( x1, y1)
and z2 = x2 + iy2 or ( x2 , y2 )
are said to be equal if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 . Thus two complex numbers are equal if and only if the
real part of one is equal to the real part of the other and the imaginary part of one is equal to the
imaginary part of the other.

2 Addition of Complex Numbers

If z1 = x1 + iy1 or ( x1, y1) and z2 = x2 + iy2 or ( x2 , y2 ) are any two complex numbers,
then the sum of z1 and z2 written as z1 + z2 is defined by
z1 + z2 = ( x1 + iy1) + ( x2 + iy2 ) = ( x1 + x2 ) + i ( y1 + y2 )
or z1 + z2 = ( x1, y1) + ( x2 , y2 ) = ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ).
Thus (3 + 5 i) + (7 − 8 i) = (3 + 7) + (5 − 8) i = 10 − 3 i.
Properties of the Addition of Complex Numbers:
The addition of complex numbers is commutative, associative, admits of identity element and every
complex number possesses additive inverse.
Commutativity of addition in C: To show that z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 where z1 and z2 are
any complex numbers.
Proof: Let z1 = ( x1, y1), z2 = ( x2 , y2 ), where x1, y1, x2 , y2 are real numbers.
We have z1 + z2 = ( x1, y1) + ( x2 , y2 )
= ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ), by definition of addition in C
= ( x2 + x1, y2 + y1)
[∵ Addition of real numbers is commutative]
= ( x2 , y2 ) + ( x1, y1) = z2 + z1.
Hence z1 + z2 = z2 + z1, for all complex numbers z1 and z2 .
Associativity of addition in C: To show that (z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 ), for all
complex numbers z1, z2 and z3 .
Proof: Let z1 = ( x1, y1), z2 = ( x2 , y2 ), z3 = ( x3 , y3 ),
where x1, y1, x2 , y2 , x3 , y3 are real numbers.
We have (z1 + z2 ) + z3 = {( x1, y1) + ( x2 , y2 )} + ( x3 , y3 )
= ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) + ( x3 , y3 ), by def. of addition in C
= ({x1 + x2} + x3 , { y1 + y2} + y3 ), by def. of addition in C
= ( x1 + {x2 + x3}, y1 + { y2 + y3}),
[∵ Addition of real numbers is associative]
= ( x1, y1) + ( x2 + x3 , y2 + y3 ), by def. of addition in C
= ( x1, y1) + {( x2 , y2 ) + ( x3 , y3 )} = z1 + (z2 + z3 ).
Hence (z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 ), for all complex numbers z1, z2 and z3 .
 C-5

Additive Identity: The complex number (0, 0) or 0 + i0 is the additive identity,

since for every complex number ( x, y), we have
( x, y) + (0 , 0 ) = ( x + 0 , y + 0 ) = ( x, y) = (0 , 0 ) + ( x, y).
The complex number (0, 0) is called the zero complex number and is simply written as
0.
A complex number x + iy is said to be a non-zero complex number if at least one of x and
y is not zero.
Additive Inverse: The complex number (− x, − y) is the additive inverse of the
complex number ( x, y) since
( x, y) + (− x, − y) = ( x − x, y − y) = (0 , 0 )
= the additive identity
and also (− x, − y) + ( x, y) = (0 , 0 ).
The complex number (− x, − y) is called the negative of the complex number ( x, y) and
we denote (− x, − y) by − ( x, y).
Thus if z = ( x, y), then − z = − ( x, y) = (− x, − y).
Cancellation law for addition in C. If z1, z2 , z3 are any complex numbers, then
z1 + z3 = z2 + z3 ⇒ z1 = z2 .

3 Multiplication of Complex Numbers

If z1 = x1 + iy1 or ( x1, y1) and z2 = x2 + iy2 or ( x2 , y2 ) are any two complex
numbers, then the product of z1 and z2 written as z1z2 is defined by
z1z2 = ( x1 + iy1) ( x2 + iy2 ) = ( x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i ( x1 y2 + y1 x2 )
or z1z2 = ( x1, y1) ( x2 , y2 ) = ( x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + y1 x2 ).
Thus (3 + 5 i) (7 + 6 i) = (3 × 7 − 5 × 6) + (3 × 6 + 5 × 7) i = − 9 + 53 i,
or using the notation of ordered pairs, we have
(3, 5) (7, 6) = (3 × 7 − 5 × 6, 3 × 6 + 5 × 7) = (− 9, 53).
Properties of the Multiplication of Complex Numbers:
The multiplication of complex numbers is commutative, associative, admits of identity element and
every non-zero complex number possesses multiplicative inverse.

Commutativity of multiplication in C:To show that z1z2 = z2 z1, for all complex
numbers z1 and z2 .
Proof: Let z1 = ( x1, y1), z2 = ( x2 , y2 ), where x1, y1, x2 , y2 are real numbers.
We have z1 z2 = ( x1, y1) ( x2 , y2 )
= ( x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + y1 x2 ), by def. of multiplication in C
= ( x2 x1 − y2 y1, x2 y1 + y2 x1),
as real numbers are commutative
for addition and multiplication
 C-6

= ( x2 , y2 )( x1, y1), by def. of multiplication in C

= z2 z1.
Hence z1 z2 = z2 z1 for all complex numbers z1 and z2 .
Associativity of multiplication in C : To show that (z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 (z2 z3 ), for all complex
numbers z1, z2 and z3 .
Proof: Let z1 = ( x1, y1), z2 = ( x2 , y2 ), z3 = ( x3 , y3 ) where x1, y1, x2 , y2 , x3 , y3 are
real numbers.
We have (z1 z2 ) z3 = {( x1, y1) ( x2 , y2 )} ( x3 , y3 )
= ( x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + y1 x2 )( x3 , y3 ), by def. of multiplication in C
= ({x1 x2 − y1 y2} x3 − {x1 y2 + y1 x2} y3 , {x1 x2 − y1 y2} y3
+ {x1 y2 + y1 x2} x3 )
= ( x1 x2 x3 − y1 y2 x3 − x1 y2 y3 − y1 x2 y3 , x1 x2 y3
− y1 y2 y3 + x1 y2 x3 + y1 x2 x3 ), …(1)
by distributive law for real numbers.
Also z1 (z2 z3 ) = ( x1, y1) {( x2 , y2 ) ( x3 , y3 )}
= ( x1, y1) ( x2 x3 − y2 y3 , x2 y3 + y2 x3 ), by def. of multiplication in C
= ( x1{ x2 x3 − y2 y3} − y1 {x2 y3 + y2 x3}, x1 {x2 y3 + y2 x3}
+ y1 {x2 x3 − y2 y3})
= ( x1 x2 x3 − x1 y2 y3 − y1 x2 y3 − y1 y2 x3 , x1 x2 y3
+ x1 y2 x3 + y1 x2 x3 − y1 y2 y3 ),
by distributive law for real numbers
= ( x1 x2 x3 − y1 y2 x3 − x1 y2 y3 − y1 x2 y3 , x1 x2 y3
− y1 y2 y3 + x1 y2 x3 + y1 x2 x3 ), …(2)
by laws of real numbers.
From (1) and (2), we have (z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 (z2 z3 ).
Multiplicative identity: The complex number (1, 0) or 1 + i0 or simply 1 is the
multiplicative identity since for every complex number ( x, y), we have
( x, y) (1, 0 ) = ( x . 1 − y . 0 , x . 0 + y . 1) = ( x, y) = (1, 0 ) ( x, y).
Multiplicative inverse: The complex number ( x, y) is called the multiplicative
inverse of the complex number (a, b) if
( x, y) (a, b) = (1, 0 ) or simply 1.
We have ( x, y) (a, b) = (1, 0 )
⇒ ( xa − yb, xb + ya) = (1, 0 )
⇒ xa − yb = 1 and xb + ya = 0.
The equations xa − yb = 1 and xb + ya = 0 give
a b
x= 2 , y=− 2 ,
a + b2 a + b2
provided a2 + b2 ≠ 0 which implies that a and b are not both zero i.e., (a, b) is a non-zero
complex number.
 C-7

Thus every non-zero complex number possesses multiplicative inverse and the
multiplicative inverse of the complex number (a, b) ≠ (0 , 0 ) is the complex number
 a −b 
 2 2
, 2 ⋅
a + b a + b2 
If z is a non-zero complex number, the multiplicative inverse of z is denoted by 1 / z or
z −1.
Cancellation law for multiplication in C : If z1, z2 , z3 are complex numbers and z3 ≠ 0 ,
then z1 z3 = z2 z3 ⇒ z1 = z2 .
Multiplication distributes addition in C : To show that
z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 , for all complex numbers z1, z2 and z3 .
Proof: Let z1 = ( x1, y1), z2 = ( x2 , y2 ), z3 = ( x3 , y3 ), where x1, y1, x2 , y2 , x3 , y3 are
real numbers.
We have z1 (z2 + z3 ) = ( x1, y1) {( x2 , y2 ) + ( x3 , y3 )}
= ( x1, y1) ( x2 + x3 , y2 + y3 ), by def. of addition in C
= ( x1 {x2 + x3} − y1 { y2 + y3}, x1 { y2 + y3} + y1 {x2 + x3}),
by def. of multiplication in C
= ( x1 x2 + x1 x3 − y1 y2 − y1 y3 , x1 y2 + x1 y3 + y1 x2 + y1 x3 ),
by distributive law for real numbers
= ({x1 x2 − y1 y2} + {x1 x3 − y1 y3}, { x1 y2 + y1 x2} + { x1 y3 + y1 x3}),
by laws for real numbers
= ( x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + y1 x2 ) + ( x1 x3 − y1 y3 , x1 y3 + y1 x3 ),
by def. of addition in C
= ( x1, y1) ( x2 , y2 ) + ( x1, y1) ( x3 , y3 ), by def. of multiplication in C
= z1z2 + z1z3 .
Hence z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1z2 + z1z3 , for all complex numbers z1, z2 , z3 .

4 Difference of Two Complex Numbers

If z1 and z2 are two complex numbers, we define
z1 − z2 = z1 + (− z2 ).
Thus if z1 = ( x1, y1) and z2 = ( x2 , y2 ) then
z1 − z2 = z1 + (− z2 ) = ( x1, y1) + (− x2 , − y2 )
= ( x1 − x2 , y1 − y2 ).

5 Division in C
Definition: A complex number (a, b) is said to be divisible by a complex number (c , d ) if there
exists a complex number ( x, y) such that
( x, y) (c , d ) = (a, b).
 C-8

We have ( x, y) (c , d ) = (a, b)
⇒ ( xc − yd, xd + yc ) = (a, b)
⇒ xc − yd = a and xd + yc = b.
The equations xc − yd = a and xd + yc = b give
ac + bd bc − ad
x= 2 2
, y= 2
c +d c + d2
provided c 2 + d2 ≠ 0 which implies that c and d are not both zero.
Thus division, except by (0, 0), is always possible in the set of complex numbers. If z1
and z2 are two complex numbers such that z2 ≠ 0 then the quotient of the complex
numbers z1 and z2 is defined by the relation
z1 1
= z1 ⋅ = z1 (z2 )−1.
z2 z2

6 Modulus of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy is any complex number then the non-negative real number √ ( x2 + y2 ) is
called the modulus of the complex number z and is denoted by| z |. Thus if z = x + iy,
then| z |i.e., modulus of z = √ ( x2 + y2 ). Obviously| z | = 0 if and only if x = 0 and y = 0
i.e., if and only if z = 0. Also it can be easily seen that for any complex number
z ,| z | ≥ R (z ) and | z | ≥ I (z ).
Remember that for all real values of θ, we have
|cos θ + i sin θ | = √ (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = 1.
Thus the complex number cos θ + i sin θ has always its modulus equal to 1 and is called
uni-modular complex number.
If z1 and z2 are any two complex numbers, then
| z1z2 | = | z1 || z2 |.
If z1 is any complex number and z2 is any non-zero complex number, then
 z |z |
 1= 1 ⋅
z2 | z2 |

7 Conjugate of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy is any complex number, then the complex number x − iy is called the conjugate of the
complex number z and is written as z. Thus if
z = 3 + 4 i, then z = 3 − 4 i.
Obviously | z | = | z |.
The following results are obvious and should be remembered :
(i) Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their conjugates are equal i.e.,
z1 = z2 if and only if z1 = z2 .
 C-9

(ii) ( z ) = z.

(iii) We have z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 , z1 − z2

= z1 − z2 , z1 z2 = z1 z2

 z1  z1
and   = , provided z2 ≠ 0 .
 z2  z2
(iv) If z = x + iy, then
z + z = ( x + iy) + ( x − iy) = 2 x = 2 R (z ).
(v) A complex number z = x + iy is purely imaginary if and only if z + z = 0.
(vi) If z = x + iy, then z − z = x + iy − ( x − iy) = 2 iy = 2 i I (z ).
(vii) A complex number z is purely real if and only if z − z = 0.
(viii) If z = x + iy, then z z = ( x + iy) ( x − iy) = x2 + y2

= [√ ( x2 + y2 )]2

=| z |2 .
Thus the product of two conjugate complex numbers is a purely real number which is
always ≥ 0 i.e., which is never negative.

8 Modulus-Argument Form or Polar Standard Form or

Trigonometric Form of a Complex Number
Every non-zero complex number x + iy can always be put in the form r (cos θ + i sin θ), where r and
θ are both real numbers.
Let x + iy = r (cos θ + i sin θ) = r cos θ + i r sin θ. Then equating real and imaginary
parts on both sides, we get
x = r cos θ …(1)
and y = r sin θ. …(2)
Squaring and adding (1) and (2), we have
x2 + y2 = r2

or r = + √ ( x2 + y2 ), taking the +ive sign before the radical sign

or r =| z |.
Thus r is known and is equal to the modulus of the complex number z.
Substituting this value of r in (1) and (2), we have
x
cos θ =
√ ( x2 + y2 )
y
and sin θ = ⋅ …(3)
√ ( x + y2 )
2
 C-10

If x and y are not both zero i.e., if z is a non-zero complex number, then there exist
values of θ which satisfy the equations (3) simultaneously. Any value of θ satisfying
the equations (3) is called an argument or amplitude of the complex number z
and we write
θ = arg z or θ = amp z
Argument of a complex number is not unique, since if θ be a value of the argument, so
also is 2nπ + θ, where n is any integer.
The value of argument which satisfies the inequality − π < θ ≤ π is called the principal
value of the argument.
Usually by argument of a complex number we understand its principal value unless
stated otherwise.
The zero complex number cannot be put in the form r (cos θ + i sin θ) and thus the
argument of zero complex number does not exist i.e., is undefined.
If z is a non-zero complex number and r is a +ive real number, then the form
r (cos θ + i sin θ) in which z can always be put is called modulus-argument form or
polar form or trigonometric form of z. Here r is modulus of z and θ is argument of z.
Since e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ, we can write z = r e iθ . This is known as the exponential form
of z.
To change the complex number z = x + iy to modulus-argument form, we put
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and then we find the values of r and θ.
1
If x and y are both positive, the principal value of arg z lies between 0 and π ;
2
1
if x and y are both −ive, the principal value of arg z lies between − π and − π ;
2
1
if x is +ive and y is −ive, it lies between − π and 0 ;
2
1
and if x is −ive and y is +ive, it lies between π and π.
2

9 The Geometrical Representation of Complex Numbers

Argand Diagram: A complex number z = x + iy can be represented by a point P in the
cartesian plane whose coordinates are ( x, y) referred to
rectangular axes OX and OY , usually called the real and
imaginary axes respectively.
The complex number 0 + i0 corresponds to the origin, the
real numbers x = x + i0 correspond to the points on the
x-axis and the purely imaginary numbers iy = 0 + iy
correspond to the points on the y-axis.
Obviously the polar coordinates of the point P are (r, θ) where r = OP = √ ( x2 + y2 ) is
the modulus and θ = ∠ POX = tan−1 ( y / x) is the argument of the complex number z.
 C-11

Thus θ is the angle made by OP with positive direction of x-axis. This representation of
complex numbers as points in the plane is due to Argand and is called the Argand
diagram or Argand plane or Complex plane.
The complex number z is known as the affix of the point
( x, y) which represents it.
If two complex numbers z1 and z2 are represented in the
Argand diagram, then from the definitions of the
difference of two complex numbers and the modulus of a
complex number it is obvious that| z1 − z2 |is the distance
between the points z1 and z2 . It follows that for a fixed
complex number z0 and a given +ive real number r, the equation| z − z0 | = r represents
a circle with centre z0 and radius r.
If the complex number z = x + iy is represented by the point P ( x, y) in the Argand
plane, then its conjugate z = x − iy is represented by the point Q ( x, − y) which is the
image of the point P in the real axis OX. If (r, θ) are the polar coordinates of P, then the
polar coordinates of Q are (r, − θ) so that we have | z | = | z | and arg z = − arg z .
Thus if the trigonometrical representation of a complex number z is r (cos θ + i sin θ),
then that of z is
r {cos (− θ) + i sin (− θ )} i.e., r (cos θ − i sin θ).
Using exponential form, if z = r e iθ , then z = r e − iθ .
Vector representation of a complex number: If we represent a complex number
z = x + iy by a point P in the Argand plane, then the length of the line segment OP is
equal to the modulus of the complex number z and the direction of OP is represented by
arg z. Therefore the complex number z can be represented by the vector OP and we
→
write z = OP .

10 The Points on the Argand Plane Representing

the Sum, Difference, Product and Division of Two
Complex Numbers
(i) Representation of z1 + z 2. Let the complex numbers
z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2
be represented by the points P and Q on the Argand diagram. Then the coordinates of P
and Q are ( x1, y1) and ( x2 , y2 ) respectively. Complete the parallelogram OPRQ. Then
the middle points of PQ and OR are the same. But the middle point of PQ is
 x1 + x2 y + y2 
 , 1  which is therefore also the middle point of OR and so the
 2 2 
coordinates of R are ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ). Thus the point R corresponds to the complex
number
( x1 + x2 ) + i ( y1 + y2 )
 C-12

i. e., ( x1 + iy1) + ( x2 + iy2 ) i.e., z1 + z2 .

Therefore the sum z1 + z2 of the complex numbers z1, z2
is geometrically represented by the vertex R of the
parallelogram OPRQ whose adjacent sides OP and OQ
are represented by the complex numbers z1 and z2 .
The modulus and argument of z1 + z2 are given by
| z1 + z2 | = OR and arg (z1 + z2 ) = ∠ ROX .
In vector notation, we have
→ → → → →
z1 + z2 = OP + OQ = OP + PR = OR .
To deduce that | z1 + z2 | ≤ | z1 | + | z2 |
We know that in any triangle, the sum of any two sides is greater than the third side.
Therefore from ∆OPR, we have
OR ≤ OP + PR, the equality sign being also taken because the
points O, P and R may be collinear
or OR ≤ OP + OQ
or | z1 + z2 | ≤ | z1 | + | z2 |.
(ii) Representation of z1 − z2 . Let the complex numbers
z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2
be represented by the points P ( x1, y1) and Q ( x2 , y2 ) respectively. Produce QO to Q ′
such that OQ ′ = OQ. Then the coordinates of the point Q ′ are (− x2 , − y2 ) and so the
point Q ′represents the complex number
− x2 − iy2 i.e., − z2 .
Complete the parallelogram OQ ′ R ′ P.
→
Then − z2 = OQ ′
→ → → → →
and z1 − z2 = z1 + (− z2 ) = OP + OQ ′ = OP + PR ′ = OR ′ .
Thus the complex number z1 − z2 is geometrically represented by the vertex R ′ of the
parallelogram OQ ′ R ′ P.
Since OQ is equal and parallel to R ′ P, therefore
→ →
OR ′ PQ is also a parallelogram and so OR ′ = QP .
Thus the complex number z1 − z2 is also represented
→
by the vector QP .
We have | z1 − z2 | = OR ′ = QP,
and arg (z1 − z2 ) = ∠ R ′ OX
i.e., the angle through which OX has to rotate so as to
be in the direction of QP.
To deduce that | z1 − z 2 | ≥ | z1 | − | z 2 | .
We know that in a triangle the difference of any two sides is less than the third side.
Therefore from ∆OPQ, we have
 C-13

OP − OQ ≤ QP
or | z1 | − | z2 | ≤ | z1 − z2 |
or | z1 − z2 | ≥ | z1 | − | z2 |.
Remark: (a) Obviously| z1 − z2 | = QP and arg (z1 − z2 ) is the angle through which OX
has to rotate in anti-clockwise direction as to be parallel to line QP. It is often
convenient to use the polar representation about some point z0 other than the origin.
The representation z − z0 = ρ (cos φ + i sin φ) = ρe i φ means that ρ is the distance
between z and z0 i. e. ρ = | z − z0 |, and φ is the angle of inclination of vector z − z0 with
the real axis. Further if the vector z − z0 is rotated about z0 in the anti-clockwise
direction through an angle θ and z ′ is the new position of z, then
z ′ − z0 = ρe i (φ + θ) = ρe i φ . e i θ = (z − z0 ) e i θ . (Note)
(b) Let the lines AB and CD intersect at the point P0 represented by the complex
number z0 and let P1, P2 be any two points on AB and CD represented by z1 and z2
respectively. Then the angle θ between the lines is given by
 z − z0 
0 = arg (z2 − z0 ) − arg (z1 − z0 ) = arg  2 .
 z1 − z0 
[Note that here only principal values of the arguments are considered].
If AB coincides with CD, then arg {(z2 − z0 ) / (z1 − z0 )} = 0 or π so that
(z2 − z0 ) / (z1 − z0 ) is real. It follows that the points A, B, C, D are collinear.
If AB is perpendicular to CD, then
 z − z0  π z − z0
arg  2  =± and so 2 is pure imaginary.
z
 1 − z 0 2 z1 − z0
(iii) Representation of z1 z2 and z1 / z2 : Let P and Q be the points corresponding to
the complex numbers z1 and z2 , where
z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1)
and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ).
Then OP = | z1 | = r1, OQ = | z2 | = r2 ,
and ∠ POX = arg z1 = θ1, ∠ QOX = arg z2 = θ2 .
Representation of z1 z2 We have
z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1) (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
= r1 r2 (cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i (sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 )
= r1 r2 [cos (θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ2 )].
From this representation of z1 z2 in standard polar
form, we observe that
| z1 z2 | = r1 r2 = | z1 || z2 |
i.e., the modulus of the product of two complex numbers is
equal to the product of their moduli ;
and arg (z1 z2 ) = θ1 + θ2 = arg z1 + arg z2
i.e., the argument of the product of two complex numbers is
equal to the sum of their arguments.
 C-14

Now the point R in the Argand diagram representing the complex number z1z2 can be
obtained in the following manner.
Take the point A on OX such that OA = 1.
Draw the triangle OPR similar to the triangle OAQ such that the points R and Q lie on
the opposite sides of OP,
∠ ROP = ∠ QOA = θ2
and ∠ OPR = ∠ OAQ.
Then ∠ ROX = ∠ POX + ∠ ROP = θ1 + θ2 = arg (z1z2 ).
Also from similar triangles OAQ and OPR, we have
OR OP
=
OQ OA
OP . OQ
or OR = = OP . OQ [∵ OA = 1]
OA
or OR = r1r2 = | z1 || z2 | = | z1z2 |.
Thus OR is the modulus of the complex number z1z2 and ∠ ROX is the argument of
z1z2 . Hence the product z1z2 is represented in the Argand diagram by the point R.
Remark : Multiplication by i.
1 1
Let z = r (cos θ + i sin θ). Since i = cos π + i sin π,
2 2

therefore

zi = r cos θ + π  + i sin θ + π   .
   
  2  2  
Hence multiplication of z with i rotates the vector for z through a right angle in the
positive direction.
Representation of z1 / z2 : We have
z1 r (cos θ1 + i sin θ1)
= 1
z2 r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1) (cos θ2 − i sin θ2 )
= ⋅
r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) (cos θ2 − i sin θ2 )
r1 (cos θ1 cos θ2 + sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i (sin θ1 cos θ2 − cos θ1 sin θ2 )
= ⋅
r2 cos2 θ2 + sin2 θ2
r1
= [cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 )].
r2
From the representation of z1 / z2 in standard polar form , we observe that
 z r |z |
 1= 1 = 1
z2 r2 | z2 |
i.e., the modulus of the quotient of two complex numbers is equal to the quotient of their moduli,
and arg (z1 / z2 ) = θ1 − θ2 = arg z1 − arg z2
i.e., the argument of the quotient of two complex numbers is equal to the difference of their
arguments.
 C-15

Now the point R in the Argand diagram representing the complex number z1 / z2 can be
obtained in the following manner :
Take the point A on OX such that OA = 1. Draw the
triangle ORP similar to triangle OAQ such that the
points R and Q are on the same side of OP,
∠ POR = ∠ QOA = θ2
and ∠ OPR = ∠ OQA.
Then ∠ ROX = ∠ POX − ∠ POR
= θ1 − θ2 = arg (z1 / z2 ).
Also from similar triangles OAQ and ORP, we have
OR OP OA . OP OP
= or OR = = [∵ OA = 1]
OA OQ OQ OQ
r | z | z 
or OR = 1 = 1 = 1⋅
r2 | z2 | z2
Thus OR is the modulus of the complex number z1 / z2 and ∠ ROX is the argument of
z1 / z2 .
Hence the quotient z1 / z2 is represented in the argand diagram by the point R.
Remark: We have proved that
arg (z1z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 and arg (z1 / z2 ) = arg z1 − arg z2 .
But if arg z1 and arg z2 are the principal values of the arguments, then arg z1 + arg z2
need not represent the principal value of the argument of z1z2 . A similar remark applies
to
arg z1 − arg z2 .
For example, if z1 = − 1 + i, z2 = 1 + i √ 3,
3 1
then arg z1 = π, arg z2 = π,
4 3
3 1 13
so that arg z1 + arg z2 = π + π = π > π.
4 3 12
Therefore, arg z1 + arg z2 cannot be the principal value of arg (z1z2 ).

11 Some Important Properties of Modulus and Arguments

of Complex Numbers
Theorem 1: Modulus and Argument of the Conjugate of a Complex Number.
If z is any non-zero complex number, then | z | = | z | and arg z = − arg z .
Proof: Let | z | = r and arg z = θ.
Then from modulus-argument form of a complex number, we have
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ).
∴ z = r (cos θ − i sin θ) = r [cos(− θ) + i sin (− θ)],
which is modulus-argument form for z.
Hence, | z | = r = | z |and arg z = − θ = − arg z .
 C-16

Theorem 2: Modulus and Argument of the Product of two Complex Numbers.

If z1 and z2 are any two non-zero complex numbers, then
| z1 z2 | = | z1 || z2 | and arg (z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 .
Proof: Let z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ).
Then | z1 | = r1,| z2 | = r2 , arg z1 = θ1 , arg z2 = θ2 .
We have, z1z2 = [r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1)] [r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )]
= r1r2 [(cos θ1 + i sin θ1) (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )]
= r1r2 [(cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i (sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 )]
= r1r2 [cos (θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ2 )].
From this representation of z1z2 in the modulus-argument form, we observe that
| z1 z2 | = r1r2 = | z1 || z2 |
and arg (z1 z2 ) = θ1 + θ2 = arg z1 + arg z2 .
Theorem 3. Modulus and Argument of the Quotient of Two Complex
Numbers:
If z1 and z2 are any two non-zero complex numbers, then
 z |z | z 
 1= 1 and arg  1  = arg z1 − arg z2 .
z
 2 | z 2|  z2 
Proof: Let z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ).
Then, | z1 | = r1,| z2 | = r2 , arg z1 = θ1 and arg z2 = θ2 .
z1 r (cos θ1 + i sin θ1) r (cos θ1 + i sin θ1) (cos θ2 − i sin θ2 )
We have = 1 = 1 ⋅
z2 r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) (cos θ2 − i sin θ2 )
r1 (cos θ1 cos θ2 + sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i (sin θ1 cos θ2 − cos θ1 sin θ2 )
= ⋅
r2 cos2 θ2 + sin2 θ2
r1
= [cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 )].
r2
z
From this representation of 1 in the standard polar form, we observe that
z2
 z r |z | z 
 1= 1 = 1 and arg  1  = θ1 − θ2 = arg z1 − arg z2 .
 2  2 | z2 |
z r  z2 
Theorem 4: Triangle Inequality.
The modulus of the sum of two complex numbers can never exceed the sum of their moduli i.e., if
z1 and z2 are any two complex numbers, then
| z1 + z2 | ≤ | z1 | + | z2 |.
Proof: The inequality| z1 + z2 | ≤ | z1 | + | z2 |is obviously true if any of the two complex
numbers z1 and z2 is zero. For, let z2 = 0 . Then
| z1 + z2 | = | z1 + 0 | = | z1 | = | z1 | + 0 = | z1 | + | 0 | = | z1 | + | z2 |
and so the relation | z1 + z2 | ≤ | z1 | + | z2 | is true.
Now, let z1 ≠ 0 and z2 ≠ 0 .
Let z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ),
so that | z1 | = r1 and | z2 | = r2 .
 C-17

We have z1 + z2 = (r1 cos θ1 + i r1 sin θ1) + (r2 cos θ2 + i r2 sin θ2 )

= (r1 cos θ1 + r2 cos θ2 ) + i (r1 sin θ1 + r2 sin θ2 ).
∴ | z1 + z2 | = (r1 cos θ1 + r2 cos θ2 )2 + (r1 sin θ1 + r2 sin θ2 )2

= r12 + r22 + 2 r1r2 cos (θ1 − θ2 )

≤ r12 + r22 + 2 r1r2 [∵ cos (θ1 − θ2 ) ≤ 1]

= (r1 + r2 )2 = r1 + r2 = | z1 | + | z2 |.
Hence, | z1 + z2 | ≤ | z1 | + | z2 |.
Corollary : | z1 − z2 | ≤ | z1 | + | z2 |
We have | z1 − z2 | = | z1 + (− z2 )| ≤ | z1| + | − z2 | = | z1 | + | z2 | [∵ | z | = | − z |]
∴ | z1 − z2| ≤| z1 | + | z2 |
Theorem 5: The modulus of the difference of two complex numbers can never be less than the
difference of their moduli. (Kumaun 2012, 13)
Proof: Let z1, z2 be two complex numbers. We have to prove that
| z1 − z2 | ≥ | z1 | − | z2 |.
We have
| z1 − z2 |2 = (z1 − z2 ) (z1 − z2 ) = (z1 − z2 ) ( z1 − z2 )
= z1 z1 + z2 z2 − (z1 z2 + z2 z1 )
= | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 − 2 R (z1 z2 ) [See theorem 2]
2 2
≥ | z1 | + | z2 | − 2 | z1 z2 | [ ∵ R (z ) ≤ | z |]
2 2
= | z1 | + | z2 | − 2 | z1 || z2 | [ ∵ | z | = | z |]
2
= [| z1 | − | z2 |] .
Thus | z1 − z2 |2 ≥ [| z1 | − | z2 |]2
∴ | z1 − z2 | ≥ | z1 | − | z2 |.
Alternative Proof: Let
z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
so that | z1 | = r1 and | z2 | = r2 .
We have z1 − z2 = (r1 cos θ1 − r2 cos θ2 ) + i (r1 sin θ1 − r2 sin θ2 ).
∴ | z1 − z2 | = √ [(r1 cos θ1 − r2 cos θ2 )2 + (r1 sin θ1 − r2 sin θ2 )2 ]
= √ [r12 + r22 − 2 r1 r2 cos (θ1 − θ2 )]
≥ √ (r12 + r22 − 2 r1 r2 ) [∵ cos (θ1 − θ2 ) ≤ 1]
= r1 − r2 = | z1 | − | z2 |.
Hence | z1 − z2 | ≥ | z1 | − | z2 |.
Corollary: | z1 + z2 | ≥ | z1 | − | z2 |.
We have | z1 + z2 | = | z1 − (− z2 )| ≥ | z1 | − | − z2 |
= | z1 | − | z2 |. [ ∵ | − z | = | z |]
 C-18

Parallelogram Law
Theorem 6:If z1, z2 are any complex numbers, then
| z1 + z2 |2 + | z1 − z2 |2 = 2 {| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 }.
Interpret the result geometrically.
Proof: We know that | z |2 = z z . Therefore, we have

| z1 + z2 |2 + | z1 − z2 |2

= (z1 + z2 ) (z1 + z2 ) + (z1 − z2 ) (z1 − z2 )

= (z1 + z2 ) (z1 + z2 ) + (z1 − z2 ) ( z1 − z2 )
= 2 z1 z1 + 2 z2 z2 = 2 | z1 |2 + 2| z2|2
= 2 {| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 }. …(1)
Geometrical interpretation: Let P and Q be the
points in the Argand diagram represented by the
complex numbers z1 and z2 respectively. Complete the
parallelogram OPRQ. Then we have
→ →
z1 = OP , z2 = OQ ,
→ → → → →
z1 + z2 = OP + OQ = OP + PR = OR ,
→ → →
z1 − z2 = OP − OQ = QP .

∴ | z1 | = OP,| z2 | = OQ,| z1 + z2 | = OR,| z1 − z2 | = QP.

Substituting these values in (1), we get
OR2 + QP2 = 2 (OP2 + OQ2 )
i.e., the sum of the squares of the diagonals of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of the
squares of its sides.

12 The Order Relations Greater Than or Less Than do not

apply to Complex Numbers
In the set of complex numbers the statements z1 > z2 or z1 < z2 are meaningless unless z1
and z2 are both real.
As | z |, R (z ), I (z ) are all real numbers so the statements | z1 | > or < | z2 |, R (z1) > or
< R (z2 ) and I (z1) > or < I (z2 ) are meaningful.
Also | z | = √ [{R (z )}2 + {I (z )}2 ]
or | z | 2 = {R (z )}2 + {I (z )}2 .
From this, it is obvious that
| z | ≥ | R (z )| ≥ R (z )
and | z | ≥ | I (z )| ≥ I (z ).
 C-19

13 Some Important Results about Complex Numbers

a + ib
(i) The separation of the complex number into real and imaginary parts
c + id
i.e., to put it in the form A + iB, where A and B are real numbers.
a + ib (a + ib) (c − id )
We have = ,
c + id (c + id ) (c − id )
multiplying the Nr and the Dr by the conjugate of the Dr
(ac + bd ) + i (bc − ad ) ac + bd bc − ad
= = 2 +i 2
c 2 + d2 c + d2 c + d2
ac + bd bc − ad
= A + iB, where A = 2 2
and B = 2 ⋅
c +d c + d2
Remember: To put the complex number (a + ib) / (c + id ) in the form A + iB,
multiply its numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
(ii) Effect of Multiplying a Complex number by Iota ( i ).
Let z = r (cos θ + i sin θ).
π π
Since i = cos + i sin , therefore
2 2
π π
z i = r (cos θ + i sin θ) cos + i sin 
 2 2
 π π 
= r cos θ +  + i sin θ +   ⋅
  2  2

Hence, multiplication of a complex number z by i results in rotating the vector joining the origin to
the point representing z through a right angle in the positive direction i.e., anticlockwise direction.
(iii) If the complex numbers z1 and z2 are represented in the Argand plane by the points
P and Q respectively, then| z2 − z1 | = PQ and arg (z2 − z1) is the angle through which
OX has to rotate in anti-clockwise direction so as to be in the direction of the vector
→
PQ .
It is often convenient to use the polar representation of a complex number z about some
point z0 other than the origin. The representation
z − z0 = ρ (cos φ + i sin φ) = ρ e i φ
means that ρ = | z − z0 | i.e., the distance between z and z0 , and φ is the angle of
inclination of the vector z − z0 with the real axis OX. If the vector z − z0 is rotated about
z0 in the anti-clockwise direction through an angle θ and z1 be the new position of z,
then
z1 − z0 = ρ e i (φ + θ) = ρ e iφ . e iθ = (z − z0 ) e iθ .
(iv) Angle between two intersecting lines in the Argand plane: Let the affixes of
the points A, B, C in the Argand plane taken in the anticlockwise sense be the complex
numbers z1, z2 , z3 respectively. Then
AB = | z2 − z1 |, AC = | z3 − z1 |, so that
 C-20

AC | z3 − z1 | z3 − z1
= = ⋅
AB | z2 − z1 | z2 − z1
Again arg (z2 − z1) is the angle which AB makes with the positive direction of x-axis and
arg (z3 − z1) is the angle which AC makes with the positive direction of x-axis.
∴ angle between the lines AB and AC i.e.,
∠ BAC = arg (z3 − z1) − arg (z2 − z1)
 z − z1 
= arg  3 ⋅
 z2 − z1 
z − z1 AC  z − z1 
Hence  3 = and arg  3  = ∠ BAC.
z2 − z1 AB  z2 − z1 

z3 − z1 AC
We can write = (cos α + i sin α), where ∠ BAC = α.
z2 − z1 AB
(v) If the points A, B, C and D represent the complex numbers z1, z2 , z3 and z4
respectively in the Argand plane, then
 z – z2 
arg  1 
 z3 – z4 
represents the angle through which DC is inclined to BA .
Also DC is perpendicular to BA
 z – z2  π
⇔ arg  1  =±
 z3 – z4  2
z1 – z2
⇔ is a purely imaginary number.
z3 – z4

14 Integral and Rational Powers of a Complex Number

Let z be a complex number and n a positive integer.
We define z n = z . z …… upto n times.
Let z be a complex number. We define
z 0 = 1, and z − n = (z − 1)n,
where n is a positive integer.
A complex number u is said to be an nth root of a complex number z, if un = z and we write
u = z1 / n.
p /q p
If p / q is a rational number ( p, q integers and q ≠ 0), we define z as the qth root of z
p /q
i.e., z = (z p )1 / q .
Binomial theorem: If z1 and z2 are complex numbers and n a positive integer, then
(z1 + z2 )n = z1n + nC1 z1n − 1 z2 + nC2 z1n − 2 z22 + ……
+ nCr z1n − r z2 r + …… + nCn z2 n.
 C-21

15 Geometrical Applications of Complex Numbers

Theorem 1: Formula for distance between two points.
If two complex numbers z1 and z2 be represented by the points A and B on the Argand Plane, then
the distance AB = | z2 − z1 | = | z1 − z2 | .
Proof: Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 . Then, these numbers on the Argand diagram
are represented by the points A ( x1, y1) and B ( x2 , y2 ) respectively.
We have, z2 − z1 = ( x2 + iy2 ) − ( x1 + iy1) = ( x2 − x1) + i ( y2 − y1).
∴ | z2 − z1 | = ( x2 − x1)2 + ( y2 − y1)2
= distance AB. [From Co-ordinate geometry]
Hence, AB = | z2 − z1 | = | z1 − z2 |.
Theorem 2:If two complex numbers z1 and z2 are represented by the points A and B on the
Argand plane, then the affix of the point dividing AB internally in the ratio m1 : m2 is the complex
 m z + m2 z1 
number  1 2  ⋅
 m1 + m2 

Proof: Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 . Then, these numbers on the Argand
diagram are represented by the points A ( x1, y1) and B ( x2 , y2 ) respectively.
From co-ordinate geometry, the co-ordinates of the point P dividing AB internally in
the ratio m1 : m2 are
 m1 x2 + m2 x1 m1 y2 + m2 y1 
 , ⋅
 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 
Hence, the affix of the point P
= the complex number representing the point P
 m x + m2 x1   m1 y2 + m2 y1 
= 1 2  + i 
 m1 + m2   m1 + m2 
m1 ( x2 + iy2 ) + m2 ( x1 + iy1) m1z2 + m2 z1
= = ⋅
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
1
Corollary 1: The affix of the middle point of z1, z2 is (z1 + z2 ) .
2
Corollary 2:If z1, z2 , z3 be the affixes of the vertices of a triangle, then the centroid of the triangle
1
has the affix (z1 + z2 + z3 ).
3
Corollary 3:Point dividing a line segment in the ratio λ : 1, λ ≠ − 1.
Let z1 = x1 + iy1, z2 = x2 + iy2 be the affixes of the points A and B respectively in the
Argand plane.
If λ be a real number ≠ − 1, then there is a unique point C on AB such that
AC : CB = λ : 1.
 x + λx2 y1 + λ y2 
The coordinates of C are given by  1 , ⋅
 1+ λ 1+ λ 
z + λz2
The affix of C is therefore 1 ⋅
1+ λ
 C-22

16 Equation of a Straight Line in the Complex Plane

The equation of a straight line passing through a point of affix a in the complex plane can
be put in the form
z = a + bt
where b is a non-zero complex number and the parameter t runs through all real values.
It is easy to see that the two equations
z = a + bt and z = a′ + b′t
represent the same line if and only if a ′ − a and b′ are real multiples of b. The lines are
parallel if b′ is a real multiple of b and they are equally directed if b ′ is a positive multiple of
b. We can identify the direction of a directed line by arg b. If α is the angle between the lines
z = a + bt and z = a ′ + b ′ t, then
 b ′
α = arg   ⋅
 b
Note that it depends on the order in which the lines occur. It follows that the lines are
b′
perpendicular if is purely imaginary.
b
The directed line z = a + bt determines a right half plane consisting of all points z such
 z − a
that I   <0
 b 
and a left half plane consisting of all points z with
 z − a
I   > 0.
 b 
Theorem 1: The equation of any straight line passing through the origin and making an angle
α with the real axis is z = re iα , where r is any real parameter.
Proof: Let z = x + iy be any point on the straight line passing through the origin and
making an angle α with the real axis. Then
x = r cos α, y = r sin α, where r is any real number.
∴ x + iy = r cos α + ir sin α = r (cos α + i sin α)
or z = re iα .
Hence, the equation of the required straight line is z = re iα ,where r is a real parameter.
Theorem 2: The equation of any straight line passing through the point z1 and making an angle
α with the real axis is z = z1 + re iα , where r is any real parameter.
Proof:Letz1 = x1 + iy1.
Let z = x + iy be any point on the straight line passing through the point z1 and making
an angle α with the real axis. Then
x − x1 = r cos α, y − y1 = r sin α, where r is any real number.
∴ ( x − x1) + i ( y − y1) = r cos α + ir sin α
or ( x + iy) − ( x1 + iy1) = r (cos α + i sin α)
or z − z1 = re iα or z = z1 + re iα .
 C-23

Hence, the equation of the required straight line is z = z1 + re iα , where r is a real

parameter.
Theorem 3: The equation of the straight line joining the points z1 and z2 is
z = tz1 + (1 − t) z2 , where t is a real parameter. (Kumaun 2009)
Proof: Let z be the affix of any point on the straight line joining the points z1 and z2 .
Suppose the point z divides the join of z1 and z2 in the ratio λ : 1, where λ is any real
number not equal to −1.
z1 + λz2  1   λ 
We have z= or z =   z1 +   z2 . …(1)
1+ λ 1 + λ  1 + λ 
1 1 λ
Put = t. Then 1 − t = 1 − = ⋅
1+ λ 1+ λ 1+ λ
∴ the equation (1) becomes z = tz1 + (1 − t) z2 .
Hence, the equation of the straight line joining the points z1 and z2 is
z = tz1 + (1 − t) z2 , where t is a real parameter.
Remark: The above equation is the equation of the straight line joining the points z1
and z2 in parametric form.
Theorem 4: The equation of the straight line joining the origin to the point z1 is z = tz1 , where t
is a real parameter.
Proof: Let z be the affix of any point on the straight line joining the origin to the point
z1.
Suppose the point z divides the join of the point z1 and the origin in the ratio λ :1, where
λ is any real number not equal to −1.
1 . z1 + λ . 0  1 
We have z= =  z1 . …(1)
1+ λ 1 + λ 
1
Put = t.
1+ λ
Then the equation (1) becomes z = tz1.
Hence, the equation of the straight line joining the origin to the point z1 is z = tz1, where
t is a real parameter.
Theorem 5: The equation of the straight line joining the points z1 and z2 is
z z 1
 z1 z1 1 = 0 .
 
 z2 z2 1
Proof: Let z be the affix of any point on the straight line joining the points z1 and z2 .
z − z1
Then arg = 0 or π
z2 − z1
z − z1 z − z1  z − z1 
⇒ is purely real ⇒ = 
z2 − z1 z2 − z1  z2 − z1 
 C-24

z − z1 z − z1
⇒ =
z2 − z1 z2 − z1
⇒ (z − z1) ( z2 − z1) = (z2 − z1) ( z − z1)
⇒ z ( z2 − z1) − z1 ( z2 − z1) = z (z2 − z1) − z1 (z2 − z1)
⇒ z ( z1 − z2 ) + z (z2 − z1) + (z1z2 − z2 z1) = 0
z z 1
⇒  z1 z1 1 = 0 .
 
 z2 z2 1
Hence, the equation of the required straight line joining the points z1 and z2 is
z z 1
 z1 z1 1 = 0 .
 
 z2 z2 1
Remark: The above equation is the equation of the straight line joining the points z1
and z2 in non-parametric form.
Corollary: The necessary and sufficient condition for the points z1, z2 and z3 to be collinear is
 z1 z1 1
 z2 z2 1 = 0 .
 
 z3 z3 1
Proof: The equation of the straight line joining the points z2 and z3 is
z z 1
 z2 z2 1 = 0 . …(1)
 
 z3 z3 1
The points z1, z2 and z3 are collinear if and only if the point z1 lies on the straight line (1)
i. e., if and only if
 z1 z1 1
 z2 z2 1 = 0 .
 
 z3 z3 1

17 Equation of a Circle in the Complex Plane

Theorem 1:The equation of a circle whose centre is at a point having affix z0 and radius R is
| z − z0 | = R.
Proof: Let C be the centre of the circle and R be its radius.
Then the affix of C is z0 . Let P be any point on the circle such
that the affix of P is z. Then CP = R ⇒ | z − z0 | = R.
Since P is an arbitrary point on the circle, therefore, the
equation of the circle is
| z − z0 | = R.
 C-25

Corollary: The equation of the circle whose centre is at the origin and radius R is | z | = R.
Remark: The inequality | z − z0 | < R represents the inside of the circle | z − z0 | = R
and the inequality| z − z0 | > R represents the outside of the circle| z − z0 | = R. Similarly
| z | < R represents the interior of the circle| z | = R and| z | > R represents the exterior of
the circle | z | = R.

Theorem 2:The equation of the circle passing through the three given points in the Argand plane
whose affixes are z1 , z2 and z3 is
(z − z1) (z3 − z2 ) ( z − z1) ( z3 − z2 )
= ⋅
(z − z2 ) (z3 − z1) ( z − z2 ) ( z3 − z1)
Proof: Let A, B, C be three given points representing the complex numbers z1, z2 , z3
respectively. Let z be the complex coordinate of any point P on the circle. Then the
angles ∠ ACB and ∠ APB are either equal as in figure (1) or have their sum equal to π as
in figure (2).
Now from figure (1)
z3 − z2 z − z2
∠ ACB = arg and ∠ APB = arg ⋅
z3 − z1 z − z1

Hence in this case, we have

z − z2 z − z2 (z3 − z2 ) (z − z1)
arg 3 − arg =0 or arg =0 …(1)
z3 − z1 z − z1 (z3 − z1) (z − z2 )

Again from figure (2), we have

z − z2 z − z1
∠ ACB = arg 3 and ∠ APB = arg ⋅
z3 − z1 z − z2
Hence in this case,
z − z2 z − z1 (z3 − z2 ) (z − z1)
arg 3 + arg =π or arg =π …(2)
z3 − z1 z − z2 (z3 − z1) (z − z2 )

(z − z1) (z3 − z2 )
It follows from (1) and (2) that
(z − z2 ) (z3 − z1)
 C-26

is purely real and so it must be equal to its conjugate. Hence we get

(z − z1) (z3 − z2 ) ( z − z1) ( z3 − z2 )
=
(z − z2 ) (z3 − z1) ( z − z2 ) ( z3 − z1)

as the required equation of the circle.

(z4 − z1) (z3 − z2 )
Corollary: The four points z1, z2 , z3 , z4 are concyclic if is purely real.
(z4 − z2 ) (z3 − z1)

2 + 3i
Example 1: Express in the form x + iy.
4 + 5i
Solution: Multiplying the numerator and the denominator of the given fraction by
the conjugate complex of the denominator, we have
2 + 3 i (2 + 3 i) (4 − 5 i) 8 − 10 i + 12 i − 15 i2
= =
4 + 5 i (4 + 5 i) (4 − 5 i) 16 − 25 i2
23 + 2 i 23 + 2 i 23 2
= = = + i. [∵ i2 = − 1]
16 + 25 41 41 41
∴ the real part x = 23 / 41 and the imaginary part y = 2 / 41.
Example 2: Express 1 − i in the modulus amplitude form.
Solution: Let 1 − i = r (cos θ + i sin θ).
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have
r cos θ = 1 …(1)
and r sin θ = − 1. …(2)
Squaring and adding (1) and (2), we have
r2 = 1 + 1 = 2.
∴ r = + √ 2.
Substituting the value of r in (1) and (2), we have
cos θ = 1 / √ 2 and sin θ = − 1 / √ 2.
These give θ = − π / 4.
Hence 1 − i = √ 2 {cos (− π / 4) + i sin (− π / 4)}.
1 + 7i
Example 3: Express in the modulus amplitude form.
(2 − i)2
1 + 7i 1 + 7i 1 + 7i
Solution: Here 2
= 2
= , [ ∵ i2 = − 1]
(2 − i) 4 − 4i + i 3 − 4i

(1 + 7 i) (3 + 4 i) 3 + 4 i + 21i + 28 i2 − 25 + 25 i
= = = = − 1 + i.
(3 − 4 i) (3 + 4 i) 9 − 16 i2 25
Now let − 1 + i = r (cos θ + i sin θ).
 C-27

Equating real and imaginary parts, we have

− 1 = r cos θ …(1)
and 1 = r sin θ. …(2)
Squaring (1) and (2) and adding, we have
r2 = 1 + 1 = 2.

∴ r = √ 2.
Now putting r = √ 2 in (1) and (2), we have
cos θ = − 1 / √ 2 and sin θ = 1 / √ 2, giving θ = 3 π / 4.

1 + 7i 3π 3π 
Hence 2
= √ 2 cos + i sin ⋅
(2 − i)  4 4

Example 4: Put the following number in the trigonometrical form:

1
(1 + i tan α), given − π < α < π, α ≠ ±
π.
2
sin α 1
Solution: We have 1 + i tan α = 1 + i = (cos α + i sin α)
cos α cos α

= sec α (cos α + i sin α).

1 1
Case I:If − π < α < π, then sec α is +ive, i.e., > 0 and so the desired trigonometrical
2 2
form of 1 + i tan α is
1 + i tan α = sec α (cos α + i sin α).
1
Case II: If − π < α < − π, then sec α is –ive and so − sec α is +ive. Therefore in this
2
case, we have
1 + i tan α = (− sec α) (− cos α − i sin α)
= (− sec α) [cos (π + α) + i sin (π + α)],
which is the desired form because in this case − π < π + α ≤ π.
1
Case III: If π < α < π, then again sec α is –ive and so − sec α is +ive. Therefore in this
2
case, we have
1 + i tan α = (− sec α) (− cos α − i sin α)
= (− sec α) [cos (π − α) − i sin (π − α)]
= (− sec α) [cos (α − π) + i sin (α − π)],
which is the desired form because in this case − π < α − π ≤ π.

Example 5: Find the moduli and arguments of the following complex numbers :
2
2 + i 2+i
(i)   (ii) ⋅
3 − i 4 i + (1 + i)2
 C-28

Solution: (i) We have

2
2 + i  3 + 4 i (3 + 4 i) (8 + 6 i) 50 i 1
  = = = = i.
 3 − i  8 − 6 i (8 − 6 i) (8 + 6 i) 100 2
1
Let i = r (cos θ + i sin θ).
2
1
Then 0 = r cos θ, = r sin θ.
2
Squaring and adding these relations, we get
1 1
r2 = so that r = ⋅
4 2
1
Putting r = , we have cos θ = 0 , sin θ = 1.
2
The value of θ lying between − π and π which satisfies both these equations is π / 2.
 2 + 2
i  1
∴   = r =
3 − i 2
 
2
 2 + i π
and the principal value of arg   = ⋅
 3 − i 2
2+i 2+i 1 1
(ii) 2
= = − i.
4 i + (1 + i) 6i 6 3
1 1
Let − i = r (cos θ + i sin θ).
6 3
1 1
Then = r cos θ, − = r sin θ.
6 3
Squaring and adding these relations, we get
1 1 5 √5
r2 = + = so that r = ⋅
36 9 36 6
Dividing, we get tan θ = − 2 ⇒ θ = − tan−1 2.
√5
Hence required modulus = r =
6
and argument = θ = − tan−1 2.
Example 6: Show that the representative points of the complex numbers i, − 2 − 5 i, 1 + 4 i and
3 + 10 i are collinear.
Solution:Let the representative points of the complex numbers i, − 2 − 5 i, 1 + 4 i and
3 + 10 ibe A, B, C and D respectively. Then the cartesian coordinates of these points are
A (0 , 1), B (−2, − 5), C (1, 4) and D (3, 10 ).
The equation of the line AB is
− 5 −1
y − 1= ( x − 0 ) i. e., y − 1 = 3 x
−2−0
i.e., y − 3 x = 1. …(1)
 C-29

Substituting the coordinates of C i.e., (1, 4) in (1), we have 4 − 3 = 1, which is satisfied.

Therefore C (1, 4) lies on the line AB.
Again substituting the coordinates of D i.e., (3, 10) in (1), we have 10 − 9 = 1, which is
also satisfied.
Therefore D (3, 10 ) also lies on the line AB.
Hence the four points A, B, C and D are collinear.
Example 7: (i) Show that arg z + arg z = 2 nπ, where n is any integer. (Kumaun 2014)

(ii) Show that amp (z ) − amp (− z ) = ± π, according as amp (z ) is positive or negative.

(iii) If | z1 | = | z2 | and amp z1 + amp z2 = 0 , show that z1 and z2 are conjugate numbers.
Solution: (i) Let z = x + iy, then z = x − iy, where x, y are real.
We have arg z + arg z = arg (z z ) = arg {( x + iy) ( x − iy)} = arg ( x2 + y2 ).
Now x2 + y2 is a positive real number, say a. Since a is a positive real number, therefore
the representative point of a in the Argand plane will lie on the positive side of the real
axis. So the principal value of arg a is 0 and the general value is 2nπ, where n is any
integer.
Hence arg z + arg z = 2 nπ.
(ii) Case I: When amp (z) is positive.
Let amp (z ) = θ, where − π < θ < π
then amp (− z ) = − (π − θ), where 0 < θ < π
Thus amp (z ) − amp (− z ) = θ + π − θ = π.
Case II: When amp (z ) is negative amp (− z ) = π − (− θ) = π + θ.
Therefore amp (z ) − amp (− z ) = θ − (π + θ) = − π.
(iii) Given amp z1 + amp z2 = 0 and | z1 | = | z2 |.
∴ amp z2 = − amp z1.
Since the modulus of the one number is equal to the modulus of the other and
amplitude of the one number is equal to the negative amplitude of the other. Hence the
two numbers are conjugate to each other.
Example 8:If P, Q, R are points of affix z1, z2 , z1 + z2 respectively, show that OPRQ is a
parallelogram. (Kumaun 2011)
Solution:Let z1 = x1 + iy1, z2 = x2 + iy2 ,
so that z1 + z2 = ( x1 + x2 ) + i ( y1 + y2 ).
Thus the coordinates of O, P, Q, R are (0, 0), ( x1, y1), ( x2 , y2 ) and ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
respectively.
x + x2 y1 + y2 
Now the mid-point of PQ is  1 , 
 2 2 
and the mid-point of OR is also
 0 + x1 + x2 0 + y1 + y2   x1 + x2 y + y2 
 ,  , i. e.,  , 1 ⋅
 2 2   2 2 
Hence OPRQ is a parallelogram.
 C-30

Example 9:If a and b are real numbers between 0 and1s.t. z1 = a + i, z2 = 1 + ib and z3 = 0 form
an equilateral triangle then a = ............., b = ............. .
Solution: Take O (0 ), A (z1 = a + i ),
B (z2 = 1 + ib).
Since ∆OAB is equilateral,
∴ OA = OB = AB
or (OA)2 = (OB)2 = ( AB)2 .

Now (OA)2 = (OB)2

⇒ (a − 0 )2 + (1 − 0 )2 = (b − 0 )2 + (1 − 0 )2
⇒ a2 = b2 ⇒ a = ± b ⇒ a = b ...(1)
as a > 0 , b > 0 .
Also (OA)2 = ( AB)2 ⇒ a2 + 1 = (a − 1)2 + (1 − b)2
⇒ a2 + 1 = (a − 1)2 + (1 − a)2 , by (1)
⇒ 0 = a2 + 1 − 4 a
4 ± 2 √3
or a= = 2 ± √3
2
or a = 2 − √ 3 as 0 < a < 1, 0 < b < 1.
Finally a = 2 − √ 3, b = 2 − √ 3.
Example 10: If the complex numbers sin x + i cos 2 x and cos x − i sin 2 x are complex
conjugate to each other, then find the value of x. (Kumaun 2008)
Solution: We have (sin x + i cos 2 x) = cos x − i sin 2 x
or sin x − i cos 2 x = cos x − i sin 2 x
or (sin x − cos x) + i (sin 2 x − cos 2 x) = 0
⇒ sin x − cos x = 0 ...(1)
and cos 2 x − sin 2 x = 0 . ...(2)
π π
(1) ⇒ tan x = 1 = tan or x = nπ +
4 4
π 5 π 9 π 13 π
∴ x= , , , , .............
4 4 4 4
π
(2) ⇒ tan 2 x = 1 = tan
4
π nπ π π
⇒ 2 x = nπ + ⇒ x= + = (4 n + 1)
4 2 8 8
π 5π 9π
∴ x= , , , .............
8 8 8
No value of x is common in both sets given by (1) and (2).
Hence there is no value of x for which both complex numbers are conjugate.
 C-31

Example 11: If z1 and z2 are two non-zero complex numbers s.t.

| z1 + z2 | = | z1 | + | z2 |,
then find arg (z1) − arg (z2 ). (Kumaun 2007)
Solution: Here | z1 + z2 | = | z1 | + | z2 | gives
2 2 2 2
|( x1 + x2 ) + i ( y1 + y2 )| = ( x1 + y1 )1 /2 + ( x2 + y2 )1 /2
where z1 = x1 + iy1, z2 = x2 + iy2 .
Squaring, we get
2 2 2 2
( x1 + x2 )2 + ( y1 + y2 )2 = ( x1 + y1 ) + ( x2 + y2 )
2 2 2 2
+ 2 [( x1 + y1 ) ( x2 + y2 )]1 /2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
or x1 x2 + y1 y2 = [( x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + ( x1 y2 + x2 y1 )]1 /2 .
2 2 2 2
Again squaring, we get 2 x1 x2 . y1 y2 = x1 y2 + x2 y1
or ( x1 y2 − x2 y1)2 = 0 or x1 y2 − x2 y1 = 0
x1 y
or = 1 = k , (say), which is real.
x2 y2
This gives z1 = x1 + iy1 = k ( x2 + iy2 ) = kz2 .
z   kz 
Now arg (z1) − arg (z2 ) = arg  1  = arg  2  = arg (k )
z
 2  z2 
= 0, and π, − π
according as k > 0 or k < 0.
Example 12: Show that the equation of a straight line in the Argand plane can be put in the
form zb + b z = c , where b is a non-zero complex constant and c is real.
Solution: Let z1, z2 be two given points, say A, B on the Argand plane. Let z be any
point, say P, on the line AB. Then we have
z − z1
arg = 0 or π
z1 − z2
z − z1 z − z1
so that is purely real i.e., I.P. of =0
z1 − z2 z1 − z2

 z − z1   z − z1 
or   −  =0
 z1 − z2   z1 − z2 
or (z − z1) (z1 − z2 ) − (z − z1) (z1 − z2 ) = 0
or z ( z1 − z2 ) − z (z1 − z2 ) + (z1 z2 − z1 z2 ) = 0 . …(1)
Since z1 z2 is conjugate of z1 z2 hence the number z1 z2 − z1 z2 is purely imaginary.
Let z1 z2 − z1 z2 = ic . …(2)
Multiplying (1) by i, we get
zi ( z1 − z2 ) − z i (z1 − z2 ) + i (z1 z2 − z1 z2 ) = 0

or zi ( z1 − z2 ) − z i (z1 − z2 ) − c = 0 , using (2).

 C-32

Now let i (z2 − z1) = b then i ( z1 − z2 ) = b .

Hence the equation takes the form
z b + z b = c.
Example 13: Show that the equation of a circle in the Argand plane can be put in the form
zz + b z + bz + c = 0,
where c is a real and b a complex constant. (Kumaun 2009)
Solution: Let r be the radius and α the affix of the centre of the circle, say the point C.
Let z be the affix of any point P on the circle. Then we have
| z − α | = CP = r or | z − α |2 = r2

or (z − α) (z − α) = r2 or (z − α) (z − α ) = r2

or z z − α z − z α + α α − r2 = 0,
which is of the form zz + bz + bz + c = 0, where c is real, since α α − r2 is real, and b is
complex.
Remark: The affix α of the centre of the circle z z + b z + b z + c = 0 is given by
α = − b and the radius r is given by α α − r2 = c .

We have α α − r2 = c ⇒ r2 = α α − c = (− b) (− b) − c
= |− b | 2 − c = | b |2 − c .

Hence, the centre of the circle z z + b z + b z + c = 0 is the point − b and its radius
is √ (b b − c ) i. e., √ (| b |2 − c ).

Example 14: Show that the equation of a circle described on the line segment joining z1
and z2 as diameter is (z − z1) (z − z2 ) + (z − z2 ) (z − z1 ) = 0 .
Solution: Let z be the affix of any point P on the circle discribed on the line segment
joining z1 and z2 as diameter. We then have
z − z1 π π
arg = or −
z − z2 2 2
z − z1
so that is purely imaginary.
z − z2
z − z1 z − z1
∴ + =0
z − z2 z − z2

or (z − z1) (z − z2 ) + (z − z2 ) (z − z1 ) = 0 ,
which is the equation of the locus of the point z i.e., the equation of the circle described
on the line segment joining z1 and z2 as diameter.
2
Example 15:Show that if the equation z + αz + β = 0 has a pair of conjugate complex roots,
2
then α, β are both real and α < 4β.
Solution: Let x + i y and x − i y be two conjugate complex roots of z 2 + αz + β = 0 .
 C-33

Then sum of the roots = 2 x = α …(1)

2 2
and product of the roots = x + y = β. …(2)
(1) and (2) show that α, β are both real. Also we have
4 x2 < 4 x2 + 4 y2 [∵ y2 > 0 ]

⇒ α2 < 4β.

Example 16:Determine the regions of Argand diagram defined by

(i) | z 2 − z | < 1, (ii) | z − 1| + | z + 1| ≤ 4.

Solution: (i) We have | z 2 − z | < 1

⇒ | r2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ) − r (cos θ + i sin θ)| < 1

⇒ |(r2 cos 2θ − r cos θ) + i (r2 sin 2θ − r sin θ)|2 < 1

⇒ (r2 cos 2θ − r cos θ)2 + (r2 sin 2θ − r sin θ)2 < 1

⇒ r4 − 2 r3 (cos 2θ cos θ + sin 2θ sin θ) + r2 < 1

⇒ r4 − 2 r3 cos θ + r2 − 1 < 0 ,

which represents the interior of the curve r4 − 2 r3 cos θ + r2 − 1 = 0 .

(ii) We have | z − 1| + | z + 1| ≤ 4.
⇒ | z − 1|2 + | z + 1|2 + 2 | z − 1|| z + 1| ≤ 16

⇒ (z − 1)( z − 1) + (z + 1)( z + 1) + 2 |(z − 1)(z + 1)| ≤ 16

⇒ z z − z − z + 1 + z z + z + z + 1 + 2 | z 2 − 1| ≤ 16

⇒ 2 | z |2 + 2 + 2 | z 2 − 1| ≤ 16

⇒ | z |2 + | z 2 − 1| ≤ 7

⇒ | x + iy |2 + |( x + iy)2 − 1| ≤ 7

⇒ | x + iy |2 + |( x2 − y2 − 1) + 2 ixy | ≤ 7

⇒ ( x2 + y2 ) + √ [( x2 − y2 − 1)2 + 4 x2 y2 ] ≤ 7

⇒ √ [( x2 − y2 − 1)2 + 4 x2 y2 ] ≤ 7 − ( x2 + y2 )

⇒ ( x2 − y2 − 1)2 + 4 x2 y2 ≤ [7 − ( x2 + y2 )]2

⇒ ( x2 − y2 )2 + 1 − 2 ( x2 − y2 ) + 4 x2 y2 ≤ 49 + ( x2 + y2 )2 − 14 ( x2 + y2 )

⇒ ( x2 + y2 )2 + 1 − 2 x2 + 2 y2 ≤ 49 + ( x2 + y2 )2 − 14 x2 − 14 y2

⇒ 12 x2 + 16 y2 ≤ 48 ⇒ 3 x2 + 4 y2 ≤ 12

⇒ ( x2 / 4) + ( y2 / 3) ≤ 1.
∴ The points z are on the boundary or in the interior of the ellipse
( x2 / 4) + ( y2 / 3) = 1.
 C-34

Example 17: Prove that

 z1 − z2 
 < 1 if | z1 | < 1 and | z2 | < 1.
1 − z1 z2 (Kumaun 2010)
 z − z2 
Solution: The inequality 1 < 1 will hold good if
1 − z1 z2
| z1 − z2 | < |1 − z1 z2 | or | z1 − z2 |2 < |1 − z1 z2 |2

or (z1 − z2 ) (z1 − z2 ) < (1 − z1 z2 ) (1 − z1 z2 ) [∵| z |2 = z z ]

or (z1 − z2 ) (z1 − z2 ) < (1 − z1 z2 )(1 − z1 z2 )

or z1 z1 − z1 z2 − z2 z1 + z2 z2 < 1 − z1 z2 − z1 z2 + z z1 z2 z2

or | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 < 1 + | z1 |2 | z2 |2

or | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 − 1 − | z1 |2 | z2 |2 < 0

or (| z1 |2 − 1) (1 − | z2 |2 ) < 0 . …(1)
Now the inequality (1) will hold if | z1 | < 1 and | z2 | < 1.
 z1 − z2 
Hence  < 1 if | z1 | < 1 and | z2 | < 1.
1 − z1 z2
Example 18: The vertices of a triangle are represented in Argand diagram by the complex
z − z1
numbers z1, z2 , z3 . Interpret the modulus and argument of 2 in terms of the sides and angles
z3 − z1
of the triangle.
Solution: Let the points z = z1, z = z2 , z = z3 be A, B, C respectively in the Argand
plane.
→ → →
Then z1 = OA , z2 = OB , z3 = OC , where O is the origin.
→ → → → → →
We have z2 − z1 = OB − OA = AB and z3 − z1 = OC − OA = AC .

Now AB = | z2 − z1 | and AC = | z3 − z1 |.

AB | z2 − z1 | z2 − z1
∴ = = ⋅
AC | z3 − z1 | z3 − z1
Again arg (z2 − z1) is the angle which AB makes with the positive direction of x-axis and
arg (z3 − z1) is the angle which AC makes with the positive direction of x-axis.
∴ angle between the lines AB and AC i.e., ∠ BAC
= arg (z2 − z1) − arg (z3 − z1) = arg [(z2 − z1) / (z3 − z1)].
z2 − z1 AB z − z1
Hence  = and arg 2 = ∠ BAC.
z
3 − z1 AC z3 − z1
 C-35

Example 19:Prove that the area of the triangle whose vertices are the points represented by the
complex numbers z1, z2 , z3 on the Argand diagram is
Σ [(z2 − z3 )| z1 |2 /4 iz1].
Solution: Let z1 = x1 + iy1, z2 = x2 + iy2 , z3 = x3 + iy3 , so that the
coordinates of the vertices of the given triangle are ( x1, y1), ( x2 , y2 ) and ( x3 , y3 ).
Now the required area of the triangle
 x1 y1 1  x1 i y1 1
1  1
= x2 y2 1 = x i y2 1
2  2 i 2 
 x3 y3 1  x3 i y3 1

 x1 x1 + i y1 1
1
= x2 x2 + i y2 1, C2 + C1
2 i 
 x3 x3 + i y3 1

 x1 z1 1
1
= x2 z2 1
2 i 
 x3 z3 1
1
= Σ [ x1 (z2 − z3 )],
2i
expanding the determinant along the first column
1 1
= Σ [ (z1 + z1) (z2 − z3 )]
2i 2
[∵ z1 + z1 = ( x1 + i y1) + ( x1 − i y1) = 2 x1]
1 1
= Σ z1 (z2 − z3 ) + z1 (z2 − z3 )
4i 4i
1 1  z1 z1 
= (0 ) + Σ (z2 − z3 ) [∵ Σ z1 (z2 − z3 ) = 0 ]
4i 4 i  z1 
(z − z3 )| z1 |2 
=Σ 2 ⋅ [ ∵ z1 z1 = | z1 |2 ]
 4 iz1 
Example 20: If z1, z2 , z3 are the vertices of an isosceles triangle, right angled at the vertex
z2 , prove that z12 + 2 z22 + z32 = 2 z2 (z1 + z3 ).
Solution: Let the complex numbers z1, z2 , z3 represent the points A, B, C respectively
in the Argand diagram.
Since ∠ ABC = 90 °, we have
z − z1 π π
arg 2 = or − ,
z2 − z3 2 2
z2 − z1
so that is purely imaginary.
z2 − z3

Now if a complex number z = x + iy is purely imaginary i.e., x = 0 then z + z = 0.

 C-36

z2 − z1 z − z1 z2 − z1 z − z1
∴ + 2 =0 or =− 2 ⋅ …(1)
z2 − z3 z2 − z3 z2 − z3 z2 − z3

Again BA = BC
so that | z2 − z1 | = | z2 − z3 | or | z2 − z1 |2 = | z2 − z3 |2

or (z2 − z1) (z2 − z1) = (z2 − z3 ) (z2 − z3 ). …(2)

Multiplying (1) and (2), we get
(z2 − z1)2 (z2 − z1)
= − (z2 − z1) (z2 − z3 )
(z2 − z3 )

or [(z2 − z1)2 + (z2 − z3 )2 ] (z2 − z1) = 0

or (z2 − z1)2 + (z2 − z3 )2 = 0 [ ∵ z2 ≠ z1 ⇒ z2 ≠ z1 ]

or z12 + 2 z22 + z32 = 2 z2 (z1 + z3 ).

Example 21: Find the equations in complex variables of all the circles which are orthogonal to
|z|=1 and | z − 1| = 4.
Solution: The given circles are| z | = 1whose centre being the origin (0, 0) and radius 1
and| z − 1| = 4 whose centre being the point (1, 0) and radius 4. Let the equation of any
circle intersecting the above two circles orthogonally be| z − (α + i β)| = r whose centre
is the point (α, β) and radius r. Now two circles intersect orthogonally if the square of the
distance between their centres is equal to the sum of the squares of their radii.
∴ α2 + β 2 = 1 + r 2 …(1)
2 2 2
and (α − 1) + β = 16 + r . …(2)
Subtracting (1) from (2), we get
− 2α + 1 = 15 or α = − 7.
Putting α = − 7 in (1), we get
β2 = r2 − 48 or r2 = β2 + 48.

Hence the required circles are

| z − (− 7 + iβ)| = √ (β2 + 48)

or | z + 7 − iβ | = √ (β2 + 48), β is any real number

or | z + 7 + iβ | = √ (β2 + 48), β is any real number.

Example 22: If | z1 | = | z2 | = | z3 | = 1 and z1 + z2 + z3 = 0 , show that z1, z2 , z3 are the
vertices of an equilateral triangle inscribed in a unit circle.
Solution:Since | z1 | = | z2 | = | z3 | = 1, therefore the origin is the circumcentre of the
triangle and its circum-radius is 1.
Now the affix of the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are z1, z2 , z3 is
1
(z1 + z2 + z3 ).
3
 C-37

Since according to question z1 + z2 + z3 = 0 , therefore the origin is also the centroid of

the triangle.
Thus for the given triangle, the centroid and the circumcentre coincide. Hence it is an
equilateral triangle inscribed in a unit circle.

Comprehensive Exercise 1

3 − 2i
1. Find real numbers A and B, if A + iB = ⋅
7 + 4i
1
2. Find real numbers A and B, if A + iB = ⋅
(1 − 2 i ) (2 + 3 i )
3. Find the value of the principal arguments of :
(i) x (ii) − x
(iii) iy (iv) − iy, where x > 0 ; y > 0 .
4. Find the moduli and arguments of the following complex numbers :
1− i 1 + 2i 3−i 3+i
(i) , (ii) , (iii) + ⋅
1+ i 1 − (1 − i)2 2+i 2−i
5. Show that the origin and the points representing the roots of the equation
z 2 + pz + q = 0 form an equilateral triangle if p2 = 3 q.
6. A, B, C, D, E are points on the complex plane representing complex numbers
z1, z2 , z3 , z4 , z5 respectively. If (z3 − z2 ) z4 = (z1 − z2 ) z5 , then prove that
∆ ABC and ∆ODE are similar, O being origin.
7. The roots z1, z2 , z3 of the equation x3 + 3 ax2 + 3 bx + c = 0 ,
in which a, b, c c are complex numbers, correspond to the points A, B, C on the
Argand plane. Find the centroid of the triangle ABC and show that it will be
equilateral if a2 = b.
8. If z1 and z2 are two complex numbers, prove that
| z1 + z2 |2 = | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 ,
if and only if, z1 z2 is purely imaginary.
9. Prove that the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are z1, z2 , z3 is
z1 + z2 + z3
⋅
3
10. Prove that | z1 + z2 |2 + | z1 − z2 |2 = 2 | z1 |2 + 2 | z2 |2 .
Interpret the result geometrically and deduce that
| α + √ (α2 − β2 )| + | α − √ (α2 − β2 )| = | α + β | + | α − β |,
all numbers involved being complex. (Meerut 2000)
11. A student writes the formula √ (ab) = √ a √ b. Then substitutes a = − 1 and b = − 1
and finds 1 = − 1. Explain where he is wrong.
 C-38

12. Let z1, z2 be complex numbers s.t. z1 ≠ z2 and | z1 | = | z2 |. If z1 has positive real
z + z2
part and z2 has negative imaginary part, then show that 1 will be purely
z1 − z2
imaginary.
13. Find the loci of the points z satisfying the conditions
z −1 π
(i) arg = ⋅ (ii) z = a cos t + b sin t
z +1 3
1 1
14. Prove that | z1 | + | z2 | = | (z1 + z2 ) + √ (z1z2 )| + | (z1 + z2 ) − √ (z1z2 )|.
2 2
15. If z1, z2 are the roots of αz 2 + 2βz + γ = 0 , prove that
1
| z1 | + | z2 | = [| − β + √ (αγ )| + | − β − √ (αγ )|].
|α |
z − a
16. Find the regions of the z-plane for which  < 1, = 1 or > 1,
z + a
where the real part of a is positive.
17. Prove that the sum and product of two complex numbers are real if and only if
they are conjugate of each other.
18. Find the loci of the points z satisfying the conditions
 z − i
(i)  ≥ 2 (ii) | z 2 − 1| < 1 .
 z + i
19. Find the loci of the points z satisfying the conditions
(i) | z − 1| ≥ 2 (ii) | z 2 − 1| < 2 .
20. Find the loci of the points z satisfying the conditions
 z − 1 b
(i)  ≤ 2 (ii) z = at + .
 z + 1 t
21. Show that the area of the triangle on the Argand plane formed by the complex
1
numbers z , iz and z + iz is | z |2 .
2
 z − 1  z − 1
22. Prove that  = const. and amp   = const. are orthogonal circles.
 z + 1  z + 1
23. Show that locus of z such that | z − a |.| z + a | = a2 , a > 0 is a lemniscate.
(Kumaun 2008)
A B
24. Let A and B be two complex numbers such that + = 1.
B A
Prove that the origin and the points represented by A and B form vertices of an
equilateral triangle.

A nswers 1

1. A = 1 / 5, B = 2 / 5 2. A = 8 / 65, B = 1 / 65
 C-39

1 1
3. (i) 0, (ii) π, (iii) π, (iv) − π
2 2
π
4. (i) 1; − , (ii) 1; 0, (iii) 2; 0 7. − a
2
13. (i) x2 + y2 − (2 / √ 3) y − 1 = 0 ,
(ii) x2 (a22 + b22 ) + y2 (a12 + b12 ) − 2 xy (a1a2 + b1b2 ) = (b1a2 − b2 a1)2
16. x> =<0
18. (i) 3 x2 + 3 y2 + 10 y + 3 = 0 (ii) r2 = 2 cos 2θ
19. (i) ( x − 1)2 + y2 = 4 (ii) r4 − 2 r2 cos 2θ − 3 = 0
20. (i) 3 x2 + 3 y2 + 10 x + 3 = 0
b1 b
(ii) x = a1t + , y = a2 t + 2
t t
Eliminating ‘t’ between these, we get the required locus.

Objective Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from (a),
(b), (c) and (d).
1. Polar form of complex number − 5 + 5i is :
(a) 5 √ 2 e i π /4 (b) 5 √ 2 e − 3 i π /4
(c) 5 √ 2 e3 i π /4 (d) none of these.
2. If the amplitude of the complex number z be θ, then amplitude of iz is :
π
(a) − θ (b) θ +
2
(c) θ + π (d) none of these.
(Kumaun 2008, 13)
3. If z = x + iy then z z =
(a) x2 + y2 (b) x2 − y2
(c) 0 (d) none of these.
4. If z1, z2 are any complex numbers, then | z1 + z2 | 2 + | z1 − z2 | 2 =
(a) 2 {| z1 | 2 − | z2 | 2 } (b) 2 {| z1 | 2 + | z2 | 2 }
(c) {| z1 | 2 + | z2 | 2 } (d) none of these. (Kumaun 2012)

5. The multiplicative inverse of the complex number (a, b) ≠ (0 , 0 ) is the complex

number :
 a b   −a −b 
(a)  2 2
, 2 2
 (b)  2 2
, 2 2

a + b a + b  a + b a + b 
 C-40

 −a b   a −b 
(c)  2 2
, 2 2
 (d)  2 2
, 2 2
⋅
a + b a + b  a + b a + b 

6. The equation | z − 1| = | z + i| represents :

(a) a line through the origin whose slope is 1
(b) a line through the origin whose slope is − 1
(c) an ellipse whose foci are at z = 1, − i
(d) a circle through the origin.
7. Exp (2 ± 3 iπ) =
(a) e − 2 (b) − e 2
(c) e ± 3 i (d) none of these.
8. The points z1, z2 , z3 , z4 in order in the complex plane are the vertices of a
parallelogram iff :
(a) z1 + z4 = z2 + z3 (b) z1 + z3 = z2 + z4
(c) z1 + z2 = z3 + z4 (d) none of these.

9. If z1 and z2 are any two complex numbers, then

(a) | z1 − z2 | = | z1 | − | z2 | (b) | z1 − z2 | ≤ | z1 | + | z2 |
(c) | z1 − z2 | ≤ | z1 | − | z2 | (d) | z1 − z2 | ≥ | z1 | + | z2 |.
(Kumaun 2014, 15)
10. In an Argand plane the centre of the circle | 4 z − 8 + 12 i| = 7 has the affix
(a) 2 − 3 i (b) 8 − 12 i
(c) 2 + 3 i (d) 8 + 12 i .
11. In an Argand plane the radius of the circle |5 z + 15 − 16 i| = 20 is
(a) 20 (b) 2
(c) 4 (d) 10.

12. If sin ( x + iy) = p + iq, where p and q are real, then

(a) q = sin x cos y (b) q = cos x sin y
(c) q = sin x cosh y (d) q = cos x sinh y.
13. Equation z z + b z + b z + c = 0, where c is real and b is complex constant
represents :
(a) a straight line (b) parabola
(c) ellipse (d) circle (Kumaun 2009, 12)

14. If z 1 and z 2 are two complex numbers than | z1 − z2 | is :

(a) ≤ | z1 | − | z2 | (b) < | z1 | − | z2 |
(c) > | z1 | − | z2 | (d) ≥ | z1 | − | z2 | (Kumaun 2010)

15. arg z + arg z =

(a) 0 (b) n π
nπ
(c) (d) 2n π
2 (Kumaun 2014)
 C-41

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks ‘‘.............’’ so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1. If z = x + iy is any complex number then the non-negative real number ............. is
called the modulus of the complex number z.
2. Using exponential form if z = re iθ , then z = ............. .
3. A complex number z = x + iy is purely imaginary if and only if z + z = ............. .
4. The value of the argument which satisfies the inequality − π < θ ≤ π is called the
............. value of the argument.
5. If two complex numbers z1 and z2 are represented in the Argand diagram, then
the distance between the points z1 and z2 is ............. .
6. In an Argand plane the equation of the straight line joining the points z1 and z2 is
z = tz1 + …… , where t is a real parameter.
7. In an Argand plane the affix of the point dividing the join of the points z1 and z2
internally in the ratio m1 : m2 is …… .
8. In an Argand plane the equation of the circle whose centre is the point 2 + 3 i and
whose radius is 5 is …… .
9. In an Argand plane the centre of the circle | 2 z − 4 + 6 i| = 7 is the point whose
affix is …… .
10. In an Argand plane the radius of the circle |3 z − (6 + 4 i)| = 9 is …… .
11. In an Argand plane the equation of the straight line joining the origin to the
middle point of the points 2 + 4 i and 6 + 8 i is z = t (……), where t is a real
parameter.
12. In an Argand plane the equation of the circle described on the line segment
joining the points z1 and z2 as diameter is (z − z1) ( z − z2 ) + …… = 0 .
13. If e z = a + ib, where a and b are real, then b = …… .

14. If cos ( x + iy) = a + ib, where a and b are real, then a = …… .

15. If cos ( x + iy) = a + ib, where a and b are real, then b = …… .

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
1. The formula √ (ab) = √ a √ b is valid only if at least one of the numbers a and b is
non-negative.
2. The modulus of the sum of two complex numbers can exceed the sum of their
moduli.
3. The modulus of the difference of two complex numbers can be less than the
difference of their moduli.
4. Argument of negative real number is ± π.
5. The order relations greater than or less than do not apply to complex numbers.
6. If z is any complex number, then z z =| z |.
 C-42

7. In an Argand plane | z + i| = | z − i| represents a straight line.

8. In an Argand plane | z + i| = 2 | z − i| represents a straight line.
9. In an Argand plane | z + i| = 2 | z − i| represents a circle.
10. In an Argand plane the centre of the circle| z − 3 − 4 i| = 5 has the affix 3 + 4 i.
11. In an Argand plane the radius of the circle | 5 z − 4 + 3 i| = 25 is 25.
12. If sin ( x − iy) = a + ib, where a and b are real, then b = cos x sinh y.
x2 y2
13. If sin (α + iβ) = x + iy, then 2
+ = 1.
sin α cos2 α

Answers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d)
6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (d)

Fill in the Blank(s)

1. √ ( x2 + y2 ) 2. re − i θ 3. 0
4. principal 5. | z1 − z2 | 6. (1 − t) z2
m1 z2 + m2 z1
7. 8. | z − (2 + 3 i)| = 5 9. 2 − 3 i
m1 + m2
10. 3 11. 4+6i
12. (z − z2 ) ( z − z1) 13. e x sin y
14. cos x cosh y 15. − sin x sinh y

True or False
1. T 2. F 3. F 4. T 5. T
6. F 7. T 8. F 9. T 10. T
11. F 12. F 13. F

¨
 2
A nalytic F unctions

1 Curves in the Argand Plane

e know that the equations of the type x = x (t), y = y (t), where t is the
W parameter, give the parametric representation of a curve in the plane. Using the
complex variable z, these equations can be written as a single equation
z = z (t) = x (t) + i y (t) where z = x + iy.
Definitions: (a) In the Argand plane, a continuous complex valued function
z (t) = x (t) + iy (t), where x (t) and y (t) are real valued continuous functions of a real variable t,
defined in the range α ≤ t ≤ β where α < β is called a continuous arc or a curve. We call z (α) and
z (β) the end points of the curve, z (α) is the initial point and z ( β) the terminal point of
the curve. If z (α) = z (β) i.e., if the initial and terminal points of a curve coincide, the
curve is said to be a closed curve.
A point z1 is a multiple point of the curve if the equation z1 = x (t) + iy (t) is satisfied by
more than one value of t in the given range. In particular the multiple point is called a
double point if the above equation is satisfied by two values of t in the given range.
 C-44

(b) A curve Γ given by, z (t) = x (t) + iy (t), α ≤ t ≤ β is called a Jordan arc or a simple
curve if t1 ≠ t2 implies z (t1) ≠ z (t2 ) i.e., z (t) is one-one. A Jordan arc is a curve without
multiple points.
(c) A closed curve Γ given by z (t) = x (t) + iy (t), α ≤ t ≤ β, is called simple if t1 < t2 and
z (t1) = z (t2 ) imply t1 = α and t2 = β.
We usually refer to such curves as simple closed Jordan curves.
Illustration: The circle z = cos t + i sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π is a simple closed Jordan curve
since the values of z (t) coincide only at the end points t = 0 and t = 2π.

The Jordan Curve Theorem: The theorem states that a simple closed Jordan curve
divides the Argand plane into two open domains which have the curve as common boundary.
Of these two domains one is bounded and it is called the interior domain ; the other is
unbounded and is called the exterior domain. For example, the circle| z | = r divides
the Argand plane into two open domains given by| z | < r and| z | > r. Out of these| z | < r
is bounded and is the interior of the circle ; the other | z | > r is unbounded and is the
exterior of the circle,| z | = r.The circle is the common boundary of the two domains.

2 Functions of a Complex Variable

If certain rules be given by means of which it is possible to find one or more complex numbers w for
every value of z in a certain domain D, w is said to be a function of z defined on the domain D and we
write
w = f (z ).
Since z = x + iy, f (z ) will be of the form u + iv where u and v are functions of two real
variables x and y. Thus we can write w = u ( x, y) + i v ( x, y), x, y are real.
Single valued and multiple valued functions: If w takes only one value for each
value of z in the region D, w is said to be a uniform or single valued function of z. If there
correspond two or more values of w for some or all values of z in the region D, w is called
multiple valued function of z.

3 Neighbourhood of a Point
A neighbourhood of a point z0 in the Argand plane is the set of all points z such that
| z − z0 | < δ, where δ is an arbitrary small positive number. The number δ is called the
radius of this neighbourhood.
Deleted neighbourhood: If from a neighbourhood of a point z0 , the point z0 itself is
deleted or excluded, we get a deleted neighbourhood of z0 .
 C-45

4 Limit and Continuity

Let f (z ) be any function of the complex variable z defined in a bounded and closed domain D. Then
l is said to be the limit of f (z ) as z approaches a along any path in D if for any arbitrarily chosen
positive number ε, however small but not zero, there exists a corresponding number δ greater than
zero such that
| f (z ) − l | < ε,
for all values of z for which 0 < | z − a | < δ.
lim
In symbols, we write f (z ) = l.
z→a

Continuity: A function f (z ) of a complex variable z defined in the closed and bounded domain
D is said to be continuous at a ∈ D if and only if for any arbitrarily chosen positive number ε,
however small but not zero, there exists a corresponding number δ > 0 such that
| f (z ) − f (a)| < ε whenever | z − a | < δ.
It follows from the definitions of limit and continuity that f (z ) is continuous at
lim
z = a iff f (z ) = f (a).
z→a

We say that f (z ) is a continuous function in a domain D if it is continuous at every

z ∈ D.
We can easily show that f (z ) = u ( x, y) + i v ( x, y) is a continuous function of z iff u and
v are continuous functions of x and y.
Uniform continuity: A function f (z ) defined in a domain D is said to be uniformly
continuous in D if given ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that | f (z1) − f (z2 )| < ε whenever
| z1 − z2 | < δ, where z1 and z2 are points in D.
It should be noted carefully that uniform continuity is a property associated with a
domain and not with a single point of it.
If f (z ) is uniformly continuous in a domain D, it is continuous in D.
A function which is continuous in a closed and bounded domain D is uniformly
continuous in D, whereas a function continuous in an open domain D ′ may fail to be
uniformly continuous in the domain D ′⋅

5 Differentiability
Since the mode of definitions of continuity is the same both in case of the functions of
the real and complex variables therefore definition of differentiability of a complex
function is identical with that of the real function.
Let w = f (z ) be a function of a complex variable z defined in a domain D. Then f (z ) is said to be
differentiable at a point z0 of D iff
 C-46

lim f (z0 + ∆ z ) − f (z0 ) lim f (z ) − f (z0 )

or exists uniquely and finitely
∆z→0 ∆z z → z0 z − z0
and this limit, if it exists finitely, is called the differential coefficient or derivative of f
with respect to z at z = z0 .
It is denoted by f ′ (z0 ) or by Df (z0 ).
If the value of the above limit as z → z0 is not unique i.e., if the limit depends upon
amp ∆ z, we say that the derivative of f (z ) at z = z0 does not exist or the function f (z )
is non-differentiable at z = z0 .
Hence if we have to show that f (z ) is non-differentiable, we should try different paths
for ∆ z. Convenient paths for ∆ z are along real and imaginary axes i.e., we can take ∆ z
either wholly real or wholly imaginary.
Note: Since the derivative of a complex function has been defined in the same manner
as the derivative of a function of a single real variable, therefore all the rules of
differential calculus remain the same when applied to complex functions.
(Meerut 2002)

Theorem 1: Continuity is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for the existence of a finite
derivative.
Proof: Let f (z ) be differentiable at z0 . Then,
lim f (z ) − f (z0 )
z → z0 z − z0
exists and equals f ′ (z0 ).
Now we can write
f (z ) − f (z0 )
f (z ) − f (z0 ) = (z − z0 ) , if z ≠ z0 .
z − z0
Taking limit of both sides as z → z0 , we get
lim lim  { f (z ) − f (z0 )} 
[ f (z ) − f (z0 )] = (z − z0 )
z → z0 z → z0  z − z0


lim lim f (z ) − f (z0 )
= (z − z0 )
z → z0 z → z0 z − z0

= f ′ (z0 ). 0 = 0 ,
lim
so that f (z ) = f (z0 ).
z → z0

Hence f (z ) is continuous at z0 . Thus continuity is a necessary condition for

differentiability but it is not a sufficient condition for the existence of a finite
derivative.
The following example illustrates this fact :
 C-47

Example 1: Prove that the function | z |2 is continuous everywhere but nowhere differentiable
except at origin. (Gorakhpur 2015)
2
Solution: Let f (z ) = | z | where z = x + iy.

This function is continuous at every point because x2 + y2 is continuous at all points.

limf (a + ∆ z ) − f (a) lim | a + ∆ z |2 − | z |2

Now f ′ (a) = ∆ z→ 0 ∆ z→ 0
∆z ∆z
lim (a + ∆ z ) (a + ∆ z ) − a a
= ∆ z→ 0
∆z
lim  a∆ z + a ∆ z + ∆ z∆ z 
= 
∆ z→ 0 
 ∆z 
lim  ∆ z 
= ∆ z→ 0  a +a+∆z 
 ∆z 
lim  ∆z 
= ∆ z→ 0 a +a [∵ ∆ z → 0 as ∆ z → 0 ]
 ∆ z 
∵ at a = 0 , we have a = 0 , therefore f ′ (a) = 0 .
Again at a ≠ 0, let ∆ z = r (cos φ + i sin φ).
Then ∆ z = r (cos φ − i sin φ).
∆ z cos φ − i sin φ
∴ = = cos 2 φ − i sin 2 φ,
∆ z cos φ + i sin φ

which does not tend to a unique limit as ∆z → 0 since this limit depends upon arg
∆ z.
Thus f (z ) is not differentiable for any non-zero value of z, though it is continuous
everywhere.
Theorem 2. Rules of differentiation: If f (z ) and g (z ) are analytic functions in a domain
D, then their sum, product and quotient {provided g (z ) ≠ 0} are also analytic and we have
d d d
(i) [ f (z ) ± g (z )] = f (z ) ± g (z )
dz dz dz
d d
(ii) [cf (z )] = c f (z )
dz dz
d d d
(iii) [ f (z ) g (z )] = f (z ) g (z ) + g (z ) f (z )
dz dz dz
 d f (z ) g (z ) −  d g (z ) f (z )
d  dz   dz 
(iv) [ f (z ) / g (z )] = , [ g (z ) ≠ 0 ]
dz [ g (z )]2
d
(v) If f (z ) = F [ g (z )], then f (z ) = F ′ [ g (z )] g ′ (z ). [Chain rule]
dz
 C-48

6 Analytic, Holomorphic and Regular Functions

Let f (z ) be a single valued function defined in a domain D. Then f (z ) is said to be analytic at a
point z0 of D if it is differentiable not only at z0 but also in some neighbourhood of z0 .
(Gorakhpur 2002, 03, 04, 07, 10, 16;
Rohilkhand 10; Bundelkhand 11; Purvanchal 10)

A single valued function which is differentiable at each point of a domain D is said to be

analytic in the domain D.
A function, which is analytic, is also called a Holomorphic function.
If a function f (z ) is analytic at some point in every neighbourhood of a point z0 except
at z0 itself, then z0 is called an isolated singularity of f (z ).
A function f (z ) defined in a domain D is said to have removable singularity at a point
z0 of D if f (z ) is not analytic at z0 but can be made analytic by simply assigning a
suitable value to the function f (z ) at the point z0 .
A function f (z ) is said to be regular at a point z0 if it has a removable singularity at z0
and if f (z ) is analytic in some deleted neighbourhood of z0 . Some authors use the term
regular as a synonym for analytic.

7 Properties of Analytic Functions

If f (z ) and g (z ) are two analytic functions in a domain D, then
(i) f (z ) ± g (z )
(ii) f (z ) . g (z )
f (z )
(iii) provided g (z ) ≠ 0 at any point of D
g (z )

and (iv) k f (z ) where k is any constant are also analytic in D.

8 The Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for f ( z ) to be

Analytic. Cauchy Riemann Equations. (Cartesian Form)
(Rohilkhand 2008, 11; Kumaun 09; Purvanchal 10)
(a) The necessary condition for f ( z) to be analytic:
Theorem 1: If a function f (z ) = u ( x, y) + iv ( x, y) is differentiable at any point z = x + iy,
the partial derivatives u x , v x , u y, v y should exist and satisfy the equations u x = v y, u y = − v x .
(Meerut 2001; Garhwal 10; Gorakhpur 04, 10, 13)

Proof: Let w = f (z ) = u ( x, y) + iv ( x, y)
We have z = x + iy, then ∆ z = ∆ x + i∆y. …(1)
Since the function is differentiable at any point z, therefore the limit given by
 C-49

lim ∆f lim f (z + ∆ z ) − f (z )
∆ z→ 0 =
∆z ∆z→0 ∆z

must exist uniquely as ∆ z → 0 along any path we choose.

Using relations (1) the above limit can be written as
lim  u ( x + ∆ x, y + ∆ y) − u ( x, y) v ( x + ∆ x, y + ∆ y) − v ( x, y) 
∆ z→ 0 +i ⋅ …(2)
 ∆ x + i∆ y ∆ x + i∆ y 
Taking ∆ z to be wholly real, we get ∆y = 0.In this case the limit given by (2) becomes
lim  u ( x + ∆ x, y) − u ( x, y) v ( x + ∆ x, y) − v ( x, y) 

∆ x→ 0 +i 
 ∆ x ∆ x 
∂u ∂v
= + i , since f (z ) is differentiable therefore the partial
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
derivatives , must also exist
∂x ∂x
= u x + iv x . …(3)
Again taking ∆ z to be wholly imaginary, we get ∆x = 0. In this case the limit given in (2)
becomes
lim  u ( x, y + ∆y) − u ( x, y) v ( x, y + ∆y) − v ( x, y) 
∆ y→ 0  +i 
 i∆ y i∆y 
1 ∂u ∂v ∂ u ∂v
= + , since f (z ) is differentiable, therefore , also exist
i ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y

= − iu y + v y = v y − i u y . …(4)
∆ f
Since the limit given by ∆lim
z→ 0 is unique, therefore equating real and imaginary
∆z
parts of (3) and (4), we get
ux = v y, vx = − u y.
These two equations are known as Cauchy-Riemann partial differential equations.
(b) Sufficient condition for f ( z) to be analytic:
Theorem 2: The single valued continuous function f (z ) is analytic in a domain D if the four
partial derivatives u x , v x , u y, v y exist, are continuous and satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations at
each point of D.
Proof: Let w = f (z ) = u ( x, y) + iv ( x, y).
We have u = u ( x, y), so that u + ∆u = u ( x + ∆ x, y + ∆y)
∴ ∆u = u ( x + ∆ x, y + ∆y) − u ( x, y)
= u ( x + ∆ x, y + ∆y) − u ( x + ∆ x, y) + u ( x + ∆ x, y) − u ( x, y)
= ∆y u y ( x + ∆ x, y + θ1 ∆y) + ∆ x u x ( x + θ2 ∆ x, y), …(1)
where 0 < θ1 < 1, 0 < θ2 < 1, by the mean value theorem.
 C-50

Since u x and u y are continuous in the given domain D, therefore by the definition of
uniform continuity, we have
| u y ( x + ∆ x, y + θ1∆y) − u y ( x, y)| < ε
and | u x ( x + θ2 ∆x, y) − u x ( x, y)| < ε, …(2)
provided | ∆ x | < δ and | ∆y | < δ.
Let u y ( x + ∆ x, y + θ1∆y) − u y ( x, y) = α1
and u x ( x + θ2 ∆ x, y) − u x ( x, y) = β1.
Then from (2), we have | α1 | < ε1,| β1 | < ε1.
Putting these values in (1), we get
∆u = { α1 + u y ( x, y)} ∆y + {β1 + u x ( x, y)} ∆ x.
Proceeding in the same way, we shall get
∆v = {α2 + v y ( x, y)} ∆y + {β2 + v x ( x, y)} ∆ x,
where | α2 | < ε2 , | β2 | < ε2 .
∆ f ∆ u + i∆ v
Now =
∆z ∆ x + i∆ y
(u y ∆y + u x ∆ x + α1 ∆y + β1 ∆ x) + i (v y ∆y
+ v x ∆ x + α2 ∆y + β2 ∆ x)
=
∆ x + i∆y
− v x ∆y + u x ∆ x + iu x ∆y + α1 ∆y + β1 ∆ x + iα2 ∆y + iβ2 ∆ x
=
∆ x + i∆y
[∵ u x = v y , v x = − u y]

(u x + iv x )(∆ x + i∆y) + α1 ∆y + β1 ∆ x + iα2 ∆y + iβ2 ∆ x

=
∆ x + i∆y
(α1 + iα2 ) ∆y (β1 + i β2 ) ∆ x
= u x + iv x + +
∆ x + i∆y ∆ x + i∆y

 ∆f   (α + iα2 ) ∆y (β1 + iβ2 ) ∆ x 

or  − (u x + iv x ) = 1 + 
∆z   ∆ x + i∆y ∆ x + i∆y 
| α1 + iα2 || ∆y | | β1 + iβ2 || ∆ x |
≤ +
| ∆ x + i∆y | | ∆ x + i∆y |

≤ | α1 | + | α2 | + | β1 | + | β2 |
{∵ | ∆ x | ≤ | ∆ x + i∆y | and | ∆y | ≤ | ∆ x + i∆y |}
 ∆ f
∴ − (u x + iv x )≤ 2 ε1 + 2 ε2 .
 ∆z 
lim ∆f
Hence, u x + iv x = = f ′ (z ).
∆z → 0 ∆z
 C-51

Note: (i) | f ′ (z )|2 = | u x |2 + | v x |2

= | u x |2 + | v x |2 = u x v y − v x u y, using Cauchy-Riemann equations

∂(u, v)
=
∂( x, y)
= Jacobian of u and v with respect to x and y.
(ii) Lagrange’s mean value theorem:
If f ( x) is defined and continuous in a ≤ x ≤ a + h, differentiable in a < x < a + h, then
there exists a point c = a + θh, (0 < θ < 1) in ] a, a + h [ such that
f (a + h) − f (a) = h f ′ (a + θh).
(iii) From theorem 2, we have
dw ∂u ∂v
f ′ (z ) = u x + iv x ⇒ = +i
dz ∂x ∂x
dw ∂ ∂w
⇒ = (u + iv) =
dz ∂x ∂x
dw ∂w
Hence = ⋅
dz ∂x
An Important Observation:
1 1
Since x = (z + z ), y = (z − z ), u and v can be regarded as functions of two
2 2i
independent variables z and z. If u and v have first order continuous derivatives, the
condition that w shall be independent of z is
∂w ∂
=0 or (u + iv) = 0
∂z ∂z
 ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y   ∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y 
or  ⋅ + ⋅  + i ⋅ + ⋅  =0
 ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z 

1 ∂u 1 ∂u i ∂v 1 ∂v
or ⋅ − + − =0
2 ∂x 2 i ∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
or +i +i − = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

Whence equating real and imaginary parts to zero, we get

∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
= and =−
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

which are the Cauchy-Riemann equations.

It follows that if f (z ) is an analytic function of z, then x and y can occur in f (z ) only in
the combination of x + iy.
 C-52

Example 2: Show that the function f (z ) = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y

is continuous as well as analytic everywhere.
Solution: Let u ( x, y) = sin x cosh y, v ( x, y) = cos x sinh y. Here u and v are both
rational functions of x and y having non-zero denominators for all values of x and y,
therefore u and v are both continuous everywhere.
Hence f (z ) is continuous everywhere.
∂u ∂u
We have = cos x cosh y, = sin x sinh y
∂x ∂y
∂v ∂v
and = − sin x sinh y, = cos x cosh y.
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
These relations show = , =− ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

∴ u and v satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations.

Thus f (z ) is analytic everywhere.

Example 3: Show that the function f (z ) = √| xy | is not analytic at origin although the
Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at that point.
(Meerut 2012; Kanpur 03; Rohilkhand 12; Purvanchal 10, 12; Agra 12)
Solution: Let f (z ) = u ( x, y) + iv ( x, y).
Then u ( x, y) = √| xy |, v ( x, y) = 0 .
At the origin, we have
∂u lim u ( x, 0 ) − u (0 , 0 ) lim 0 − 0
= = =0
∂x x → 0 x x→0 x
∂u lim u (0 , y) − u (0 , 0 ) lim 0 − 0
= = = 0.
∂y y → 0 y y →0 y
∂v ∂v
Similarly = 0, = 0.
∂x ∂y

Hence Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at origin.

lim f (z ) − f (0 ) lim √| xy | − 0
Now f ′ (0 ) = = ⋅
z→0 z z→0 x + iy

Suppose z → 0 along y = mx, then we have

2
lim √| mx | lim √| m |
f ′ (0 ) = = ,
z → 0 x + i mx z → 0 (1 + im)

which is not unique, since it depends on m.

∴ f ′ (0 ) does not exist.
 C-53

d
Example 4: Show that (z ) does not exist anywhere.
dz (Kanpur 2000)
Solution: We have z = x + iy. Then z = x − iy.

d lim (z + ∆z ) − z
Now z = ∆ z→ 0
dz ∆z
lim ( x + iy + ∆x + i ∆y ) − ( x + iy)
= ∆ z→ 0
∆x + i ∆y
lim ( x + ∆x) − i ( y + ∆y) − ( x − iy)
= ∆ x→ 0
∆ y→ 0 ∆x + i ∆y

lim ∆x − i ∆y
= ∆ x→ 0 ...(1)
∆ y→ 0 ∆x + i ∆y

Taking ∆z → 0 along real axis, we get ∆y = 0. In this case the limit given by (1) becomes
1.
Again taking ∆z → 0 along imaginary axis, we get ∆x = 0. In this case the limit given by
d
(1) becomes − 1. Since the value of the limit given by (1) is not unique so (z ) does
dz
not exist. Hence f (z ) = z is not analytic anywhere.
Example 5: Find whether the following functions are analytic.
z
(i) f (z ) = z (ii) f (z ) = e

(iii) f (z ) = cos x sin y + i sin x cos y.

Solution: (i) We have f (z ) = u + iv = z = x + iy = x − iy.
∴ u = x, v = − y.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
∴ = 1, = 0, = 0, = − 1.
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v
We see that ≠ ⋅
∂x ∂y

Hence one of the Cauchy-Riemann equations is not satisfied.

∴ f (z ) = z is not analytic.
(ii) We have f (z ) = u + iv = e z = e x + iy = e x . e iy

= e x (cos y + i sin y) = e x cos y + i e x sin y.

∴ u = e x cos y, v = e2 x sin y.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
∴ = e x cos y, = e x sin y, = − e x sin y, = e x cos y.
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
We see that = and =− ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Hence Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied.
 C-54

∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
Also , , and exist and are continuous functions.
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
z
Hence f (z ) = e is an analytic function.
(iii) We have f (z ) = u + i v = cos x sin y + i sin x cos y.
∴ u = cos x sin y, v = sin x cos y.
∂u ∂v
Now = − sin x sin y, = cos x cos y,
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
= cos x cos y, = − sin x sin y.
∂y ∂y
∂v ∂u
We see that ≠− ⋅
∂x ∂y

∴ One of the Cauchy-Riemann equations is not satisfied.

Hence f (z ) = cos x sin y + i sin x cos y is not analytic.
Example 6: If w = log z , find dw / dz and determine where w is non-analytic.
Solution: Let w = u ( x, y) + iv ( x, y)
= log ( x + iy)
1 y
= log ( x2 + y2 ) + i tan−1
2 x
1 y
Then u ( x, y) = log ( x + y ), v ( x, y) = tan−1
2 2
2 x
∂u x , ∂u = y
Now = ⋅
∂x x2 + y2 ∂y x2 + y2
∂v y ∂v x
=− 2 and = ⋅
∂x x + y2 ∂y x2 + y2
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
Since = and =− except at origin therefore u and v satisfy Cauchy-Riemann
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
equations and all the partial derivatives are continuous except at origin. Hence the
function w is analytic everywhere except at origin.
dw ∂w ∂u ∂v x − y x − iy
Now = = +i = 2 2
+i 2 2
= 2
dz ∂x ∂x ∂x x + y x + y x + y2
x − iy 1 1
= = = , provided z ≠ 0.
( x + iy) ( x − iy) x + iy z
1+ z , dw
Example 7: If w = f (z ) = find and determine where f (z ) is non-analytic.
1− z dz
1+ z
Solution: We have w = f (z ) = ⋅
1− z
dw lim f (z + ∆z ) − f (z )
Now = f ′ (z ) =
dz ∆z → 0 ∆z
 C-55

1 + z + ∆z 1+ z
−
lim 1 − (z + ∆z ) 1 − z
=
∆z → 0 ∆z

lim 2 2
= = ,
∆z → 0 [1 − (z + ∆z )] (1 − z ) (1 − z )2

which exists for all finite values of z except z = 1.

Hence the function f (z ) is analytic for all finite values of z except z = 1.

Example 8: Verify whether the real and imaginary parts of w = sin z satisfy Cauchy-Riemann
equations.
Solution: We have w = u + iv = sin z
= sin ( x + iy) = sin x cos iy + cos x sin iy
= sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y.
∴ u = sin x cosh y and v = cos x sinh y.
∂u ∂u
∴ = cos x cosh y, = sin x sinh y,
∂x ∂y
∂v ∂v
= − sin x sinh y, = cos x cosh y.
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
We see that = and =− ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

Hence, u and v satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations.

9 Polar Form of Cauchy-Riemann Equations

(Purvanchal 2007, 09; Gorakhpur 07, 09, 11)

We have x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ.

∴ x2 + y2 = r2 …(1)
−1
and θ = tan ( y / x). …(2)
Differentiating (1) and (2) partially w.r.t. x and y, we get
∂r x ∂r y
= = cos θ, = = sin θ.
∂x r ∂y r
∂θ 1  y y sin θ
= − 2  = − 2 =−
∂x 1 + ( y / x)2  x  x + y 2 r
∂θ 1  1 = x cos θ
and =   = ⋅
∂y 1 + ( y / x)2  x  x2 + y2 r
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂θ ∂u ∂u sin θ
Now = + = cos θ − ,
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂θ ∂x ∂r ∂θ r
 C-56

∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂θ ∂u ∂u cos θ
= + = sin θ + ,
∂y ∂r ∂y ∂θ ∂y ∂r ∂θ r
∂v ∂v ∂r ∂v ∂θ ∂v ∂v sin θ
= + = cos θ −
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂θ ∂x ∂r ∂θ r
∂v ∂v ∂r ∂v ∂θ ∂v ∂v cos θ
and = + = sin θ + ⋅
∂y ∂r ∂y ∂θ ∂y ∂r ∂θ r
Cauchy-Riemann equations in cartesian form are
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =− ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Using the above relations, we get
∂u ∂u sin θ ∂v ∂v cos θ
cos θ − = sin θ + …(3)
∂r ∂θ r ∂r ∂θ r
∂u ∂u cos θ ∂v ∂v sin θ
and sin θ + =− cos θ + ⋅ …(4)
∂r ∂θ r ∂r ∂θ r
Multiplying (3) by cos θ and (4) by sin θ and adding, we get
∂u 1 ∂v
= ⋅ …(5)
∂r r ∂θ
Again multiplying (3) by sin θ and (4) by cos θ and subtracting, we get
1 ∂u ∂v
=− ⋅ …(6)
r ∂θ ∂r
Equations (5) and (6) are the Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar form.

10 Derivative of w = f ( z ) in Polar Form

dw ∂w ∂w ∂r ∂w ∂θ
We have = = +
dz ∂x ∂r ∂x ∂θ ∂x
 ∂u ∂v  ∂r  ∂u ∂v  ∂θ
= +i  + +i 
 ∂r ∂r  ∂x  ∂θ ∂θ  ∂x [ ∵ w = u + iv ]
 ∂u ∂v   ∂u ∂v   sin θ 
= + i  cos θ +  + i  − ,
 ∂r ∂r   ∂θ ∂θ   r  [From article 9]
 ∂u ∂v   ∂v ∂u  sin θ
= +i  cos θ −  − r + ir  ,
 ∂r ∂r   ∂r ∂r  r

[ From (5) and (6) of article 9]

 ∂u ∂v   ∂u ∂v 
= +i  cos θ − i  +i  sin θ
 ∂r ∂r   ∂r ∂r 

 ∂u ∂v 
= +i  (cos θ − i sin θ)
 ∂r ∂r 
∂w − iθ
= e .
∂r
 C-57

Example 9: Show that the function f (z ) = z n, where n is a positive integer is an analytic

function.
Solution: We have f (z ) = z n.

lim f (z + ∆ z ) − f (z )
Now f ′ (z ) = ∆ z→ 0
∆z

lim (z + ∆ z )n − z n
= ∆ z→ 0
∆z
1
z n + nz n −1 ∆z + n (n − 1) z n − 2 (∆ z )2 + ... + (∆z )n − z n
lim 2
= ∆ z→ 0 ,
∆z
by binomial theorem
lim 1
= ∆ z→ 0 [nz n −1 + n (n − 1) z n−2
∆ z + ... + (∆z )n −1]
2
= nz n −1.

∴ f ′ (z ) exists for all finite values of z.

Hence f (z ) is an analytic function.
Note: Applying the above formula for z , z 2 , z 3 ,... and the rules of differentiation stated
in theorem II we see that a polynomial
f (z ) = a0 + a1z + a2 z 2 + … + anz n

is an analytic function of z. More generally, a rational function

a0 + a1z + a2 z 2 + … + an z n
f (z ) =
b0 + b1z + b2 z 2 + … + bm z m

is an analytic function of z throughout any finite domain in the complex plane where
the denominator does not vanish.
x3 y( y − ix) f (z ) − f (0 )
Example 10: If f (z )= 6 2
, z ≠ 0 and f (0 ) = 0 , show that → 0 as
x +y z
z → 0 along any radius vector but not as z → 0 in any manner.
(Purvanchal 2008; Bundelkhand 11; Gorakhpur 11)

f (z ) − f (0 ) f (z ) − 0 f (z )
Solution: We have = =
z z z

x3 y ( y − ix) − i x3 y ( x + iy) x3 y
= 6 2
= 6 2
=−i 6 2
⋅
( x + y )( x + iy) ( x + y )( x + iy) x + y
 C-58

Let z → 0 along the radius vector y = mx. Then we have

lim
f (z ) − f (0 ) lim − i x3 . mx lim − i mx2
= 6 2
= = 0.
z→0 z x → 0 x + (mx) x → 0 x4 + m2
Now let z → 0 along y = x3 . Then
lim f (z ) − f (0 ) lim − i x3 . x3 i
= = − ≠ 0.
z→0 z x → 0 x6 + ( x 3)2 2

Hence the result.

Example 11: Show that the function f (z ) = u + iv,
x3 (1 + i) − y3 (1 − i)
where f (z ) = , z ≠ 0 and f (0 ) = 0
x2 + y2

is continuous and that Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at the origin, yet f ′ (0 ) does not
exist. (Meerut 2001; Rohilkhand 08; Garhwal 10; Gorakhpur 07, 11, 14)

x3 − y3 x3 + y3
Solution: We have u = , v= , z ≠ 0.
x2 + y2 x2 + y2

Here u and v are rational functions of x and y with non-zero denominators. Therefore u
and v are continuous everywhere when z ≠ 0.
To test the continuity at z = 0, changing u and v to polars by putting
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, we get u = r (cos3 θ − sin3 θ), v = r (cos3 θ + sin3 θ), each of
which tends to 0 as r → 0 whatever may be the value of θ. Also we have f (0 ) = 0 .
Since actual and limiting values of u and v are same at origin therefore f (z ) is
continuous at origin. Hence f (z ) is continuous for all values of z.

Now at the origin, we have

∂u lim u ( x, 0 ) − u (0 , 0 ) lim x − 0
= = = 1,
∂x x → 0 x x→0 x

∂u lim u (0 , y) − u (0 , 0 ) lim − y − 0
= = = − 1,
∂y y→0 y y→0 y
∂v lim x − 0
= =1
∂x x → 0 x
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
Since = and =− , therefore u and v satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations at
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
origin.
lim f (z ) − f (0 )
We have f ′ (0 ) =
z→0 z
lim ( x3 − y3 ) + i ( x3 + y3 ) 1
= ⋅ ⋅
z→0 ( x2 + y2 ) ( x + iy)
 C-59

Taking z → 0 along y = x, we get

lim i2 x3 1 i 1
f ′ (0 ) = 2
⋅ = = (1 + i).
x → 0 2x ( x + ix) 1 + i 2

Again taking z → 0 along x-axis, we get

x3 + ix3 1
lim
f ′ (0 ) = ⋅ = 1 + i.
x→0 x2 x

Since f ′ (0 ) has different values along different curves therefore f ′ (0 ) is not unique. So
f ′ (0 ) does not exist.
−4
Example 12: Show that the function f (z ) = e − z , z ≠ 0 and f (0 ) = 0

is not analytic at z = 0 although the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at that point.
(Meerut 2003; Rohilkhand 10; Purvanchal 07, 11; Kumaun 10; Gorakhpur 12, 14)
−4 4
Solution: We have f (z ) = e − z = e −1 /( x + iy)
4
/( x2 + y2 )4
= e −( x − iy)
4
+ y4 − 6 x2 y2 − 4 ix3 y + 4 i xy3 ) /( x2 + y2 )4
= e −( x
4
+ y4 − 6 x2 y2 ) / r8 2
− y2 ) / r8
= e −( x e4 i xy ( x , where x2 + y2 = r2

4
+ y4 − 6 x2 y2 ) / r8  4 xy ( x2 − y2 ) 4 xy ( x2 − y2 ) 
= e −( x  cos + i sin .
 r8 r8 
We have at the origin
−4
∂u lim u ( x, 0 ) − u (0 , 0 ) lim e − x − 0
= =
∂x x → 0 x x→0 x

lim 1 lim 1
= 4
=
x→0 x→0 1 1
x 1 + 4 + 8 + ... 

1/ x
xe
 x 2x 

lim 1
= = 0.
x→0 1 1
x+ + + ...
x3 2 x7
−4
∂u lim u (0 , y) − u (0 , 0 ) lim e − y
Similarly = = = 0,
∂y y→0 y y→0 y
∂v ∂v
= 0 and = 0.
∂x ∂y

∴ Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at origin.

 C-60

−4
lim f (z ) − f (0 ) lim e − z
Now f ′ (0 ) = =
z→0 z z→0 z
−4 − iπ
lim e − r e
= , taking z → 0 along z = re iπ /4
r→0 re iπ /4
−4 4
lim er lim e1 / r
= i / 4
= → ∞.
r→0 r e π r → 0 r e i π /4

∴ f (z ) is not analytic at z = 0.

Example 13: Find the analytic function whose real part is sin 2 x / (cosh 2 y − cos 2 x).
Solution: Let f (z ) = u + iv be the required analytic function.

sin 2 x
Then u= ⋅
cosh 2 y − cos 2 x

∂u 2 cos 2 x (cosh 2 y − cos 2 x) − sin 2 x (2 sin 2 x)

Now =
∂x (cosh 2 y − cos 2 x)2

2 cos 2 x cosh 2 y − 2
= = φ1 ( x, y)
(cosh 2 y − cos 2 x)2

∂u 2 sin 2 x sinh 2 y
and =− = φ2 ( x, y)
∂y (cosh 2 y − cos 2 x)2

The function f (z ) is given by

 2 cos 2 z − 2 
f (z ) = ∫ [φ1 (z , 0 ) − i φ2 (z , 0 )] dz + c = ∫  2
− i 0  dz + c
(1 − cos 2 z ) 
2 2
= ∫ − 1 − cos 2z dz + c = ∫ − cosec z dz + c

= cot z + c .

11 Orthogonal System
Two families of curves u ( x, y) = c1 and v ( x, y) = c2 are said to form an orthogonal system if they
intersect at right angles at each of their points of intersection.
Differentiating u ( x, y) = c1, we get
∂u ∂u dy dy ∂u
+
∂x ∂y dx
⋅ =0 or
dx
=−
∂x
/ ∂∂uy = m1, say
Similarly from v ( x, y) = c2 , we get
dy ∂u ∂v
dx
=−
∂x ∂y
/
= m2 , say
 C-61

Now the two families of curves will intersect orthogonally if

∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
m1m2 = − 1 or ⋅ + ⋅ = 0.
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Theorem: If f (z ) = u + iv be an analytic function of z = x + iy, prove that the families of
curves u = c1, v = c2 are orthogonal to each other, where c1 and c2 are parameters.
(Rohilkhand 2008; Purvanchal 10)

Proof: It is given that f (z ) = u + iv is an analytic function therefore we have

u x = v y, v x = − u y. …(1)
The given systems are
u ( x, y) = c1, …(2)
v ( x, y) = c2 . …(3)
Let m1 and m2 be the slopes of curves (2) and (3) respectively.
dy ∂u / ∂x
From (2) =− = m1.
dx ∂u / ∂y
dy ∂v / ∂x
From (3) =− = m2 .
dx ∂v / ∂y
 ∂u / ∂x   ∂v / ∂x 
Now m1 m2 =  −  × −  = − 1, from (1).
 ∂u / ∂y   ∂v / ∂y 
Hence the systems u = c1 and v = c2 are orthogonal to each other.

Example 14: If f (z ) = u + iv is an analytic function, regular in D, where f (z ) ≠ 0 , prove that

the curves u = const.,v = const., form two orthogonal families. Verify this in case of f (z ) = sin z .
(Kumaun 2008)
Solution: (i) Suppose f (z ) = u + iv is an analytic function of z.
To prove that u = const., v = const. from two orthogonal families.
Prove this as in Theorem.
(ii) To verify the result (i) by taking f (z ) = sin z .
u + iv = f (z ) = sin z = sin ( x + iy)
= sin x . cos iy + cos x . sin iy
= sin x . cosh y + i cos x . sinh y
∴ u = sin x . cosh y = c1, say
v = cos x . sinh y = c2 , say.
Differentiating both w.r.t. x, we get
 dy 
cos x . cosh y + sin x . sinh y   = 0
 dx 1
 C-62

 dy 
and − sin x . sinh y + cos x . cosh y   = 0
 dx  2

 dy  cos x . cosh y  dy  sin x . sinh y

or   = and   = ⋅
 dx 1 − sin x . sinh y  dx  2 cos x cosh y

Multiplying these two, we get

 dy   dy 
    = − 1.
 dx 1  dx  2

Hence the verification follows.

12 Harmonic Function
Theorem 1: Real and imaginary parts of an analytic function satisfy Laplace’s equation.
(Rohilkhand 2010)

Proof: Let f (z ) = u + iv be an analytic function. Then it satisfies Cauchy-Riemann

equations.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
∴ = and =− …(1)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Since u and v are the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function therefore partial
derivatives of u and v of all orders exist and are continuous functions of x and y.
From (1), we have
∂2 u ∂2 v ∂2 u ∂2 v
2
= and 2
=− ⋅
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂x

∂2 u ∂2 u
∴ 2
+ = 0.
∂x ∂ y2

∂2 v ∂2 v
Similarly + = 0.
∂x2 ∂ y2
Therefore the functions u and v satisfy the Laplace’s equation
∂2 φ ∂2 φ
2
+ = 0.
∂x ∂ y2

Definition: Any function of x and y possessing continuous partial derivatives of the first and
second orders and satisfying Laplace’s equation is called a harmonic function.

Harmonic Conjugate of a function:

Definition: Let u ( x, y) be a harmonic function. Then a function v ( x, y) is said to be a
harmonic conjugate of u ( x, y) if
(i) v ( x, y) is harmonic and
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
(ii) = and =− i.e., u and v satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
 C-63

Theorem 2: If f (z ) = u + iv is analytic in a domain D, then v is the harmonic conjugate of u.

Conversely, if v is the harmonic conjugate of u in a domain D, then f (z ) = u + iv is analytic in D.
Proof: Since f (z ) = u + iv is analytic in D, Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied i.e.,
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =− ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

Differentiating partially with respect to x and y respectively and adding, we get

∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 v ∂2 v
2
+ 2
= − = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

Similarly differentiating partially with respect to y and x respectively and adding, we get
∂2 v ∂2 v
+ = 0.
∂x2 ∂ y2
∴ u and v are harmonic functions in D and v is the harmonic conjugate of u because u
and v satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations.
Conversely, let v be the harmonic conjugate of u.
Then by the definition of the harmonic conjugate of u, v is harmonic and
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
Cauchy-Riemann equations = and =− are satisfied. Also by the definition
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
of harmonic functions u and v possess continuous partial derivatives of the first and
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
second orders so that , , and are all continuous functions.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

Hence, f (z ) = u + iv is analytic in D.
Remark: It is very important to note that if v is a harmonic conjugate of u in some
domain D, then it is always not true that u is also the harmonic conjugate of v in D.
We illustrate this by the following example :
Let u = x2 − y2 and v = 2 xy.
Then f (z ) = u + iv is analytic in D as shown below.
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
We have = 2 x, = − 2 y, = 2 y, = 2 x.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
∴ = and =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
i.e., Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied by u and v.
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
Also , , and are all continuous functions.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∴ f (z ) = u + i v is analytic in D.
Hence, both u and v are harmonic functions and they satisfy Cauchy-Riemann
equations
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =− ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
 C-64

∴ v is the harmonic conjugate of u.

But if we define φ (z ) = v + i u, we see that

∂v ∂v ∂u ∂u
= 2 y, = 2 x, = 2 x, = − 2 y.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u
We see that ≠ and ≠− ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

Thus if φ (z ) = v + i u, then v and u do not satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations.

∴ φ (z ) is not analytic in D.
Hence, u is not the harmonic conjugate of v.

Theorem 3: Two functions u ( x, y) and v ( x, y) are harmonic conjugates of each other if and
only if they are constants.
Proof: Let u ( x, y) = c1 and v ( x, y) = c2 V x, y ∈ D, where c1 and c2 are constants.
∂u ∂2 u ∂v ∂2 v
Then = 0, = 0, = 0, = 0,
∂x ∂x2 ∂x ∂x2
∂u ∂2 u ∂v ∂2 v
= 0, 2
= 0, = 0, = 0.
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂ y2

∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 v ∂2 v
∴ + =0 and + = 0.
∂x2 ∂ y2 ∂x2 ∂ y2
Thus both u and v are harmonic functions.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
Also = and =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
i.e., u and v satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations.
Hence v is the harmonic conjugate of u.
∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u
Again = and =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
i.e., v and u also satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations.
Hence u is the harmonic conjugate of v.
Thus if both u and v are constants, they are harmonic conjugates of each other.
Conversely, let u ( x, y) and v ( x, y) be two harmonic functions such that they are
harmonic conjugates of each other.
Then u and v satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations i.e.,

∂u ∂v
= ...(1)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
and =− ...(2)
∂y ∂x
 C-65

Again v and u also satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations i.e.,

∂v ∂u
= ...(3)
∂x ∂y
∂v ∂u
and =− ...(4)
∂y ∂x

From (1) and (4), we have

∂u ∂u
=−
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
⇒ 2 =0 ⇒ = 0 ⇒ u is independent of x.
∂x ∂x
From (2) and (3), we have
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
=− ⇒ 2 =0 ⇒ = 0 ⇒ u is independent of y.
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y

∴ u ( x, y) is independent of both x and y and consequently u ( x, y) is a constant

function.
Similarly, we can show that v ( x, y) is also a constant function.
Hence if both u and v are harmonic conjugates of each other, they are constant
functions.
Determination of the conjugate function:
If f (z ) = u + iv is an analytic function, u and v are called conjugate functions. Being given one of
these say, u ( x, y), to determine the other v ( x, y).
∂v ∂v
We have dv = dx + dy , since v is a function of x and y
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
or dv = − dx + dy, …(1)
∂y ∂x
by Cauchy-Riemann equations.
The equation (1) is of the form dv = M dx + N dy,
∂u ∂u
where M=− , N = ⋅
∂y ∂x
∂M ∂2 u ∂N ∂2 u
Now = − 2 and = 2 ⋅
∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x

Since f (z ) is an analytic function therefore u is a harmonic function i. e., it satisfies

Laplace’s equation.
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
∴ 2
+ 2
=0 or 2
=−
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂ y2
∂M ∂N
so that = ⋅
∂y ∂x

Thus equation (1) satisfies the condition of exact differential equation. Therefore v can
be determined by integrating (1).
 C-66

Example 15: Show that the function u = x3 − 3 xy2 is harmonic and find the corresponding
analytic function. (Lucknow 2007, 13B, 14; Kumaun 14)

Solution: We have u = x3 − 3 xy2 .

∂u ∂2 u ∂u ∂2 u
= 3 x2 − 3 y2 , 2
= 6 x, = − 6 xy and = − 6 x.
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂ y2

∂2 u ∂2 u
Now + = 0 , so that u satisfies Laplace’s equation.
∂x2 ∂ y2
Also first and second order partial derivatives of u are continuous functions of x and y.
Consequently u is a harmonic function.
∂u ∂u
Now f ′ (z ) = −i = 3 x2 − 3 y2 − i (− 6 xy)
∂x ∂y

= 3 ( x2 − y2 + 2 ixy) = 3 ( x + iy)2 = 3 z 2 .
Integrating f (z ) = z 3 + c .

Example 16: Show that the functions

1
(i) u = log ( x2 + y2 )
2 (Rohilkhand 2012; Garhwal 10)

(ii) u = cos x cosh y (Kumaun 2012)

are harmonic, find their harmonic conjugates.

1
Solution: (i) We have u = log ( x2 + y2 ).
2
∂u x ∂2 u y2 − x2
= 2 2
, 2
= 2
∂x x + y ∂x ( x + y2 )2

∂u y ∂2 u x2 − y2
= 2 and = ⋅
∂ y x + y2 ∂y2 ( x2 + y2 )2

All the first and second order partial derivatives of u are continuous functions of x
and y.

∂2 u ∂2 u
Also 2
+ = 0 i. e., u satisfies Laplace’s equation.
∂x ∂ y2

∴ u is a harmonic function.
Let v be the harmonic conjugate of u.
 C-67

∂v ∂v ∂u ∂u
We have dv = dx + dy = − dx + dy, by Cauchy-Riemann equations
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
y x
=− dx + dy
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
x dy − y dx
or dv = ⋅
x2 + y2
y
Integrating, we get v = tan−1 + c , where c is a real constant.
x
(ii) We have u = cos x cosh y.
∂u ∂2 u
= − sin x cosh y, = − cos x cosh y
∂x ∂x2
∂u ∂2 u
= cos x sinh y and = cos x cosh y.
∂y ∂ y2

All the first and second order partial derivatives of u are continuous functions.

∂2 u ∂2 u
Also + = 0 , i. e., u satisfies Laplace’s equation.
∂x2 ∂ y2
∴ u is a harmonic function.
Let v be the harmonic conjugate of u.

∂v ∂v
We have dv = dx + dy
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
=− dx + dy, by Cauchy-Riemann equations
∂y ∂x

= − cos x sinh y dx − sin x cosh y dy

= − (cos x sinh y dx + sin x cosh y dy).
Integrating, v = − (sin x sinh y) + c , where c is a real constant.

Example 17: Show that the function u ( x, y) = e x cos y is harmonic. Determine its harmonic
conjugate v ( x, y) and the analytic function f (z ) = u + iv. (Bundelkhand 2011)

Solution: Here u = e x cos y.

∂u ∂u
= e x cos y, = − e x sin y
∂x ∂y

∂2 u ∂2 u
so 2
= e x cos y and = − e x cos y.
∂x ∂ y2
∂2 u ∂2 u
Now + = 0 , so u satisfies Laplace’s equation.
∂x2 ∂ y2
 C-68

Also first and second order partial derivatives of u are continuous therefore u is a
harmonic function.
Since v is the harmonic conjugate of u, therefore
∂v ∂v
dv = dx + dy, v is a function of x, y
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
=− dx + dy, by Cauchy-Riemann equations
∂y ∂x
= e x sin y dx + e x cos y dy.
Integrating v = e x sin y + c , where c is a real constant.

∴ f (z ) = u + iv = e x cos y + i (e x sin y + c ).
= e x (cos y + i sin y) + i c = e x + iy + d,
where d is a complex constant
z
= e + d.

13 Milne-Thomson’s Method
(Method of Constructing a Regular Function)
(Meerut 2002)
We have f (z ) = u ( x, y) + iv ( x, y) and z = x + iy.
1 1
Then x = (z + z ), y = (z − z ).
2 2i
We can write
1 1 1 1
f (z ) = u  (z + z ), (z − z )  + iv  (z + z ), (z − z )  ⋅ …(1)
 2 2i   2 2i 

This relation can be regarded a formal identity in two independent variables z and z.
Putting z = z in (1), we get
f (z ) = u (z , 0 ) + iv (z , 0 ).
∂f
We have f ′ (z ) = = u x + iv x = u x − iu y, by Cauchy-Riemann equations.
∂x
Let u x = φ1 ( x, y), u y = φ 2 ( x, y).
Then f ′ (z ) = φ1 ( x, y) − i φ 2 ( x, y) = φ1 (z , 0 ) − i φ 2 (z , 0 ).
Integrating, we get
f (z ) = ∫ φ1 (z , 0) dz − i ∫ φ2 (z , 0) dz + c ,
where c is constant of integration.
Similarly if v is given, we have
f (z ) = ∫ ψ1 (z , 0 ) dz + i ∫ ψ2 (z , 0 ) dz + c ′ ,

where v y = ψ1 ( x, y), v x = ψ2 ( x, y).

 C-69

Theorem: If the real part of an analytic function f (z ) is a given harmonic function u ( x, y),
f (z ) = 2 u (z / 2, z / 2 i) − u (0 , 0 ).
Proof: Let f (z ) = f ( x + iy) = u ( x, y) + iv ( x, y).
Then f (z ) = f ( x + iy) = u ( x, y) − iv ( x, y).
Adding, we get
f ( x + iy) + f ( x + iy) = 2 u ( x, y). …(1)
Since f (z ) is a function independent of z, therefore it can be regarded as a function of z.
So we can write
f (z ) = f ( z ).
We can rewrite relation (1) as
1
u ( x, y) = [ f ( x + iy) + f ( x − iy)]. …(2)
2
We can regard (2) as a formal identity, therefore it holds even when x and y are
complex. Putting x = z / 2, y = z / 2 i, we get

1  z z  z − i z 
u (z / 2, z / 2 i) = f  + i  + f  
2   2 2i   2 2 i  
1
= [ f (z ) + f (0 )].
2
∴ f (z ) = 2 u (z / 2, z / 2 i) − f (0 ).

Since f (z ) is only determined upto a purely imaginary constant, we may assume that
f (0 ) is real. So we have
f (0 ) = u (0 , 0 ).
∴ f (z ) = 2 u (z / 2, z / 2 i) − u (0 , 0 ).
Adding a purely imaginary constant, we have
f (z ) = 2 u (z / 2, z / 2 i) − u (0 , 0 ) + ci, where c is real.

sin 2 x
Example 18: If u = ,
cosh 2 y + cos 2 x
find the corresponding analytic function f (z ) = u + iv.

sin 2 x
Solution: Here u = ⋅
cosh 2 y + cos 2 x

∂u 2 cos 2 x (cosh 2 y + cos 2 x) − sin 2 x (− 2 sin 2 x)

Then =
∂x (cosh 2 y + cos 2 x)2
 C-70

2 + 2 cos 2 x cosh 2 y
= = φ1 ( x, y).
(cosh 2 y + cos 2 x)2
∂u 2 sin 2 x sinh 2 y
=− = φ2 ( x, y).
∂y (cosh 2 y + cos 2 x)2

By Milne-Thomson’s method the function f (z ) is given by

f (z ) = ∫ [φ1 (z , 0 ) − i φ2 (z , 0 )] dz + c

 2 + 2 cos 2 z  2 dz
= ∫  2
− i0  dz + c = ∫ +c
(1 + cos 2 z )  1 + cos 2 z

= ∫ sec2 z dz + c

= tan z + c .
Example 19: Find the analytic function whose real part is given and hence find the
imaginary part :
(i) e x sin y (ii) sin x cosh y (iii) x2 − y2 .

Solution: (i) Let f (z ) = u + i v be analytic.

Here, u = e x sin y.
∂u ∂u
∴ = e x sin y, = e x cos y.
∂x ∂y
We apply the Milne-Thomson method to find f (z ).
Since f (z ) = u + i v is analytic, therefore
∂u ∂v
f ′ (z ) = +i
∂x ∂x [See Note (iii) at the end of article 8]
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂u 
= −i [∵ By Cauchy-Riemann equations, =−
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y 
x x
=e sin y − i e cos y.

Putting x = z and y = 0, we get

f ′ (z ) = e z sin 0 − i e z cos 0 = − i. e z .
Integrating with respect to z , we get
z
f (z ) = − i e + constant
x + iy
= − ie + constant
x iy
= − ie e + constant
x
= − ie (cos y + i sin y) + constant
x x
=e sin y − i e cos y + i c
x
= u + i (c − e cos y)
x
∴ v=c −e cos y.
 C-71

Hence, the required analytic function is

z
f (z ) = u + i v = − i e + constant
x x
=e sin y + i (c − e cos y)
x
and the imaginary part v = c − e cos y.

(ii) Let f (z ) = u + i v be analytic.

Here, u = sin x cosh y.
∂u ∂u
∴ = cos x cosh y, = sin x sinh y.
∂x ∂y
We apply the Milne-Thomson method to find f (z ).

Since f (z ) = u + i v is analytic, therefore

∂u ∂v
f ′ (z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
= −i
∂x ∂y [Using Cauchy-Riemann equations]
= cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y.
Putting x = z and y = 0, we get
f ′ (z ) = cos z cosh 0 − i sin z sinh 0
= cos z [∵ cosh 0 = 1, sinh 0 = 0 ]
Integrating with respect to z , we get
f (z ) = sin z + constant
= sin ( x + iy) + constant
= sin x cos iy + cos x sin iy + constant
= sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y + ic
= sin x cosh y + i (cos x sinh y + c )
= u + i v.
Hence, the required analytic function is
f (z ) = u + i v = sin z + constant
= sin x cosh y + i (cos x sinh y + c )
and the imaginary part v = cos x sinh y + c .

(iii) Let f (z ) = u + i v be analytic.

Here, u = x2 − y2 .
∂u ∂u
∴ = 2 x, = − 2 y.
∂x ∂y

We apply the Milne-Thomson method to find f (z ).

 C-72

Since f (z ) = u + i v is analytic, therefore

∂u ∂v
f ′ (z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u  ∂v ∂u 
= −i ∵ =− , by Cauchy-Riemann equations 
∂x ∂y  ∂ x ∂ y 
= 2 x + 2 iy.
Putting x = z and y = 0, we get
f ′ (z ) = 2 z .
Integrating with respect to z , we get
f (z ) = z 2 + constant

= ( x + iy)2 + constant

= x2 − y2 + 2 i xy + ic

= ( x2 − y2 ) + i (2 xy + c ) = u + i v.

Hence the required analytic function is f (z ) = z 2 + constant = ( x2 − y2 ) + i (2 xy + c )

and the imaginary part v = 2 xy + c .

Example 20: Prove that the following functions are harmonic and find the harmonic conjugate.
(i) 2 x − x3 + 3 xy2 (ii) e − x ( x cos y + y sin y). (Agra 2012)
3 2
Solution: (i) Let u = 2 x − x + 3 xy .
∂u ∂u
Then = 2 − 3 x2 + 3 y2 , = 6 xy,
∂x ∂y

∂2 u ∂2 u
2
= − 6 x, = 6 x.
∂x ∂ y2

∂2 u ∂2 u
∴ 2
+ = − 6 x + 6 x = 0.
∂x ∂ y2

∴ u is harmonic.
Let v be the harmonic conjugate of u.
Then f (z ) = u + i v is analytic.
∂u ∂v
∴ f ′ (z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u  ∂v ∂u 
=
∂x
−i
∂y  ∵ By Cauchy-Riemann equations ∂x = − ∂y 
 
= 2 − 3 x2 + 3 y2 − i 6 xy.

To apply Milne-Thomson’s method, putting x = z and y = 0, we get

f ′ (z ) = 2 − 3 z 2 .
 C-73

Integrating with respect to z, we get

f (z ) = 2 z − z 3 + a constant

= 2 ( x + iy) − ( x + iy)3 + a constant

= 2 x + i 2 y − x3 + 3 xy2 − 3 x2 y i + iy3 + a constant

= (2 x − x3 + 3 xy2 ) + i (2 y − 3 x2 y + y3 ) + ic

= u + i (2 y − 3 x2 y + y3 + c ).

∴ v = 2 y − 3 x2 y + y3 + c .

Hence the harmonic conjugate of u is v = 2 y − 3 x2 y + y3 + c .

(ii) Let u = e − x ( x cos y + y sin y).

∂u
Then = e − x (cos y) + ( x cos y + y sin y) (− e − x )
∂x
= e − x (cos y − x cos y − y sin y),
∂u
= e − x (− x sin y + y cos y + sin y),
∂y

∂2 u
= e − x (− cos y) + (cos y − x cos y − y sin y) (− e − x )
∂x2
= e − x (− cos y − cos y + x cos y + y sin y)

= e − x ( x cos y + y sin y − 2 cos y),

∂2 u
and 2
= e − x (− x cos y + cos y − y sin y + cos y)
∂y

= e − x (− x cos y − y sin y + 2 cos y).

∂2 u ∂2 u
∴ + = e − x ( x cos y + y sin y − 2 cos y − x cos y
∂x2 ∂ y2
− y sin y + 2 cos y) = 0 .
∴ u is harmonic.
Let v be the harmonic conjugate of u.
Then f (z ) = u + i v is analytic.
∂u ∂v
∴ f ′ (z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u  ∂v ∂u 
=
∂x
−i
∂y ∵ By Cauchy-Riemann equations, ∂x = − ∂y 
 
= e − x (cos y − x cos y − y sin y) − ie − x

(− x sin y + y cos y + sin y).

 C-74

To apply Milne-Thomson’s method putting x = z and y = 0, we get

f ′ (z ) = e − z (1 − z − 0 ) − ie − z (0 ) = e − z (1 − z ).

Integrating with respect to z, we get

f (z ) = (1 − z ) (− e − z ) − ∫ − e − z (− 1) dz + constant

= − (1 − z ) e − z − ∫ e − z dz + constant

= − (1 − z ) e − z − (− e − z ) + constant

= e − z (− 1 + z + 1) + constant

= e − x − iy ( x + iy) + constant

= e − x (cos y − i sin y) ( x + iy) + constant

= e − x ( x cos y + y sin y) + ie − x ( y cos y − x sin y) + ic

= u + i [e − x ( y cos y − x sin y) + c ].

∴ v = e − x ( y cos y − x sin y) + c .

Hence the harmonic conjugate of u is

v = e − x ( y cos y − x sin y) + c .
Example 21: Find the orthogonal trajectory of the family of curves
x2 − y2 + x = c .

Solution: Let u = x2 − y2 + x.
∂u ∂u
Then = 2 x + 1, = − 2 y.
∂x ∂y
Let f (z ) = u + i v be analytic.
∂u ∂v
Then f ′ (z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u  ∂v ∂u 
=
∂x
−i
∂y ∵ By Cauchy-Riemann equations, ∂x = − ∂y 
 
= 2 x + 1 − i (− 2 y).
To apply Milne-Thomson’s method putting x = z and y = 0, we get
f ′ (z ) = 2 z + 1.
Integrating with respect to z, we get
f (z ) = z 2 + z + constant

= ( x + iy)2 + ( x + iy) + constant

= ( x2 − y2 + x) + 2 ixy + iy + ic

= u + i (2 xy + y + c )
= u + i v, where v = 2 xy + y + c .
 C-75

We know that if f (z ) = u + i v is analytic, then the orthogonal trajectory of the family

of curves u = constant is the family of curves v = constant.
Hence, 2 xy + y = c where c is an arbitrary constant, is the orthogonal trajectory of the
family of curves x2 − y2 + x = c .

2 sin 2 x
Example 22: If u + v = 2 y
, find the corresponding analytic function
e + e −2 y
− 2 cos 2 x
f (z ) = u + iv.
Solution: We have f (z ) = u + iv, i f (z ) = iu − v.
∴ (1 + i ) f (z ) = u − v + i (u + v) = U + iV , say.
2 sin 2 x sin 2 x
Here V =u+v= 2y = ⋅
e + e −2 y − 2 cos 2 x cosh 2 y − cos 2 x
∂V ∂V
Let = ψ1 ( x, y) and = ψ2 ( x, y).
∂y ∂x
∂V sin 2 x (2 sinh 2 y)
Then ψ1 ( x, y) = =−
∂y (cosh 2 y − cos 2 x)2

∂V 2 cos 2 x (cosh 2 y − cos 2 x) − 2 sin2 2 x

and ψ2 ( x, y) = =
∂x (cosh 2 y − cos 2 x)2
2 cos 2 x cosh 2 y − 2
= ⋅
(cosh 2 y − cos 2 x)2
sin 2 z (2 sinh 0 )
Now ψ1 (z , 0 ) = − =0
(cosh 0 − cos 2 z )2
2 cos 2 z cosh 0 − 2 2 cos 2 z − 2
and ψ2 (z , 0 ) = 2
=
(cosh 0 − cos 2 z ) (1 − cos 2 z)2
−2
= = − cosec2 z .
1 − cos 2 z
By Milne’s method, we have
(1 + i) f (z ) = ∫ [ψ1 (z , 0 ) + i ψ2 (z , 0 )] dz + c

=∫ (0 − i cosec2 z ) dz + c = i cot z + c
i c
∴ f (z ) = cot z +
1+ i 1+ i
1
= (1 + i) cot z + d.
2
cos x + sin x − e − y
Example 23: If f (z ) = u + iv is an analytic function of z and u − v = ,
2 cos x − e y − e − y
π
find f (z ) subject to the condition f   = 0 .
 2
 C-76

y
cos x + sin x − e −
Solution:Here u − v = y −y
2 cos x − e − e

1  2 cos x + 2 sin x − 2 e − y 
= 1 + y − y
− 1
2 2 cos x − e − e 
1 2 sin x + e y − e − y  1  sin x + sinh y 
= 1 + y − y  = 1 + ⋅
2  2 cos x − e − e  2  cos x − cosh y 

∂u ∂v 1 cos x (cos x − cosh y) + (sin x + sinh y) sin x 

Now − =  
∂x ∂x 2  (cos x − cosh y)2 

1 1 − cos x cosh y + sin x sinh y 

=  
2 (cos x − cosh y)2 
…(1)

∂u ∂v 1 cosh y (cos x − cosh y) + sinh y (sin x + sinh y)

and − =  
∂y ∂y 2  (cos x − cosh y)2 

1 cosh y cos x + sinh y sin x − 1

=  
2  (cos x − cosh y)2 

∂v ∂u 1 cosh y cos x + sinh y sin x − 1

or − − =  , …(2)
∂x ∂x 2  (cos x − cosh y)2 
by Cauchy-Riemann equations.
Solving (1) and (2), we get
∂u 1  1 − cos x cosh y 
=   = φ1 ( x, y)
∂x 2 (cos x − cosh y)2 

∂v sin x sinh y
and =− = φ2 ( x, y).
∂x 2 (cos x − cosh y)2
∂u ∂v
∴ f ′ (z ) = +i = φ1 (z , 0 ) + i φ 2 (z , 0 )
∂x ∂x
1 1 − cos z 1 1 z
= = = cosec2 ⋅
2 (cos z − 1)2 2 (1 − cos z ) 4 2
1 1 1 1
∴ f (z ) = ∫ cosec2 z dz + c = − cot z + c .
4 2 2 2
π
At z = , f (z ) = 0 .
2
π 1 π 1
∴ c = f   + cot = ⋅
 2 2 4 2
1 1 
∴ f (z ) = 1 − cot z  .
2 2 
 C-77

Example 24: If f (z ) = u + iv be an analytic function in a domain D, prove that f (z ) is

constant in D if any one of the following conditions holds:
(i) f ′ (z ) vanishes identically in D.
(ii) R ( f (z )) = u = constant. (Kanpur 2003)

(iii) I ( f (z )) = v = constant. (Garhwal 2000)

(iv) | f (z )| = constant.
(v) arg f (z ) = constant.

Solution: Since f (z ) = u + iv is analytic in D, therefore it satisfies Cauchy-Riemann

equations,
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v 
= , =− ⋅ …(1)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x 

∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
(i) We have f ′ (z ) = +i = −i , from (1)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
∴ If f ′ (z ) = 0 , we have

∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
+i = 0 and −i = 0.
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
∴ = 0, = 0, = 0 and = 0.
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Thus u and v are constants and consequently f (z ) is a constant function.

(ii) R ( f (z )) = u = constant
∂u ∂u
⇒ =0 = ⋅
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u
Now f ′ (z ) = +i = −i , from (1)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y

=0
∴ f (z ) is a constant function.

(iii) I ( f (z )) = v = constant
∂v ∂v
⇒ = 0, = 0.
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂v
Now f ′ (z ) = +i = + i , from (1)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x

=0
∴ f (z ) is a constant function.
 C-78

(iv) | f (z )| = constant ⇒ u2 + v2 = constant

∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
⇒ u +v = 0 and u +v =0
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
⇒ u +v = 0 and − u +v =0
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
⇒ = 0 and = 0 , provided u2 + v2 ≠ 0 .
∂x ∂x
Therefore if u2 + v2 ≠ 0 , u and v are constants and consequently f (z ) is constant. If
u2 + v2 = 0 at a single point, it is constantly zero and so f (z ) is zero. Hence, in either
case f (z ) is constant.

v
(v) Here arg f (z ) = tan−1 ⋅
u
arg f (z ) = c (constant)
v
⇒ tan−1 = c ⇒ (v / u) = tan c
u
⇒ u = v cot c ⇒ u = k v, taking cot c = k .
We observe u − kv = 0 unless v is identically zero. But u − kv is the real part of (1 + ik ) f ,
therefore it follows from part (ii) that (1 + ik ) f is constant. But (1 + ik ) is a constant,
therefore f is also a constant.

Example 25: If f (z ) is an analytic function of z, prove that

 ∂2 ∂2 
 2
+ 2  | R f (z )|2 = 2 | f ′ (z )|2 .
 ∂x ∂y 

Solution: Let f (z ) = u + iv , where z = x + iy.

Then R f (z ) = u.
∂u2 ∂u
Now = 2u
∂x ∂x
2
∂2 u2  ∂u  ∂2 u
and = 2  + 2u 2 ⋅
∂x2  ∂x  ∂x
2
∂2 u2  ∂u  ∂2 u
Similarly =2  + 2u ⋅
∂ y2  ∂y  ∂y 2
 2
∂2 u2 ∂2 u2   ∂u 
2
 ∂u    ∂2 u ∂2 u 
∴ + = 2    +   +u 2 + 2 
∂x2 ∂ y2    ∂x   ∂y    ∂x ∂y 
  

 ∂2 ∂2   ∂u 2  ∂u  2 
  
or  2 + 2  u2 = 2    +    + 0,
 ∂ x ∂ y    ∂ x   ∂ y  
since u is a harmonic function
 C-79

 ∂2 ∂2    ∂u  2  ∂v  2 
or  2 + 2  u2 = 2   +    ,
 ∂x ∂y   ∂x   ∂x  

using Cauchy-Riemann equa tions

 ∂2 ∂2  ∂u ∂v
or  2 + 2  | u|2 = 2 | f ′ (z )|2 , since f ′ (z ) = +i
 ∂x ∂y  ∂x ∂x

 ∂2 ∂2 
Hence,  2
+  | R f (z )|2 = 2 | f ′ (z )|2 .
 ∂x ∂ y2 

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. (i) Show that the function f (z ) = xy + iy is everywhere continuous but is

not analytic. (Rohilkhand 2011; Purvanchal 11, 12)
n
(ii) If n is real, show that r (cos nθ + i sin nθ) is analytic except possibly

when r = 0 and that its derivative is nr n − 1 [cos (n − 1)θ + i sin (n − 1)θ ].

(Kumaun 2015)
x
2. Show that the function e (cos y + i sin y) is holomorphic and find its
derivative. (Lucknow 2006, 13)

xy2 ( x + iy) f (z ) − f (0 )
3. If f (z ) = 2 4
, z ≠ 0 , f (0 ) = 0 , prove that → 0 as z → 0
x + y z
along any radius vector but not as z → 0 in any manner.
(Gorakhpur 2007; Purvanchal 12)

x2 y5 ( x + iy)
4. Examine the nature of the function f (z ) = , z ≠ 0 , f (0 ) = 0
x 4 + y10
in a region including the origin. (Meerut 2002; Gorakhpur 09, 13)

5. Show that an analytic function with constant argument is constant.

6. Show that an analytic function with constant modulus is constant.
Or (Kumaun 2009)
Show that an analytic function cannot have a constant modulus without
reducing to a constant.
7. For what values of z the function w defined by z = e − v (cos u + i sin u), where
w = u + iv ceases to be analytic ?
8. Prove that u = y3 − 3 x2 y is a harmonic function. Determine its harmonic
conjugate and find the corresponding analytic function f (z ) in terms of z.
(Purvanchal 2010, 12)
 C-80

9. If u = e x ( x cos y − y sin y), find the analytic function u + iv.

(Kanpur 2003, 11, 13; Gorakhpur 05; Rohilkhand 09, 11;
Purvanchal 10; Meerut 12)

10. If u = ( x − 1)3 − 3 xy2 + 3 y2 , determine v so that u + iv is a regular function of

x + iy. (Meerut 2001; Gorakhpur 06, 09, 13)

11. Prove that if u = x2 − y2 , v = − y / ( x2 + y2 ) both u and v satisfy Laplace’s

equation but u + iv is not an analytic function of z. (Agra 2012)
2 2
12. Show that the function u = sin x cosh y + 2 cos x sinh y + x − y + 4 xy
satisfies Laplace’s equation and find the corresponding analytic function u + iv.
13. Find the analytic function of which the real part is
e − x {( x2 − y2 ) cos y + 2 x sin y}. (Purvanchal 2007; 09)
14. Construct the analytic function f (z ) = u + iv , where
(i) u = x3 − 3 xy2 + 3 x + 1, (Gorakhpur 2007)

(ii) u = y3 − 3 x2 y.
15. Prove that the function u = x3 − 3 xy2 + 3 x2 − 3 y2 + 1 satisfies Laplace’s
equation and determine the corresponding analytic function. (Meerut 2000)

16. If f (z ) = u + iv is analytic function and u − v = e x (cos y − sin y), find f (z ) in

terms of z. (Garhwal 2000; Purvanchal 09; Gorakhpur 11; Agra 12)

17. If u − v = ( x − y)( x2 + 4 xy + y2 ) and f (z ) = u + iv is an analytic function of

z = x + iy, find f (z ) in terms of z.
(Rohilkhand 2008; Purvanchal 08; Gorakhpur 10)

18. If f (z ) = u + iv is an analytic function of z = x + iy and

y
e − cos x + sin x π 3−i
u−v= , find f (z ) subject to the condition f   = ⋅
cosh y − cos x  2 2
(Gorakhpur 2008)

19. If f (z ) = u + iv is an analytic function of z = x + iy and ψ any function of x and y

with differential coefficients of the first and second orders, prove that

2 2
 ∂ψ   ∂ψ    ∂ψ  2  ∂ψ  2  2
(i)   +   =   +   | f ′ (z )|
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂ u   ∂ v 
 

∂2 ψ ∂2 ψ  ∂2 ψ ∂2 ψ 
(ii) 2
+ 2
= 2
+ 2  | f ′ (z )|2 .
∂x ∂y  ∂ u ∂v 
 ∂2 ∂2 
20. If f (z ) is a regular function of z, prove that  2 + 2  | f (z )|2 = 4 | f ′ (z )|2 .
 ∂x ∂y 
(Kanpur 2001)
 C-81

 ∂2 ∂2 
21. If w = f (z ) is a regular function of z, prove that  2 + 2  log | f ′ (z )| = 0 .
 ∂x ∂y 
(Kanpur 2002; Kumaun 07, 13)
If | f ′ (z )| is the product of a function of x and a function of y, show that
f ′ (z ) = exp (αz 2 + βz + γ ),
where α is a real and β, γ are complex constants. (Rohilkhand 2012)

A nswers 1

7. z =0 9. f (z ) = ze z + c

10. v = 3 x2 y − 6 xy + 3 y − y3 + c 13. f (z ) = ( x + iy)2 ⋅ e − x [cos y − i sin y] + c

14. (i) z 3 + 3 z + 1 + ci , (ii) i (z 3 + c )

16. f (z ) = e z + c 17. f (z ) = − iz 3 + d
1 1
18. f (z ) = cot z + (1 − i)
2 2

Objective Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from (a),
(b), (c) and (d).
1. Cauchy-Riemann equations for w = u + iv = f (z ) are :
(a) u x = v x , u y = v y (b) u x = v y , u y = v x
(c) u x = v y , u y = − v x (d) none of these.
(Rohilkhand 2011; Kumaun 11)

2. Which of the following is not correct for analytic functions f (z ) and g (z ) in a

region R ?
(a) f (z ) + g (z ) is analytic in R
(b) f (z ) − g (z ) is analytic in R
(c) f (z ) g (z ) is analytic in R
(d) f (z ) / g (z ) is analytic in R . (Kumaun 2013)
 C-82

3. Which of the following is correct for w = f (z ) ?

dw ∂w dw ∂w
(a) = (b) =−
dz ∂x dz ∂x
dw ∂w dw ∂w
(c) = (d) =− ⋅
dz ∂y dz ∂y (Kumaun 2007)

4. The derivative of a function w = f (z ) in polar form is given by :

dw ∂w iθ dw ∂w iθ
(a) = e (b) =− e
dz ∂r dz ∂θ
dw ∂w − iθ dw ∂w − iθ
(c) = e (d) =− e .
dz ∂r dz ∂θ
5. Any function of x and y possessing continuous partial derivatives of the first and
second orders is called a harmonic function if it satisfies :
(a) Euler’s equation (b) Laplace’s equation
(c) Lagrange’s equation (d) none of these.

6. An analytic function with constant modulus is :

(a) variable (b) constant
(c) may be variable or constant (d) none of these.

7. If f (z ) = u + iv is analytic function in a finite region and u = x3 − 3 xy2 , then v is:

(a) 3 x2 y − y3 + c (b) 3 x2 y2 − y3 + c

(c) 3 x2 y − y2 + c (d) none of these.

8. The analytic function whose real part is e x cos y is :

(a) e z + d (b) e2 z
(c) xe z (d) none of these.

9. The analytic function whose real part is e x ( x cos y − y sin y) is :

(a) ze z + c (b) z 2 e z
2
(c) ze x + iy
(d) none of these.
−v
10. The function w defined by z = e (cos u + i sin u) ceases to be analytic at z where
z is :
(a) 1 (b) 0
(c) ∞ (d) none of these.

11. Which of the following functions f (z ) is analytic and bounded where f (z ) =

(a) sin z (b) cos z
(c) any polynomial of degree more than one
(d) none of these
 C-83

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “.............’’ so that the following statements are complete and correct.

1. If f (z ) = u + iv be an analytic function of z = x + iy, then the families of curves

u = constant, v = constant are ............. to each other.
2. The function f (z ) = z is not ............. at any point.

3. If harmonic functions u and v satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations, then

f (z ) = u + iv is an ............. function.

4. The function w =| z |2 is continuous everywhere but nowhere differentiable

except at the ............. .
1
5. If f (z ) = u + iv is analytic and u = log ( x2 + y2 ) then v is ............. .
2
6. An analytic function with constant real part is ............. .
1
7. The function f (z ) = is not analytic at z = ............. .
z (z − 3)

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
1. Continuity is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for the existence of a
finite derivative.

2. If a function f (z ) = u + iv is analytic at any point z = x + iy, then

Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at that point.
x3 y ( y − ix)
3. The function f (z ) defined by f (z ) = ,z ≠0
x6 + y2
and f (0 ) = 0 is differentiable at z = 0.

4. Real and imaginary parts of an analytic function f (z ) = u ( x, y) + iv ( x, y) satisfy

Laplace’s equation.

5. The function f (z ) = | xy |1 /2 is analytic at z = 0.

1
6. The function f (z ) = is not differentiable at z = 1, z = 2.
(z − 1) (z − 2)

7. Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar form are

∂u 1 ∂v 1 ∂u ∂v
= and =− ⋅
∂r r ∂θ r ∂θ ∂r
 C-84

Answers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b)
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (a)

Fill in the Blank(s)

1. orthogonal 2. analytic 3. analytic
y
4. origin 5. tan− 1   6. constant
 x
7. 0, 3

True or False
1. T 2. T 3. F. 4. T 5. F
6. T 7. T

¨
 C-85

3
C omplex I ntegration

1 Introduction
e are familiar with the theory of integration of a real variable. In the case of a real
W variable, the integration is considered from two points of view, namely, the
indefinite integration as a process inverse to differentiation and definite integration as
the limit of a sum. There is a similar distinction between definite and indefinite
integrals of a complex variable. As in the case of real variables, the concept of indefinite
integral as the process inverse to differentiation also extends to a function of a complex
variable. The indefinite integral of a complex variable is a function whose derivative
equals a given analytic function in a region. However the concept of definite integral of
a real variable does not extend straightway to the domain of complex variables. For
b
example, in the case of real variables, the path of integration of ∫a f ( x) dx is always along the
real axis (x-axis) from x = a to x = b. But for a complex function f (z ), the path of the definite
b
integral ∫ f (z ) dz may be along any curve joining the points z = a and z = b, i.e., the value of
a
the integral depends upon the path of integration. However, this variation in the value of
definite integral will disappear in some special circumstances. Definite integrals of a
complex variable are usually known as line integrals.
 C-86

The theory of line integrals, along with the theory of power series and residues forms a
very useful and important part of the theory of functions of a complex variable. These
theories contain some of the most powerful theorems which have application in both
pure and applied mathematics.

2 Definitions
(i) Partition: Consider a closed interval [a, b], where a and b are real numbers.
Divide [a, b ] into n sub-intervals
[a = t0 , t1 ], [t1, t2 ],……,[tn − 1, tn = b ]
by inserting n − 1 intermediate points t1, t2 ,……, tn − 1 satisfying
a < t1 < t2 < …… < tn.
Then we call the set P = {t0 , t1, t2 ,……, tn}
a partition of [a, b]. The greatest number among t1 − t0 , t2 − t1,……, tn − tn − 1 is called
the norm of the partition P and is denoted by | P| .
(ii) Arcs and closed curves: We know that the equation
z = z (t) = x (t) + i y (t),
where a ≤ t ≤ b and x (t), y (t) are continuous functions, represents an arc L in the
Argand plane, i.e., an arc is the set of all image points of a closed finite interval under a continuous
mapping.
The equations x = x (t), y = y (t) give the parametric representation of the arc in the
plane.
If z ′ (t) exists and is continuous, the arc L is said to be differentiable or continuously
differentiable. If in addition to the existence of z ′ (t), we also have z ′ (t) ≠ 0, the arc L is
said to be regular or smooth. Geometrically, at every point of a smooth arc there exists
a tangent whose direction is determined by arg z ′ (t). As a matter of fact, as t increases
from a to b, z continuously traces out the arc L and at the same time arg z ′ (t) varies
continuously since z ′ (t) changes continuously without vanishing.
If among various representations of an arc L there exists at least one representation,
such that the interval [a, b] can be divided into a finite number of sub-intervals
[a , a1], [a1, a2 ], …… ,[an − 1, b ]
on each of which z ′ (t) exists, then the arc L is said to be piecewise differentiable. If in
addition to this we also have z ′ (t) ≠ 0 on any of these sub-intervals, the arc L is said to
be piecewise smooth.
If t1 ≠ t2 ⇒ z (t1) ≠ z (t2 ), the arc L is called simple or Jordan arc.
If the points corresponding to the values a and b coincide, the arc L is said to be a closed
curve.
If the arc L is defined by z = z (t), a ≤ t ≤ b, then the arc defined by
z = z (− t), − b ≤ t ≤ − a is called the opposite arc of L and is denoted by − L or L−1.
 C-87

3 Rectifiable Arcs
Consider the arc L defined by z = z (t) = x (t) + i y (t), a ≤ t ≤ b.
Let P = {t0 , t1, t2 ,……, tn} be any partition of [a, b].
Corresponding to this partition, dividing the arc L into n sub-arcs
Lk = arc z k − 1 z k , (k = 1, 2,……, n)
where z k = z (tk ), (k = 0 , 1, 2,……, n).
Joining each of the points z0 , z1, z2 ,……, z n to the
next point by straight lines, we obtain a polygonal
curve. The length of this polygonal curve is given
n
by Σ | z k − z k − 1 | .
k =1

The arc L will be rectifiable if the least upper

bound of the sum
| z1 − z0 | +| z2 − z1 | +……+| z n − z n − 1 |
…(1)
taken over all partitions P is finite
n
i.e., if sup Σ | z k − z k − 1 | = l < ∞.
P k =1

The non-negative real number l is called the length of the arc L. The arc L is said to be
non-rectifiable if the sum (1) becomes arbitrarily large for suitably chosen partitions.
Contours: A contour is a continuous chain of a finite number of regular arcs.
If A is the starting point of the first arc and B the end point of the last arc, the integral of
a function f (z ) along such a curve is written as ∫ f (z ) dz .
AB

A contour is said to be closed if it does not intersect itself and the starting point A of the first arc
coincides with the end point B of the last arc.

The integral along such closed contour C is written as ∫ f (z ) dz . The boundaries of

C
triangles and quadrilaterals are examples of closed contours.
Simply connected region and multiply connected region:A region in which every
closed curve can be shrunk to a point without passing out of the region is called a
simply connected region otherwise it is said to be multiply connected.
(Meerut 2002)

4 Functions of Bounded Variation

We can easily show that
| x (tk ) − x (tk − 1)| ≤ | z (tk ) − z (tk − 1)|,
 C-88

| y (tk ) − y (tk − 1)| ≤ | z (tk ) − z (tk − 1)|,

| z (tk ) − z (tk − 1)| = | x (tk ) − x (tk − 1) + i { y (tk ) − y (tk − 1)}|
≤ | x (tk ) − x (tk − 1)| + | i|| y (tk ) − y (tk − 1)|
or | z (tk ) − z (tk − 1)| ≤ | x (tk ) − x (tk − 1)| + | y (tk ) − y (tk − 1)| [∵ | i| = 1]

From above inequalities we conclude that the sum

| z (t1) − z (t0 )| + | z (t2 ) − z (t1)| +……+ | z (tn) − z (tn − 1)|
and the sums
| x (t1) − x (t0 )| + | x (t2 ) − x (t1)| +……+ | x (tn) − x (tn − 1)| ,
| y (t1) − y (t0 )| + | y (t2 ) − y (t1)| + ……+ | y (tn) − y (tn − 1)|
are bounded at the same time.
The functions x (t) and y (t) are said to be of bounded variation if the latter two of the
above three sums are bounded for all partitions P of [a , b ].
It can be easily proved that an arc z = z (t) = x (t) + i y (t), a ≤ t ≤ b is rectifiable if and only
if the functions x (t) and y (t) are of bounded variation in [a, b ].
It is not hard to show that a smooth arc L is rectifiable and that its length l is given by the
familiar formula
b
l= ∫a [ x ′ (t)2 + y ′ (t)2 ] dt ...(1)
b
or equivalently by l = ∫a | z ′ (t)| dt. ...(2)

5 Complex Integrals
(Meerut 2002)
Let f (z ) be a function of a complex variable z defined
and continuous on an arc L , where L is a rectifiable
arc defined by
z = z (t) = x (t) + i y (t), a ≤ t ≤ b.
Let there be any partition
P = {a = t0 , t1, t2 ,……, tn = b } of [a, b ].
Form the sum
SP = (z1 − z0 ) f (ζ1) + (z2 − z1) f (ζ2 ) +……
+ (z k − z k − 1) f (ζ k ) +……+ (z n − z n − 1) f (ζ n)
n
= Σ (z k − z k − 1) f (ζ k ), …(1)
k =1

where z k = z (tk ), ζ k = z (α k ), tk − 1 ≤ α k ≤ tk
and ζ k is a point on each arc joining the points z k −1 to z k .
 C-89

Thus to form the sum SP , we choose an arbitrary point ζ k on each arc joining the points
z k −1 to z k and add the terms of the form (z k − z k −1) f (ζ k ), where k varies from 1 to n.
For convenience, we shall write z k − z k −1 = ∆ z k .
The function f (z ) is said to be integrable from a to b along the arc L if the sum SP taken
over all possible partitions P tends to a unique limit I as n → ∞ and | P| → 0.

lim n
∴ I= ∫L f (z ) dz = n → ∞ Σ (z k − z k − 1) f (ζ k ).
|P |→ ∞ k = 1

∫L f (z ) dz is called the complex line integral or simply line integral of f (z ) along L or

the definite integral of f (z ) from a to b along L.

6 Evaluation of Some Integrals ab-initio (By Definition)

Example 1:Using the definition of an integral as the limit of a sum evaluate the following integrals

(i) ∫L dz and (ii) ∫L z dz ,

where L is any rectifiable arc joining the points z = α and z = β.

Solution: Both the integrals exist since the integrand is a continuous function in each
case.
lim n
(i) We have ∫L dz = Σ (z k − z k − 1), by definition
n→ ∞ k =1

lim
= (z − z0 + z2 − z1 +……+ z n − z n − 1)
n→ ∞ 1
lim
= (z − z0 ) = β − α. [ ∵ z 0 = α, z n = β ]
n→ ∞ n

Note: If L is a closed curve, we have α = β and ∫ dz = 0.

L
lim n
(ii) We have ∫L f (z ) dz = Σ f (ζ k ) (z k − z k − 1) by def.
n→ ∞ k =1

lim n
∴ ∫L z dz = Σ ζ k (z k − z k − 1) …(1)
n→ ∞ k =1

where ζ k is any point on the sub-arc joining z k −1 to z k . Since ζ k is arbitrary, therefore

taking ζ k = z k and ζ k = z k − 1 successively in (1), we get
 C-90

lim n
∫L z dz = Σ z k (z k − z k − 1)
n→ ∞ k =1

lim n
and ∫L z dz = Σ z k − 1 (z k − z k − 1).
n→ ∞ k =1

Adding these two integrals, we get

lim n
2 ∫ z dz = Σ (z k + z k − 1) (z k − z k − 1)
L n → ∞ k =1
lim n
= Σ (z k2 − z 2k − 1)
n→ ∞ k =1

lim n
= Σ (z12 − z02 + z22 − z12 +……+ z n2 − z 2n − 1)
n→ ∞ k =1

lim n
= Σ (z n2 − z02 ) = β2 − α2 , since z0 = α , z n = β.
n→ ∞ k =1

1 2
∴ ∫L z dz = ( β − α2 ).
2
If L is a closed curve, we have α = β, so in this case ∫ z dz = 0.
L

Example 2: Evaluate ∫ | dz | (ab-initio)

L

Solution: The above integral exists since the integrand is a continuous function.
Here f (z ) = 1 and we have | dz | in place of dz.
lim n
We have ∫L | dz | = n → ∞ k Σ=1 | z k − z k −1 |
lim
= [| z1 − z0 | + | z2 − z1 | +……+ | z n − z n − 1 |]
n→ ∞
lim
= [chord z1 z0 + chord z2 z1 +……+ chord z n z n − 1]
n→ ∞

= arc length of L .

7 Reduction of Complex Integrals to Real Integrals

Theorem: Let the arc L defined by
z = z (t) = x (t) + i y (t), a ≤ t ≤ b
be continuously differentiable and let
f (z ) = u ( x, y) + i v ( x, y)
be continuous over L. Then (i) L is rectifiable
b
(ii) ∫L f (z ) dz = ∫a { u ( x (t), y (t)) x ′ (t) − v ( x (t), y (t)) y ′ (t)} dt
b
+ i ∫ {v ( x (t), y (t)) x ′ (t) + u ( x (t), y (t)) y ′ (t)} dt.
a
 C-91

Proof: (i) Let P = { a = t0 , t1 , t2 ,……, tn = b } be any partition of [ a, b ].

n n
We have Σ | z k − z k −1 | = Σ | z (tk ) − z (tk − 1)| , where z k = z (tk )
k =1 k =1

= Σ | x (tk ) − x (tk − 1) + i { y (tk ) − y (tk − 1)}| ,

since z (tk ) = x (tk ) + i y (tk )
≤ Σ | x (tk ) − x (tk − 1)| + Σ | y (tk ) − y (tk − 1)| . …(1)
Since x (t) and y (t) are continuously differentiable in [ a, b ], therefore by Lagrange’s
mean value theorem there exist real numbers γ k and δ k in ] tk −1, tk [ such that
x (tk ) − x (tk − 1) = (tk − tk − 1) x ′ (γ k ) …(2)
y (tk ) − y (tk − 1) = (tk − tk − 1) y ′ (δ k ). …(3)
Again z (t) is continuously differentiable in [ a, b ], therefore the derivatives x ′ (t)and
y ′ (t) are continuous in [ a, b ]. Consequently x ′ (t) and y ′ (t) are bounded in [ a, b ].
Therefore there exists a real number M such that
| x ′ (t)| ≤ M and
| y ′ (t)| ≤ M , V t ∈[a, b ]. …(4)
From (1), (2), (3) and (4), we have
Σ | z k − z k − 1 | ≤ Σ | tk − tk − 1 || x ′ (γ k )| + Σ | tk − tk − 1 || y ′ (δ k )|
n n n
≤ Σ M | tk − tk − 1 | + Σ M | tk − tk − 1 | = 2 M Σ | tk − tk − 1 |
k =1 k =1 k =1

= 2 M (t1 − t0 + t2 − t1 +……+ tn − tn − 1)
= 2 M (tn − t0 ) = 2 M (b − a).
n
∴ Σ | z k − z k − 1 | ≤ 2 M (b − a). …(5)
k =1

sup n
Thus we can say that Σ | z − k k − 1| < ∞.
P k =1 k

Hence the arc L is rectifiable.

(ii) Consider the sum S = Σ (z k − z k − 1) f (ζ k )
where ζ k is a point on the arc joining the points z k −1 and z k . Let τ k be the parameter of ζ k .
Then τ k lies between z k −1 and z k . We have
f [ z (t) ] = u [ x (t), y (t) ] + i v [ x (t), y (t) ]
= φ (t) + i ψ (t).
Then φ (t) = u [ x (t), y (t) ], ψ (t) = v [ x (t), y (t)]. …(6)
Now S = Σ [ x (tk ) + i y (tk ) − x (tk − 1) − iy (tk − 1)][ φ (τ k ) + i ψ (τ k )]
= Σ [ x (tk ) − x (tk − 1) + i { y (tk ) − y (tk − 1)}] [φ (τ k ) + i ψ (τ k )]
= Σ [(tk − tk − 1) x ′ (γ k ) + i (tk − tk − 1) y ′ (δ k )][φ (τ k ) + iψ (τ k )],
from (2) and (3)
 C-92

= Σ (tk − tk − 1) x ′ ( γ k ) φ (τ k ) − (tk − tk − 1) y ′ (δ k ) ψ (τ k )
+ i Σ (tk − tk − 1) x ′ (γ k ) ψ (τ k ) + i Σ (tk − tk − 1) y ′ (δ k ) φ (τ k )
= S1 + S2 + i (S3 + S4 ), …(7)
where S1 = Σ (tk − tk − 1) x ′ (γ k ) φ (τ k ),
S2 = − Σ (tk − tk − 1) y ′ (δ k ) ψ (τ k ),
S3 = Σ (tk − tk − 1) x ′ (γ k ) ψ (τ k ),
and S4 = Σ (tk − tk − 1) y ′ (δ k ) φ (τ k ).
We can write
n n
S1 = Σ (tk − tk − 1) x ′ (τ k ) φ (τ k ) + Σ (tk − tk − 1) [ x ′ ( γ k ) − x ′ (τ k ) ] φ (τ k ).
k =1 k =1
…(8)

Since x ′ (t) is continuous in the closed and bounded interval [a, b ], therefore it is
uniformly continuous in [a, b ], so that for given ε > 0 , there exists a δ > 0 such that
| x ′ (r) − x ′ (s)| < ε whenever | r − s | < δ
where r, s are in [a, b ].
Thus for any partition P of [a, b ] with norm ≤ δ, we have
| Σ (tk − tk −1) [ x ′ (γ k ) − x ′ (τ k )] φ (τ k )| ≤ ε (b − a) M1 …(9)
{Since z (t) is continuous over L therefore φ (t) and ψ (t) are continuous on [a, b] and
consequently they are bounded on [a, b ] . Therefore there exists a number M1 such that
| φ (t)| ≤ M1 , V t ∈[a, b ].}
As n → ∞ and| P| → 0, we conclude from (9) that the second term on the right side of
(8) tends to zero and the first term tends to
b
∫a φ (t) x ′ (t) dt.
b
∴ lim S1 = ∫a φ (t) x ′ (t) dt.
b b
Similarly lim S2 = − ∫a ψ (t) y ′ (t) dt, lim S3 = ∫a ψ (t) x ′ (t) dt
b
and lim S4 = ∫a φ (t) y ′ (t) dt.

Taking limit of both sides of (7) as n → ∞ and| P| → 0 and using the above results, we
get
b
∫L f (z ) dz = ∫a { φ (t) x ′ (t) − ψ (t) y ′ (t)} dt
b
+ i∫ {ψ (t) x ′ (t) + φ (t) y ′ (t)} dt
a
b
= ∫a [ u ( x (t), y (t)) x ′ (t) − v ( x (t), y (t) ) y ′ (t) ] dt

b
+ i∫ [ v ( x (t), y (t)) x ′ (t) + u ( x (t), y (t) ) y ′ (t) ] dt.
a
 C-93

8 Some Elementary Properties of Complex Integrals

Prop. 1: ∫ L { f ( z) + φ ( z)} dz = ∫ L f ( z) dz + ∫ L φ ( z) dz.
We can generalize this property for a finite number of functions.

Prop. 2: ∫ L f ( z) dz = − ∫− L f ( z) dz, where − L is the opposite arc of L .

Prop. 3: ∫L1 + L2 f ( z) dz = ∫ L1 f ( z) dz + ∫ L f ( z) dz,

where the end point of L1 coincides with the initial point of L2 .
This property can be generalized for a finite number of arcs provided the end point of
the preceding arc coincides with the initial point of the arc which follows it. Hence, if
L = L1 + L2 + … + Ln
where the final point of Lk coincides with the initial point of
Lk + 1 (k = 1, 2, ..., n − 1),
then ∫L f (z ) dz = ∫L f (z ) dz + ∫ L2 f (z ) dz + .... + ∫ Ln f (z ) dz .

Prop. 4: ∫L c f (z ) dz = c ∫ L f (z ) dz , where c is any complex constant.

These properties can be easily proved by the definition of a complex integral as the limit
of a sum.

Prop. 5: ∫ L [c1 f1 ( z) + c2 f2 ( z) + … + cn fn ( z)] dz

= c1 ∫ L f1 ( z) dz + c2 ∫ L f2 ( z) dz + … + cn ∫ L fn ( z) dz.
where c1, c2 , ……, c n are complex constants.
This property follows directly from properties 1 and 4.

Prop. 6:  f ( z) dz ≤
∫ L  ∫ L| f ( z) || dz | .
Proof: We have R c  
∫ L f (z ) dz  = R ∫ L c f (z ) dz  , prop. 4
 

where c is a complex constant.

Since c is arbitrary therefore taking c = e − i θ where θ is any real number.

∴ R e − i θ ∫L f (z ) dz  = R ∫ e − i θ f (z ) dz  = ∫L R [e − i θ f (z ) dz ]
   L 
−iθ
≤ ∫L | e f (z ) dz | [∵ R (z ) ≤ | z |]

= ∫ L | f (z )|| dz |. …(1)
 C-94

Again since θ is any real number, therefore taking θ = arg ∫L f (z ) dz so that we can

write

∫ L f (z ) dz = ∫ L f (z ) dz ei θ .

Also in this case, we have

 
R e − i θ ∫L f (z ) dz  = R e − i θ  ∫ f (z ) dz  e i θ 
    L  

= ∫ f (z ) dz . …(2)
 L 

From (1) and (2), we have  ∫ f (z ) dz ≤ ∫ L | f (z )|| dz |.

 L 

1
Example 3: Prove that the value of the integral of along a semi-circular arc | z | = 1 from
z
−1 to 1 is − πi or πi according as the arc lies above or below the real axis.
Solution: The given circle is | z | = 1. Parametric
equation of the circle is z = e i θ , where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2 π.
iθ
We have dz = i e dθ.

As z moves from −1to 1 along the semi-circular arc

above the real axis, θ varies from π to 0. In this case,
we have
1 0 1 iθ
∫ CBA z dz = ∫ π e i θ i e dθ
0
= i∫ dθ = − iπ.
π

Again when z moves from −1to 1along the semi-circular arc below the real axis, θ varies
from π to 2π.
dz 2π i e i θ 2π
∴ ∫ CDA z ∫ π e i θ dθ = i ∫ π dθ = πi.
=

dz
Note: We have ∫ = − i π,
CBA z
dz
therefore ∫ ABC z = i π.
dz
Also ∫ CDA z = i π.
dz dz dz
Hence ∫ ABCD z = ∫ ABC z + ∫ CDA z = 2πi.
 C-95

1+i
Example 4: Find the value of the integral ∫0 ( x − y + i x2 ) dz .

(i) Along the straight line from z = 0 to z = 1 + i.

(ii) Along the real axis from z = 0 to z = 1and then along a line parallel to the imaginary axis from
z = 1 to z = 1 + i . (Meerut 2002; Rohilkhand 09; Gorakhpur 12, 14, 16)

Solution: We have z = x + i y
∴ dz = dx + i dy.
Let A be the point of affix 1 and B be the point of affix 1 + i in the Argand plane. Join OB
and AB.
(i) OB is the straight line joining z = 0 to z = 1 + i.
Obviously on OB, we have y = x
∴ dy = dx.
Now ∫ OB ( x − y + ix2 ) dz

1
= ∫0 ( x − x + ix2 ) (1 + i) dx

1
1 1
= ∫0 i (1 + i) x2 dx = (− 1 + i)  x3 
3  0
1
= (− 1 + i).
3
(ii) OA is the line from z = 0 to z = 1along the real axis and AB is the line from z = 1to
z = 1 + i parallel to the imaginary axis. On the line OA , y = 0,
∴ z = x + iy = x and dz = dx.
1
1 x 2 x 3 1 i
∴ ∫ OA ( x − y + ix2 ) dz = ∫0 ( x + ix2 ) dx =  +i  = + .
 2 3 0 2 3

On the line AB, x = 1, therefore z = 1 + iy, dz = i dy.

1
∴ ∫ AB ( x − y + ix2 ) dz = ∫0 ( 1 + i − y ) i dy

1
 y2  i
= i (1 + i ) y −  = − 1+ .
 2  0 2

1+i
Hence ∫0 ( x − y + i x2 ) dz along the contour OAB

= ∫ OA ( x − y + i x2 ) dz + ∫ AB ( x − y + i x2 ) dz

1 i i 1 5
= + − 1 + = − + i.
2 3 2 2 6
 C-96

Example 5: Evaluate ∫C (z 2 + 3 z + 2) dz where C is the arc of the cycloid

x = a (θ + sin θ), y = a (1 − cos θ) between the points (0, 0) and (πa, 2 a).

Solution: Here f (z ) = z 2 + 3 z + 2 is a polynomial so f (z ) is analytic in z-plane,

therefore the integral of f (z ) between the points (0, 0) and (πa, 2 a) is independent of
the path joining these points.
The path of integration consists of :
(i) the part of real axis from the point (0, 0) to the point (πa, 0 ).
(ii) a line parallel to y-axis from the point (πa, 0 ) to the point (πa, 2 a).

∴ ∫C (z 2 + 3 z + 2) dz
πa 2a
= ∫0 ( x2 + 3 x + 2) dx + ∫0 {(πa + iy)2 + 3 (πa + iy) + 2} i dy

πa 2a
1 3 1 3
=  x3 + x2 + 2 x +  (πa + iy)3 + (πa + iy)2 + 2 iy
3 2 
0 
3 2  0
1 3 1 3
= (πa)3 + (πa)2 + 2 πa + (πa + i2 a)3 + (πa + i2 a)2
3 2 3 2
1 3
+ 4 ia − (πa)3 − (πa)2
3 2
1 3 3 2
= 2 πa + (πa + i 2 a) + (πa + i2 a) + 4 ia.
3 2

Comprehensive Exercise 1

(2, 5)
1. Evaluate I = ∫(0,1) (3 x + y) dx + (2 y − x) dy along

(i) the curve y = x2 + 1 (ii) the line joining (0 , 1) and (2, 5)

(iii) the line from (0 ,1) to (0 , 5) and then from (0 , 5) to (2 , 5).

2. Evaluate ∫ ( z )2 dz around the circle

(i) | z | = 1, (ii) | z − 1| = 1.
3. Evaluate ∫C ( x2 − iy2 ) dz along the parabola y = 2 x2 from (1, 2) to (2 , 8) ; and

along the line joining (1, 2) and (2 , 8).

1+i
4. Evaluate the integral ∫0 z 2 dz.

dz
5. (i) Evaluate ∫ , where L represents the circle | z − a | = r .
L z−a
(Purvanchal 2011; Gorakhpur 15)
 C-97

(ii) Evaluate ∫ (z − a)n dz when n ≠ −1 and C is the circle | z − a | = r.

C
(Gorakhpur 2007)

(iii) Evaluate the integral ∫ z n dz , n ≠ −1, C : | z | = 1.

C (Gorakhpur 2014)

A nswers 1

88
1. (i) ; (ii) 32 ; (iii) 40 2. (i) 0, (ii) 4πi
3
511 49 65 1
3. (i) −i ; (ii) − 14 i 4. (1 + i)3
3 5 3 3
5. (i) 2πi (ii) 0 (iii) 0

9 An Upper Bound for a Complex Integral

Theorem: If a function f (z ) is continuous on a contour L of length l and if M be the upper
bound of | f (z )| on L i.e., | f (z )| ≤ M on L , then
 f (z ) dz ≤ M l.
 ∫L  (Gorakhpur 2008, 10)
Proof: Proceeding as in article 5, we have
n
SP = Σ (z k − z k − 1) f (ζ k ).
k =1

Now | SP | = | Σ (z k − z k − 1) f (ζ k )|
≤ Σ |(z k − z k − 1) f (ζ k )| [ ∵| a + b | ≤ | a | + | b |]
= Σ | z k − z k − 1 || f (ζ k )|
≤ M Σ | z k − z k − 1 | , since ζ k is a point on L.
∴ lim| Σ (z k − z k − 1) f (ζ k )| ≤ lim M Σ | z k − z k − 1 |

or  f (z ) dz ≤ M ∫ | dz |.
 ∫L  L

Hence ∫ f (z ) dz ≤ M l, (see example 2 of article 6.)

 L 

10 Line Integrals as Functions of Arcs

We have seen that a line integral ∫ f (z ) dz over an arc L can be put in the form
L

∫L (u + iv) (dx + i dy).

 C-98

General line integrals of the form ∫ p dx + q dy are often considered as functions (or
L

functionals) of the arc L under the assumption that p and q are defined and continuous
in a domain D and the arc L can vary freely in D. There exists a special class of integrals
characterized by the property that the integral over an arc depends only on its end
points. This means that if the two arcs L1 and L2 have the same initial point and the
same final point, then

∫ L1 p dx + q dy = ∫ L2 p dx + q dy.

Theorem 1: The following statements are equivalent :

A line integral of f (z ) over an arc L depends only on the end points of L .
The integral of f (z ) over any closed curve is zero.
Proof: First suppose that the line integral of f (z ) over any closed curve is zero. Let L1
and L2 be any two arcs having the same end points. Then L1 − L2 is a closed curve.

∴ ∫ L1 −L2 f (z ) dz = 0

or ∫ L1 f (z ) dz − ∫ L2 f (z ) dz = 0 , by a property of complex integration

or ∫ L1 f (z ) dz = ∫ L2 f (z ) dz .

Hence the line integral of f (z ) over an arc depends only on its end points provided the
integral of f (z ) over any closed curve is zero.
Conversely, suppose the line integral of f (z ) over any two arcs with same end points be
same.
Consider a closed curve Γ. Then Γ and −Γ have the same end points, so that

∫Γ f (z ) dz = ∫ −Γ f (z ) dz

We know ∫ f (z ) dz = − ∫Γ f (z ) dz , by a property of complex integration.

−Γ

∴ ∫Γ f (z ) dz = − ∫Γ f (z ) dz

or 2∫ f (z ) dz = 0 or ∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0.
Γ

Thus the integral of f (z ) over any closed curve is zero.

Theorem 2: The line integral ∫ p dx + q dy, defined in a domain D, depends only on the end
points of Γ if and only if there exists a function U ( x, y ) in D such that
∂U ∂U
=p and = q.
∂x ∂y
 C-99

∂U
Proof: The ‘if’ part. Let there exist a function U ( x, y ) in D such that = p and
∂x
∂U
= q. Also suppose a and b are the end points of Γ. Then we have
∂y

b  ∂U ∂U 
∫Γ p dx + q dy = ∫a  dx + dy 
 ∂x ∂y 

b  ∂U dx ∂U dy  b d
= ∫a  +  dt = ∫a U ( x (t), y (t)) dt
 ∂x dt ∂y dt  dt
b
= [U ( x (t), y (t))] a = U ( x (b), y (b) ) − U ( x (a), y (a)),

which shows that the line integral depends only on the end points of Γ.
The ‘only if’ part: Let us assume that the line integral ∫Γ p dx + q dy depends only on

the end points of Γ. Suppose ( x0 , y0 ) be a fixed point in D and ( x, y ) be any arbitrary

point in D. Join ( x0 , y0 ) to ( x, y ) by a polygonal arc Γ contained in D having its sides
parallel to coordinate axes.
Consider a function U ( x, y ) given by

U ( x, y ) = ∫Γ p dx + q dy.

Then the function U ( x, y ) is well defined since

according to assumption the integral depends
only on the end points of Γ. Also choose the last
segment of Γ parallel to x-axis so that y becomes
constant and dy = 0 and suppose that x varies
without changing the other segments. Choosing
x as a parameter on the last segment, we get
x
U ( x, y ) = ∫ p ( x, y ) dx + constant.

We have not specified the lower limit of x since it is insignificant for our purpose.
∂U
∴ = p.
∂x
∂U
Similarly choosing the last segment parallel to y-axis, we can show that = q.
∂y

 ∂U   ∂U 
Remark: (i) It is customary to write dU =  dx +   dy ...(1)
 ∂x   ∂y 

and we say that an expression p dx + q dy is an exact differential if it can be written in

the form (1). Using this terminology, the above theorem can be stated as :
An integral depends only on the end point if and only if the integrand is an exact differential.
 C-100

(ii) We now determine the conditions under which

f (z ) dz = f (z ) dx + if (z ) dy
is an exact differential. By definition of an exact differential, there must exist a function
F (z ) in D such that
∂F (z ) ∂F (z )
= f (z ) and = if (z ).
∂x ∂y
∂F ∂F
It follows that =−i , which is a Cauchy-Riemann equation.
∂x ∂y
Also f (z ) is by assumption continuous (otherwise ∫ f (z ) dz would not be defined).
L
Hence F (z ) is analytic.
(iii) From the discussion in (i) and (ii), we conclude :

The integral ∫ f (z ) dz , with continuous f , depends only on the end points of L if and
L

only if f is the derivative of an analytic function in D.

For example, for n ≥ 0, the function (z − a)n is the derivative of (z − a)n +1 / (n + 1) which
is an analytic function in the whole complex plane. If Γ is any closed curve, then it
follows from theorem 1 and remark (iii) above that

∫L (z − a) n dz = 0.

If n is negative, but ≠ − 1, then also ∫ (z − a) n dz = 0 for all closed curve Γ which do not
L

pass through a, since in the complementary region of the point a the infinite integral is
still analytic and single-valued. If n = − 1, then (1) does not always hold. We have seen
in problem 13 after article 8 that
dz
∫ Γ z − a = 2πi ,
where Γ is any circle | z − a | = r.

11 Cauchy’s Fundamental Theorem

1
In example 3, after article 8 the integral of round the circle| z | = 1is 2iπ whereas in the
z
problem 8 after article 8 the integral of z 2 round the closed contour OLMO is zero. Here
1
we observe that the function is not analytic at z = 0 which is an interior point of the
z
circle | z | = 1 whereas the function z 2 is analytic throughout the interior and at the
boundary of the triangle OLM. Now we shall prove a very important theorem known as
Cauchy’s fundamental theorem which states :
If f (z ) is analytic at all points within and on the closed contour C, then

∫C f (z ) dz = 0.
 C-101

Theorem 1: (Cauchy’s Theorem). Let D be a simply connected region and let f (z ) be a

single valued continuously differentiable function on D i.e., f ′ (z ) exists and is continuous at each
point of D. Then
∫ f (z ) dz = 0,
C

where C is any closed contour contained in D. (Rohilkhand 2008; Gorakhpur 13)

Proof: We have ∫C f (z ) dz = ∫C (u + i v ) ( dx + i dy )

= ∫C ( u dx − v dy ) + i ∫ ( v dx + u dy ). …(1)
C

To prove this theorem we shall use Green’s theorem for a plane which states :
∂Q ∂P
if P ( x, y ), Q ( x, y ), , are all continuous functions of x and y in the region D,
∂x ∂y
and C is any closed contour in D, then
 ∂Q ∂P 
∫C ( P dx + Q dy ) = ∫ ∫ D  ∂x −  dx dy .
∂y 

Since the function f (z ) is analytic in D therefore f ′ (z ) exists and

f ′ (z ) = u x + i v x = v y − i u y (by Cauchy-Riemann equations). Also f ′ (z ) is given to be
continuous at each point of D, therefore u, v, u x , v x , u y and v y are all continuous in D.
Thus all the conditions of Green’s theorem are satisfied. Hence from (1), we have
 ∂v ∂u   ∂u ∂v 
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫ ∫D − −  dx dy + i ∫ ∫  −  dx dy
 ∂x ∂y  D  ∂x ∂y 

 ∂v ∂v   ∂u ∂u 
= ∫ ∫ D  − ∂x + ∂x  dx dy + i ∫ ∫ D  ∂x − ∂x  dx dy,
by Cauchy–Riemann equations
= 0.
Note: This form of Cauchy’s theorem is quite useful in applied mathematics as the
continuity of the four partial derivatives u x , v x , u y and v y is generally assumed on
physical grounds.
Cauchy-Goursat Theorem: In the statement of Cauchy’s theorem the function
f ′ (z ) is assumed to be a continuous function. It was Goursat who first proved the
theorem without considering the continuity of f ′ (z ). The revised form of the theorem
is known as Cauchy-Goursat theorem. We are giving here three independent proofs
of this important theorem.
Theorem 2: (Cauchy-Goursat theorem.) Let f (z ) be analytic in a simply connected
domain D and let C be any closed continuous rectifiable curve in D. Then

∫C f (z ) dz = 0.
(Meerut 2001; Gorakhpur 05, 08;
Avadh 08; Purvanchal 08)
First we shall prove the following lemma known as Goursat’s lemma.
 C-102

Lemma:Let f (z ) be analytic within and on a closed contour C. Then for every ε > 0, it is always
possible to divide the region within C into a finite number of squares and partial squares whose
boundaries are denoted by Si ( i = 1, 2,……, n ) such that there exists a point z i within each Si such
 f (z ) − f (z i) 
that  − f ′ (z i)< ε …(1)
 z − zi 
for each point z ( ≠ z i ) within or on Si ( i = 1, 2, ……, n ).
Proof of the lemma: Suppose the lemma is false. It means the lemma does not hold at
least in one mesh i.e., there exists ε > 0 such that in however small meshes (squares and
partial squares) we subdivide the region within C there will be at least one mesh (square
or a partial square) where the inequality (1) does not hold good.
Let R denote the region within and on the closed
contour C. Cover the region R by a network of finite
number of meshes (squares and partial squares) by
drawing lines parallel to the coordinate axes. Then
as per assumption there is at least one mesh for
which (1) does not hold. Let us denote it by σ0 . It
may be a square or a partial square. Divide σ0 into
four equal squares. Then at least one of these
squares contains the points of R for which (1) is not
true. Suppose it is σ1. Quadrisect σ1 and repeat the above process. If this process comes
to an end after a finite number of steps we arrive at a contradiction and the lemma is
proved.
On the other hand if the process is continued indefinitely, we obtain a nested sequence
of squares σ0 , σ1, σ2 ,……, σ n … each contained in the previous one, for which lemma is
not true. Consequently there exists a point z0 common to all the squares of the above
sequence such that z0 is the limit point of the set of points in R. Also z0 ∈ R because R is
closed. Since f (z ) is analytic at every point which lies within and on the closed contour
C therefore f (z ) is differentiable at z0 . So for ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
 f (z ) − f (z0 ) 
 − f ′ (z0 )< ε …(2)
 z − z0 
for all z for which | z − z0 | < δ.
We can choose a positive integer N so large that the diagonal of
the square σ N is less than δ. Then all the squares σ n ( n ≥ N ) are
contained in the circular neighbourhood
| z − z0 | < δ of z0 .
Also z0 ∈σ n for n.
Thus there exists a point z i ( here z i is z0 ) within each Si for
which inequality (1) is satisfied which contradicts the
hypothesis. Thus the lemma is true.
 C-103

Proof of the main theorem: The inequality (1) can be written as

f (z ) = f (z i) − z i f ′ (z i) + z f ′ (z i) + ( z − z i ) ηi (z )
…(3)
where | ηi (z )| < ε.
Since (3) also gives the value of f (z ) at any point on the boundary of Si therefore
integrating (3) around Si , we get

∫ Si f (z ) dz = { f (z i) − z i f ′ (z i)} ∫ dz + f ′ (z i)∫ z dz + ∫ Si ( z − z i ) ηi (z ) dz
Si Si

= ∫ Si ( z − z i ) ηi (z ) dz , …(4)

∵ dz = 0 = z dz 
 ∫ Si ∫ Si 

It is clear from the adjoining diagram that the

integral around the closed curve C is equal to the
sum of the integrals around all the Si because the
line integrals along the common boundaries of every
pair of adjacent meshes cancel each other. We are
left only with the integrals along the arcs which form
parts of C.
n
∴ ∫C f (z ) dz = Σ ∫ Si f (z ) dz . …(5)
i =1

From (4) and (5), we have

n
∫C f (z ) dz = Σ ∫ Si ( z − z i ) ηi (z ) dz
i =1

  n 
or ∫ f (z ) dz  = Σ ∫ Si ( z − z i ) ηi (z ) dz 
 C   i =1 
n
≤ Σ  ∫ ( z − z i ) ηi (z ) dz 
i = 1  Si 
n
≤ Σ ∫ | z − z i || ηi (z )|| dz |
i =1
Si
n
<ε Σ ∫ Si | z − z i || dz |. …(6)
i =1

The boundary Si of a mesh either completely or partially coincides with the boundary of a
square. Let ai be the length of a side of that square. The point z lies on Si and z i lies either
on the boundary of Si or inside Si therefore the distance between the points z and z i
cannot be greater than the length ai √ 2 of the diagonal of that square i.e.,
| z − z i | ≤ ai √ 2

∴ ∫ Si | z − z i || dz | ≤ ai √ 2 ∫ | dz |. …(7)
Si
 C-104

Now ∫ | dz |represents the length of Si. This length is 4ai if Si is a complete square and
Si

it cannot exceed (4ai + li) if Si is a partial square where li is the length of arc of C which
forms a part of Si.
Hence if Si is a square, then inequality (7) gives

∫ Si | z − z i || dz | ≤ ai √ 2 . 4 ai = 4 √ 2 ai2 ...(8)

and ∫ Si | z − z i || dz | ≤ ai √ 2 (4 ai + li ) ≤ 4 ai2 √ 2 + a li √ 2 …(9)

if Si is a partial square,
where a denotes the length of the side of the square which encloses the entire curve C
together with the squares which are used in covering C. Obviously the sum of the areas
ai2 of all these squares cannot exceed a2 .
If l denotes the arc length of C, we have from (6), (8) and (9)
n
 f (z ) dz < ε Σ (4 √ 2 ai2 + √ 2 a li) ≤ ε (4 √ 2 a2 + √ 2 al )
∫
 C  i =1

= ε K, where K is a constant.
Since ε is arbitrary therefore we have ∫C f (z ) dz = 0.

Corollary 1: Let f (z ) be analytic in a simply connected region D. Then the integral along
every rectifiable curve in D joining any two given points of D is the same i.e., it does not depend on
the curve joining the two points.
Proof: Let Γ1 and Γ2 be any two curves in the domain D joining two given points z1
and z2 of D. Let Γ be the closed curve consisting of Γ1 and −Γ2 .
Then by Cauchy’s theorem, we have

∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0 or ∫ Γ1 +(−Γ2 ) f (z ) dz = 0

or ∫ Γ1 f (z ) dz + ∫ −Γ2 f (z ) dz = 0

or ∫ Γ1 f (z ) dz − ∫ Γ2 f (z ) dz = 0

or ∫ Γ1 f (z ) dz = ∫ Γ2 f (z ) dz .

Note: In view of the above corollary, we may use the symbol

b
∫a f (z ) dz for the integral of f (z ) along any curve joining a and b.

Corollary 2: Extension of Cauchy-Goursat’s theorem to multiply connected

regions.
Let D be a doubly connected region bounded by two simple closed curves C1 and C2 such that C2 is
contained in C1 and f (z ) is analytic in the region between these curves and continuous on C1, then

∫ C1 f (z ) dz = ∫ C2 f (z ) dz

where both C1 and C2 are traversed in the positive sense i.e., in anti-clockwise direction.
 C-105

Proof: Connect the curve C2 to C1 by making a narrow

cross-cut joining a point A of C1 to a point P of C2 . Then
ABCDAPQRPA is the simply connected region in the
interior of which f (z ) is analytic and on whose boundary
f (z ) is continuous. Hence by Cauchy-Goursat’s theorem,

we have ∫ ABCDAPQRPA f (z ) dz = 0

or ∫ ABCDA f (z ) dz + ∫ AP f (z ) dz

+ ∫ PQRP f (z ) dz + ∫ PA f (z ) dz = 0

or ∫ ABCDA f (z ) dz + ∫ PQRP f (z ) dz = 0 ,

since ∫ AP f (z ) dz = − ∫ PA f (z ) dz

or ∫ C1 f (z ) dz + ∫ −C2 f (z ) dz = 0

or ∫ C1 f (z ) dz − ∫ C2 f (z ) dz = 0

or ∫ C1 f (z ) dz = ∫ C2 f (z ) dz .

In general if C is a closed curve and C1, C2 , C3 ,……are the closed curves which lie inside
C and if f (z ) is analytic function in the region between these curves and continuous on
C, then

∫C f (z ) dz = ∫ C1 f (z ) dz + ∫ C2 f (z ) dz + ∫ C3 f (z ) dz +……

where integral along each curve is taken in positive sense.

Remark 1: Cauchy’s fundamental theorem holds under less restrictive conditions. The
following is one of the versions of this theorem.
Let f (z ) be continuous on and analytic within a rectifiable Jordan curve C. Then

∫C f (z ) dz = 0 .

Note that in the above statement, it is not necessary for f (z ) to be analytic on C. Only
the continuity of f (z ) is essential on C. However, we shall not try to prove the above
assertion.
Remark 2: Cauchy-Goursat theorem gives only sufficient conditions for ∫ f (z ) dz
C

to become zero. In certain cases ∫ f (z ) dz may vanish even if f (z ) is not an analytic

C
function in C.
 C-106

dz ,
Illustration: Evaluate ∫ , where γ is defined by | z | = d, d > 0.
γ z2
Solution: Let z = de i θ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2 π. Then dz = die i θ dθ.

1 2π die i θ i 2π − i θ
Now ∫γ 2
dz = ∫0 2 i2θ
dθ = ∫0 e dθ
z d e d
2π
i  e− i θ  1 1
= −  = − [e − i 2 π − 1] = − (1 − 1) = 0 .
d  i 0 d d

∴ the integral of1 / z 2 along the circle γ is zero but1 / z 2 is not analytic at z = 0 which is
the centre of γ.
If, however, the function f (z ) is assumed to be continuous within and on the boundary
of C, vanishing of ∫ f (z ) dz will imply that f (z ) is an analytic function in C. This is
C

Morera’s theorem which will be proved later on.

12 Cauchy-Goursat Theorem (Second proof )

Lemma: Let f (z ) be continuous on a domain D and let C be any continuous rectifiable curve in
D. Then for every ε > 0, there exists a polygon ∆ in D with vertices on C such that
 f (z ) dz − f (z ) dz < ε.
 ∫C ∫∆ 
Theorem: Let f (z ) be analytic in a simply connected domain D and let C be any closed
continuous rectifiable curve contained in D. Then

∫C f (z ) dz = 0.

dz
Illustration: If C is the circle | z − 2 | = 5, determine whether ∫C is zero.
z −3

Solution: Putting z − 2 = 5 e i θ , dz = 5 ie i θ dθ, we get

dz 2π 5 ie i θ dθ 2π 1 − i θ −1
∫C = ∫0 = i∫ (1 − e ) dθ
z −3 5e i θ − 1 0 5

= i∫
2π 1 + 1 e − i θ + 1 e − 2 iθ + .... dθ.
0  5 52 
2π 1 − miθ 2π 1
Now ∫0 e − m i θ dθ = −
mi
e [ ]0 =−
mi
[e − 2 πmi − e 0 ]
1
=− [1 − 1] = 0 , when m ≠ 0.
mi
dz 2π
∴ ∫C = i∫ dθ = 2 πi ≠ 0 .
z −3 0
 C-107

1
The reason that the integral is not zero is that is not analytic at z = 3 which is
z −3
an interior point of the circle | z − 2 | = 5.

13 Cauchy-Goursat Theorem (Third proof )

Step 1. Cauchy’s theorem for a rectangle:
By a rectangle R in the complex plane, we shall
mean a set of points ( x, y) such that
a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d.
We think of the perimeter of R as a simple closed
curve consisting of four line segments whose
direction is chosen in such a manner that the area R
lies to the left of these directed segments. The
vertices thus occur in the order (a, c ), (b, c ), (b, d),
(a, d). We shall refer to this closed curve as the boundary curve or contour of R and
shall denote it by ∂R. We now prove Cauchy’s theorem for a rectangle, namely :
If the function f (z ) is analytic on a rectangle R, then

∫ ∂R f (z ) dz = 0 ,

where ∂R denotes the boundary curve of R.

Step 2: Cauchy’s theorem for a circular disc:
If f (z ) is analytic in the open disc ∆ defined by | z − z0 | < r, then

∫C f (z ) dz = 0

for every closed curve C in ∆ .

Step 3: Cauchy’s theorem for any closed curve:
If f (z ) is analytic in a simply connected domain D and C is any closed curve, then

∫C f (z ) dz = 0 .

14 Cauchy’s Integral Formula

Let f (z ) be an analytic function in a simply connected domain D enclosed by a rectifiable Jordan
Curve C and let f (z ) be continuous on C. Then
1 f (z )
f (z0 ) = dz
2 πi ∫ C z − z0

where z0 is any point of D. (Meerut 2001; Bundelkhand 01; Purvanchal 07, 09;
Kanpur 07; Gorakhpur 07, 08; Rohilkhand 12; Kumaun 12, 15)
 C-108

Proof: We describe a circle γ defined by the equation

| z − z0 | = ρ where ρ < d (the distance of z0 from C ).
Then the function
f (z )
φ (z ) =
z − z0
is analytic in the doubly connected region bounded by C
and γ.

∴ ∫C φ (z ) dz = ∫γ φ (z ) dz

1 f (z ) 1 f (z )
or ∫ dz = ∫ dz ...(1)
2 πi C z − z0 2 πi γ z − z0
where C and γ are both traversed in the counter-clockwise direction (See the figure).
It is evident that the integral on the right-hand side of (1) is independent of ρ and so we
may choose ρ as small as we please.
1 f (z ) 1 f (z ) − f (z0 ) 1 f (z0 )
Now ∫ dz = ∫γ dz + ∫ dz ...(2)
2 πi γ z − z0 2 πi z − z0 2 πi γ z − z0

Writing z − z0 = ρe i θ , dz = ρie i θ dθ, we have

f (z0 ) 2 π ρie i θ 2π
∫γ dz = f (z0 )∫ i θ
dθ = f (z0 )∫ idθ = 2 πi f (z0 ).
z − z0 0 ρe 0

Hence (2) can be written as

1 f (z ) 1 f (z ) − f (z0 )
∫ dz = dz + f (z0 )
2 πi γ z − z0 2 πi ∫ γ z − z0
1 f (z ) 1 f (z ) − f (z0 )
or ∫ dz − f (z0 ) = dz . ...(3)
2 πi z − z0 2 πi ∫ γ z − z0

Since f (z ) is continuous at z0 , for a given ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
| f (z ) − f (z0 )| < ε ...(4)
for all z satisfying the inequality | z − z0 | < δ. Since ρ is at our choice, we can take
ρ < δ so that the inequality (4) is satisfied for all points on γ. Hence
 1 f (z ) − f (z0 )   1 2 π f (z ) − f (z0 ) 
 ∫γ dz  = ∫ iθ
. ρie i θ dθ
 2 πi z − z0   2 πi 0 ρe 
1 2π 1 2π
≤ ∫0 | f (z ) − f (z0 )| dθ < ∫0 ε dθ [By (4)]
2π 2π
1
= . 2 πε = ε.
2π
 1 f (z ) 
Thus  ∫γ dz − f (z0 )< ε. ...(5)
 2 πi z − z0 
 C-109

Since ε is arbitrary and the left-hand side of (5) does not depend upon ρ, we conclude
that
1 f (z )
dz − f (z0 ) = 0
2 πi ∫ γ z − z0
1 f (z )
or dz = f (z0 ). ...(6)
2 πi ∫ γ z − z0
Finally from (1) and (6), we obtain
1 f (z )
f (z0 ) = dz . ...(7)
2 πi ∫ C z − z0
Corollary 1: Extension of Cauchy’s integral formula to multiply connected
regions.
(We shall consider the case of doubly connected region)
If f (z ) is analytic in the region D bounded by two closed curves C1 and C2 , then
1 f (z ) 1 f (z )
f (z0 ) = dz − dz
2 πi ∫ C1 z − z0 2 πi ∫ C2 z − z0

where z0 is any point of D. (Kumaun 2010)

Make a cross–cut AP connecting the curves C1 and C2 .
Then f (z ) is analytic in the region ABCAPQRPA.
∴ By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
1 f (z )
f (z0 ) = dz
2 πi ∫ ABCAPQRPA z − z0
1  f (z ) f (z )
dz + dz
2 πi ∫ ABCA z − z0 ∫ AP
= 
z − z0

f (z ) f (z ) 
+ ∫ PQRP dz + ∫ dz 
z − z0 PA z − z0 
1 f (z ) 1 f (z )
dz − dz ,
2 πi ∫ C1 z − z0 ∫ C2
=
2 πi z − z0
the integrals along AP and PA cancel each other.
In particular, if C1, C2 are concentric circles with centre z0
and radii ρ1, ρ2 (ρ1 > ρ2 ), then for any point z in the annulus
(ring shaped) region, we have
1 f (z ) f (z )
f (z ) = dz − ∫ dz .
2 πi ∫ C1 z − z0 C2 z − z
0

Corollary 2: Gauss’s mean value theorem:

If f (z ) is an analytic function on a domain D and if the circular region| z − z0 | ≤ ρ is contained
in D, then
1 2π
f (z0 ) = f ( z0 + ρ e i θ ) dθ.
2 π ∫0
In other words the value of f (z ) at the point z0 equals the average of its values on the boundary of
the circle | z − z0 | = ρ . (Kumaun 2013)
 C-110

Proof: Let γ denote the circle | z − z0 | = ρ. The parametric equation of the circle is
z − z0 = ρ e i θ or z = z0 + ρ e i θ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2 π
and dz = ρ i e i θ d θ.
By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
1 f (z ) 1 2π f ( z0 + ρ e i θ )
f (z0 ) = ∫ dz = ρ i e i θ dθ
2 πi z − z0 2 πi ∫0 ρ ei θ
1 2π
f (z0 + ρ e i θ ) dθ .
2 π ∫0
=

15 Derivative of an Analytic Function

Theorem: Let f (z ) be analytic function within and on the boundary C of a simply connected
region D and let z0 be any point within C. Then
1 f (z )
f ′ (z0 ) = ∫ dz .
2πi C ( z − z0 )2
(Kanpur 2003; Purvanchal 08, 09, 10; Kumaun 09; Gorakhpur 09, 11)

Proof: Let z0 + h be any point within D in the neighbourhood of z0 . By Cauchy’s

integral formula, we have
1 f (z )
f ( z0 + h ) = ∫ dz
2 πi C z − ( z0 + h )
1 f (z )
and f (z0 ) = dz .
2 πi ∫ C z − z0
1  1 1 
Now f ( z0 + h ) − f ( z0 ) = ∫ f (z )  −  dz
2 πi C  z − z0 − h z − z0 
1 h f (z )
= ∫ dz .
2 πi C ( z − z0 ) ( z − z0 − h )
f ( z0 + h ) − f (z0 ) 1 f (z )
dz
2 πi ∫ C (z − z0 )2
∴ −
h

1  1 1 
= ∫ f (z )  − 2  dz
2 πi C ( z − z0 − h ) ( z − z0 ) ( z − z0 ) 
1 h f (z )
= ∫ dz . …(1)
2 πi C ( z − z0 )2 ( z − z0 − h )

In order to prove the desired result we have to show that

the right hand side of (1) approaches to zero as h → 0.
For this purpose draw a circle γ with centre z0 and
radius r lying entirely within C.
By Cauchy-Goursat theorem for multiply connected
region, we have
 C-111

1 h f (z ) 1 h f (z )
∫ 2
dz = ∫ dz .
2 πi C ( z − z0 ) ( z − z0 − h ) 2 πi γ ( z − z0 )2 ( z − z0 − h )
…(2)

Since h is arbitrary therefore choosing h such that the point z0 + h lies within γ and that
1
| h | < r.
2
Equation of the circle γ is | z − z0 | = r.
∴ For any point z on γ, we have
| z − ( z0 + h )| = | z − z0 − h | ≥ | z − z0 | − | h |
1 1
≥ r − r = r.
2 2
Again the function f (z ) is analytic in D therefore it is bounded in D so that there exists
a positive constant M such that
| f (z )| ≤ M .
Using these facts, we get from (1) and (2)
 f ( z0 + h ) − f ( z0 ) 1 f (z ) 
 − ∫C dz 
2
 h 2 πi ( z − z0 ) 
 1 h f (z ) dz 
=
 2 π i ∫ 0 0

γ ( z − z )2 (z − z − h)

| h| | f (z )|
≤ ∫ | dz |
2π γ | z − z0 | 2 | z − z0 − h |
| h| M | h | M . 2 πr
≤ ∫ | dz | = =| h | . constant
2π γ 2 1 πr3
r ( r)
2
→ 0 as h → 0.
lim f ( z0 + h ) − f (z0 ) 1 f (z )
∴ = ∫ dz .
h→ 0 h 2 πi C ( z − z0 )2
Hence f (z ) is differentiable at z0 and
1 f (z )
f ′ (z0 ) = ∫ dz .
2πi C ( z − z0 )2

Note: The above formula for the derivative f ′ (z0 ) can be written formally by
differentiating the integral in Cauchy’s integral formula
1 f (z )
f (z0 ) = ∫ dz
2 πi C z − z0

with respect to z0 under the integral sign.

d  f (z )  1 f (z )
Thus f ′ (z0 ) = ∫C  dz = dz .
2πi ∫ C (z − z0 )2

dz0  z − z0 
 C-112

16 Higher Order Derivatives of an Analytic Function

Theorem: Let f (z ) be analytic within and on the boundary C of a simply connected region D.
If z0 is any point within C, then f (z ) possesses derivatives of all orders at z0 and all these
derivatives are analytic at z0 . Also
n! f (z )
f n (z0 ) = dz .
2 πi ∫ C ( z − z0 )n+1
(Garhwal 2000; Kanpur 07; Rohilkhand 12; Purvanchal 12)
Proof: Proceeding as in article 15 first prove that
1 f (z )
f ′ (z0 ) = ∫ dz .
2πi C ( z − z0 )2
Now we shall show that f ′ (z ) is analytic at z0 .
f ′ ( z0 + h ) − f ′ (z0 ) 1  1 1  f (z )
We have dz
2 πi ∫ C ( z − z0 − h )2 ( z − z0 )2  h
=  − 
h

1 2 h ( z − z0 ) − h2 f (z )
= ∫ ⋅ dz
2 πi C ( z − z0 − h )2 ( z − z0 )2 h
1
( z − z0 ) − h
2! 2 f (z ) dz .
2 πi ∫ C ( z − z0 − h )2 ( z − z0 )2
=

f ′ ( z0 + h ) − f ′ (z0 ) 2 ! f (z )
Now − ∫ dz
h 2πi C ( z − z0 )3
 1 
( z − z0 ) − h
2!  2 1 
f (z )  dz
2 πi ∫ C
= −
(z − z0 − h )2 ( z − z0 )2 ( z − z0 )3 
 
 
 3 
h ( z − z0 ) − h2
2!  2 
f (z ) dz
2 πi ∫ C
= ( z − z0 )3 ( z − z0 − h )2 
 
 

3
h  ( z − z0 ) − h
2!  2  f (z ) dz,
2 πi ∫ γ ( z − z0 )3 ( z − z0 − h )2
=

by Cauchy-Goursat theorem for multi-connected region.

Here γ is the circle | z − z0 | = r lying entirely within C.

 f ′ ( z0 + h ) − f ′ (z0 ) 2 ! f (z ) 
∴  − ∫ dz 
h 2π i C ( z − z )3
 0 
3
| z − z0 | + | − h |
2! 2
≤ | h| ∫ | f (z )|| dz |
2π γ | z − z | 3 | z − z − h| 2
0 0
 C-113

3
r + | h|
2!  ∵ | dz | = perimeter of γ 
| h| 2 M . 2 πr
 ∫ γ
≤
2π 1
2 
r3  r 
2 
The right hand side of above inequality tends to zero as h → 0.
lim f ′ ( z0 + h ) − f ′ (z0 ) 2 ! f (z )
∴ = ∫ dz .
h→ 0 h 2 πi C ( z − z0 )3
Hence f ′ (z ) is differentiable at z0 i.e., derivative of an analytic function is analytic
2! f (z )
and f ′ ′ (z0 ) = dz .
2πi ∫ C ( z − z0 )3
∴ the result is true for n = 2.
To complete the induction we have to show that the result is true for n if it is true for
n − 1.
Now suppose that the result is true for n − 1 so that we assume that
(n − 1)! f (z )
f (n − 1) (z0 ) = ∫ dz
2πi C (z − z0 ) n
(n − 1)! f (z )
and f (n − 1) (z0 + h) = ∫C dz
2πi (z − z0 − h) n
∴ f (n − 1) (z0 + h) − f (n − 1) (z0 )
(n − 1)!  1 1 
= ∫ f (z )  n
− n  dz
2 πi C
(z − z0 − h) (z − z0 ) 

(n − 1)! (z − z0 )n − (z − z0 − h)n 

f (z ) dz. ...(3)
2 πi ∫ C
=  n n 
 (z − z0 ) (z − z0 − h) 
Now (z − z0 )n − (z − z0 − h)n = [z − z0 − (z − z0 − h)] [(z − z0 )]n − 1

+ (z − z0 )n − 2 (z − z0 − h) + ...+ {(z − z0 ) − h}n − 1]

n
= h Σ (z − z0 )n − r (z − z0 − h)r − 1.
r =1

Hence we get from (3)

f (n − 1) (z0 + h) − f (n − 1) (z0 ) n! f (z )
− ∫C dz
h 2πi (z − z0 )n + 1
n
Σ (z − z0 )n − r + 1 (z − z0 − h)r − 1 − (z − z0 − h)n
(n − 1)! r =1
f (z ) dz
2 πi ∫ C
=
(z − z0 )n + 1 (z − z0 − h)n
n
Σ [(z − z0 )n − r + 1 (z − z0 − h)r − 1 − (z − z0 − h)n]
(n − 1)! r =1
f (z ) dz
2 πi ∫ γ
=
(z − z0 )n + 1 (z − z0 − h)n
where γ is the circle | z − z0 | = ρ lying entirely within C
 C-114

(n − 1)! n (z − z0 )n − r + 1 − (z − z0 − h)n − r + 1
= Σ ∫γ f (z ) dz
2 πi r = 1 (z − z0 )n + 1 (z − z0 − h)n − r + 1
n− r
h Σ (z − z0 )n − r − s (z − z0 − h)s
(n − 1)! n s =0
= Σ ∫γ f (z ) dz
2 πi r = 1 (z − z0 )n + 1 (z − z0 − h)n − r + 1
h (n − 1)! n n f (z ) dz
r =1 ∫ γ
= Σ Σ r + s +1
2 πi s =0 (z − z0 ) (z − z0 − h)n − r − s +1
1
As before | z − z0 − h | ≥ ρ and so
2
(n − 1) (n − 1)
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 ) n! f (z )
− ∫C dz
h 2πi (z − z0 )n + 1
| h |(n − 1)! n n M . 2 πρ
≤ Σ Σ
2π 1
r =1 s = 0
ρ r + s + 1 ( ρ)n − r − s + 1
2
→ 0 as h → 0.

lim (n − 1) (n − 1)
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 ) n! f (z )
∴ = ∫ dz
h→ 0 h 2 πi (z − z0 )n + 1
(n) n! f (z )
or f (z0 ) = ∫ dz .
2 πi C (z − z0 )n + 1

Hence the formula holds for all values of n. Thus f (z ) has derivatives of all orders and
these are all analytic at z0 . The theorem is thus completely established.
Another method to show that the result is true for n if it is true for n − 1. Suppose that
the formula is true for n − 1 i. e.,
(n − 1)! f (z )
f n − 1 (z0 ) = dz .
2 πi ∫ C ( z − z0 )n
(n − 1)! f (z )
Then f n − 1 ( z0 + h ) = dz .
2 πi ∫ C ( z − z0 − h )n

f n − 1 ( z0 + h ) − f n − 1 ( z0 )
Now
h
(n − 1)!  1 1 
f (z )  dz
2 πih ∫ C
= n
− n
 ( z − z0 − h ) ( z − z0 ) 

(n − 1)! f (z )  1
= ∫  − 1  dz
2 πih C n
( z − z0 )   n 
h  
1− 
  z − z0  
−n
(n − 1)! f (z )   h  
 1 1  dz
2 πih ∫ C ( z − z0 )n  
=  −  −
z − z0  

 C-115

(n − 1)! f (z )  nh
1 +
2 πih ∫ C ( z − z0 )n
=
 z − z0

+ (terms containing higher powers of h ) − 1  dz,

by binomial theorem
(n − 1)! f (z )  n 
= ∫ n  + terms containing h in Nr. dz
2 πi C ( z − z0 )  z − z0 
f n − 1 ( z0 + h ) − f n − 1 (z0 ) (n − 1)!
lim n f (z )
dz
2 πi ∫ C ( z − z0 )n +1
∴ =
h→ 0 h
n! f (z )
or f n (z0 ) = ∫ dz .
2 πi C (z − z0 )n + 1
Hence the result holds for all values of n.
Therefore f (z ) possesses derivatives of all orders and these are themselves all analytic
at z0 .

17 Morera’s Theorem
This theorem is a sort of converse of Cauchy-Goursat theorem.
Theorem 1: If f (z ) be continuous in a simply connected domain D and

∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0

where Γ is any rectifiable closed Jordan curve in D, then f (z ) is analytic in D.

(Meerut 2001; Kanpur 03, 04; Gorakhpur 07, 09;
Purvanchal 08, 11; Rohilkhand 12)
Proof: Suppose z is any variable point and z0 is a fixed point in the region D. Also
suppose Γ1 and Γ2 are any two continuous rectifiable curves in D joining z0 to z and Γ is
the closed continuous rectifiable curve consisting of Γ1 and −Γ2 . Then we have

∫Γ f (z ) dz = ∫ Γ1 f (z ) dz + ∫ Γ2 f (z ) dz

and ∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0 (given)

∴ ∫ Γ1 f (z ) dz = − ∫ Γ2 f (z ) dz = ∫ Γ2 f (z ) dz ,

i.e., the integral along every rectifiable curve in D joining z0 to z is the same.
Now consider a function F (z ) defined by
z
F (z ) = ∫ z0 f (w) dw. …(1)

As we have discussed above the integral (1) depends only on the end points z0 and z.
If z + h is a point in the neighbourhood of z, then we have
z+h
F (z + h) = ∫ z0 f (w) dw . …(2)
 C-116

From (1) and (2), we have

z+h z
F (z + h) − F (z ) = ∫z0 f (w) dw − ∫ z0 f (w) dw

z+h z0
= ∫ z0 f (w) dw + ∫z f (w) dw
z+h
= ∫z f (w) dw. …(3)

Since the integral on the right hand side of (3) is path independent therefore it may be
taken along the straight line joining z to z + h , so that
F (z + h) − F (z ) 1 z+h f (z )
− f (z ) = ∫ f (w) dw − h
h h z h
1  z+h z+h
f (w) dw − f (z ) ∫ dw 
h  ∫ z
=
z 
1 z+h
= ∫z [ f (w) − f (z ) ] dw. …(4)
h
The function f (w) is given to be continuous at z therefore for a given ε > 0 there exists a
δ > 0 such that
| f (w) − f (z )| < ε …(5)
where | w − z | < δ.
Since h is arbitrary therefore choosing | h | < δ so that every point w lying on the line
joining z to z + h satisfies (5).
From (4) and (5), we have
 F (z + h) − F (z ) − f (z )≤ 1 z + h | f (w) − f (z )|| dw |
 h  | h| ∫ z
1 z+h
| dw |, [ From (5)]
| h| ∫ z
< ε

1
= ε | h | = ε.
| h|
Since ε is small and positive, therefore we have
lim F (z + h) − F (z )
 F (z + h) − F (z ) − f (z ) = 0 or = f (z ).
 h  h→ 0 h
Hence F ′ (z ) = f (z )
i.e., F (z ) is differentiable for all values of z in D. Consequently F (z ) is analytic in D.
Since the derivative of an analytic function is analytic therefore f (z ) is analytic in D.
In view of Cauchy-Goursat theorem and Morera’s theorem, we may state the following
theorem.
Theorem 1(a): Let f (z ) be continuous in a simply connected domain D and let C be any
rectifiable closed curve in D. Then necessary and sufficient condition for f (z ) to be analytic in D is
that

∫C f (z ) dz = 0 .
 C-117

18 Cauchy’s Inequality
Let f (z ) be analytic in a domain D and let D contain the interior and the boundary of the circle γ
defined by | z − z0 | = ρ and if | f (z )| ≤ M on γ, then
M
| f n (z0 )| ≤ n ! n
.
r (Kanpur 2008; Kumaun 09, 11, 13;
Gorakhpur 09, 11; Purvanchal 10, 11; Rohilkhand 12)

n! f (z )
Proof: We have f n (z0 ) = dz ,
2 πi ∫ γ (z − z0 )n + 1

 n! f (z )  n! | f (z )|
or | f n (z0 )| = ∫ dz ≤ ∫γ | dz |
2 i γ (z − z )n + 1 | z − z0 | n + 1
 π 0  2π
n! M
| dz | [∵| f (z )| ≤ M ]
2π r n +1 ∫ γ
≤ ⋅

n! M
= ⋅ 2 πr.
2π r n +1
n M
Hence |f (z0 )| ≤ n ! ⋅ n
⋅
r

z 2 + 5z + 6
Example 6: If f (z ) = , does Cauchy’s theorem apply
z −2

(i) when the path of integration C is a circle of radius 3 with origin as centre.
(Kumaun 2015)

(ii) when C is a circle of radius 1 with origin as centre.

z 2 + 5z + 6
Solution: Here f (z ) = ⋅
z −2

Obviously f (z ) is not analytic at z = 2.

(i) When the path of integration is the circle| z | = 3, the point z = 2 lies inside C so f (z )
is not analytic within C therefore Cauchy’s theorem is not applicable i.e.,
z 2 + 5z + 6
∫C dz ≠ 0.
z −2
(ii) When C is the circle| z | = 1, the point z = 2 lies outside C as a result f (z ) is analytic
within and on C. Hence Cauchy’s theorem is applicable i.e.,
z 2 + 5z + 6
∫C dz = 0.
z −2
 C-118

Example 7: Verify Cauchy’s theorem for the function z 3 − iz 2 − 5 z + 2 i if C is the circle

| z − 1| = 2. (Garhwal 2010)
3 2
Solution: We have f (z ) = z − iz − 5 z + 2 i.
Since f (z ) is a polynomial in z therefore it is analytic within C.
On C we can choose z − 1 = 2 e iθ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2 π

or z = 1 + 2e i θ . ∴ dz = 2 ie i θ dθ.
2π
Now ∫C f (z ) dz = ∫0 [(1 + 2 e i θ )3 − i (1 + 2 e i θ )2 − 5 (1 + 2 e i θ ) + 2 i ] 2 ie i θ dθ

2π
= 2i ∫ [8 e4 i θ + 4 (3 − i) e3 i θ − 4 (1 + i) e2 i θ + (− 4 + i) e i θ ] dθ
0
2π
= 0, since ∫ e i k θ = 0 if k ≠ 0.
0

This verifies Cauchy’s theorem for the function f (z ) and contour C.

z −3
Example 8: Evaluate ∫ 2
dz where C is circle
C z + 2z + 5

(a) |z|=1 and (b) | z + 1 − i| = 2 .

Solution: (a) We have
z2 + 2 z + 5 = z2 + 2 z + 1 + 4
= (z + 1)2 − (2 i)2 = (z + 1 + 2 i) (z + 1 − 2 i ).
z −3 A B
Let = + ⋅
(z + 1 + 2 i) (z + 1 − 2 i) z + 1 + 2 i z + 1 − 2 i

∴ z − 3 = A (z + 1 − 2 i) + B (z + 1 + 2 i)
Putting z = − 1 + 2 i, we get
− 1 + 2 i − 3 = A (0 ) + B (− 1 + 2 i + 1 + 2 i)
i. e., − 4 + 2 i = 4 iB.
2i − 4 1
∴ B= = + i.
4i 2
Putting z = − 1 − 2 i, we get
− 1 − 2 i − 3 = A (− 1 − 2 i + 1 − 2 i) or − 4 − 2 i = − 4 i A.
4 + 2i 1
∴ A= = − i.
4i 2
1 1
z −3 −i +i
∴ = 2 + 2 ⋅
z 2 + 2z + 5 z + 1 + 2i z + 1 − 2i
z −3 1 1 1 i
∴ ∫C 2
dz =  − i ∫C dz +  + i ∫C dz .
z + 2z + 5  2  z + 1 + 2i  2  z + 1 − 2i
1
f (z ) = is analytic within and on the circle| z | = 1, as z = − 1 − 2 i lies outside the
z + 1 − 2i
circle | z | = 1.
 C-119

1
∴ ∫C dz = 0, (by Cauchy’s integral theorem).
z + 1 + 2i
1
Similarly f (z ) = is analytic within and on the circle | z | = 1 as
z + 1 − 2i

z = − 1 + 2 i lies outside the circle | z | = 1.

1
∴ ∫ C z + 1 − 2i dz = 0 (by Cauchy’s integral theorem).
z −3
∴ ∫C 2
dz = 0 .
z + 2z + 5

(b) | z + 1 − i| = 2 is the circle with centre − 1 + i and radius 2 .

The point − 1 − 2i lies outside the circle| z + 1 − i| = 2 and the point − 1 + 2i lies inside
the circle | z + 1 − i| = 2 .
1
∴ ∫ C z + 1 + 2i dz = 0, (by Cauchy’s integral theorem)
1
and ∫C dz = 2 πi (1), since f (z ) = 1 and f (− 1 + 2 i) = 1 = 2 πi.
z + 1 − 2i
z −3 1 1
∴ ∫C dz =  − i 0 +  + i 2 πi = πi − 2 π = π (− 2 + i ).
z 2 + 2z + 5 2  2 

Comprehensive Exercise 2

z2 − 4
1. Evaluate ∫C dz , where C is the circle | z | = 1.
z (z 2 + 9)
dz
2. Evaluate by Cauchy’s integral formula ∫C , where C is | z + 3 i| = 1.
z (z + πi)

sin6 z
3. Find the value of ∫ dz if C is the circle | z | = 1.
C (z − π / 6)3 (Rohilkhand 2007)
2z
e
4. Evaluate ∫C dz , where the path of integration C is | z | = 3.
(z + 1)4

e3 z
5. Evaluate ∫C if C is the circle | z + 1 + i| = 2 .
z+i (Kumaun 2015)
6. Using Cauchy integral formula, calculate the following integrals :
z dz
(i) ∫ , where C is the circle| z | = 2 described in positive sense.
C (9 − z 2 ) (z + i )

cosh (πz ) dz
(ii) ∫C , where C is circle | z | = 2.
z (z 2 + 1)
 C-120

e a z dz
(iii) ∫C , where C is the ellipse | z − 2 | + | z + 2 | = 6.
(z − πi)
dz
(iv) ∫C , where C is | z | = 3.
z −2 (Kanpur 2003)

A nswers 2

8 πi 21 8 πi
1. − 2. 0 3. πi 4.
9 16 3 e2
π
5. 2 π ie − 3 i 6. (i) , (ii) 4πi , (iii) 0 , (iv) 2πi
5

19 Indefinite Integrals
Definition: Suppose f (z ) is a single-valued analytic function in a simply connected region D, then
a function F (z ) is called indefinite integral or primitive or anti-derivative of f (z ) if F (z ) is
single-valued and analytic in D and F ′ (z ) = f (z ) , z ∈ D.
Theorem 1:A necessary and sufficient condition for the indefinite integral of a function f (z ) to
exist in a simply connected domain D is that the function f (z ) is analytic in D.
Also show that any two indefinite integrals of a function differ by a constant.
Proof: Condition is necessary: Let F (z ) be indefinite integral of f (z ). Then we
have F ′ (z ) = f (z ).
Therefore F (z ) is differentiable at every point z ∈ D. Consequently F (z ) is analytic in
D. Since the derivative of an analytic function is analytic therefore f (z ) is analytic in
D.
Condition is sufficient: Suppose f (z ) is analytic function in D. Take z0 a fixed
point and z any variable point in D. Then the integral of f (z ) along any path joining z0
to z is the same.
Consider a function F (z ) defined by
z
F (z ) = ∫ z0 f (z ) dz . …(1)

Now proceed as in Morera’s theorem and prove that F ′ (z ) = f (z ). Hence F (z ) given

by (1) is the indefinite integral of f (z ). Thus every analytic function possesses
indefinite integral in a simply connected domain.
Now we shall show that two indefinite integrals of a function differ by a constant.
Suppose φ (z ) and ψ (z ) are two indefinite integrals of f (z ).
Then φ′ (z ) = f (z ) and ψ ′ (z ) = f (z )
so that φ ′ (z ) = ψ ′ (z ) or φ′ (z ) − ψ′ (z ) = 0
 C-121

or [φ (z ) − ψ (z )]′ = 0 or φ (z ) − ψ (z ) = c, where c is any constant.

∴ φ (z ) = ψ (z ) + c.
Hence the general indefinite integral of an analytic function f (z ) is given by
z
F (z ) + c , where F (z ) = ∫ z0 f (ζ) dζ.

Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus For Complex Functions:

Theorem 2:If f (z ) is a single valued analytic function in a simply connected domain D, then for
a, b ∈ D we have
b
∫a f (z ) dz = F (b) − F (a) , where F (z ) is any indefinite integral of f (z ).

Proof: We have F (z ) as an indefinite integral of f (z ), therefore

F ′ (z ) = f (z )
z
and F (z ) is given by F (z ) = ∫ z0 f (z ) dz , …(1)

where z0 is any fixed point and z is any variable point in D.

b a
Now F (b) = ∫ z0 f (z ) dz and F (a) = ∫ z0 f (z ) dz

b a
∴ F (b) − F (a) = ∫ z0 f (z ) dz − ∫ z0 f (z ) dz

b z0 b
= ∫ z0 f (z ) dz + ∫a f (z ) dz = ∫a f (z ) dz . Proved.

Since we have f (z ) = F ′ (z ) therefore we can also write

b
F (b) − F (a) = ∫a F ′ (z ) dz .

20 Integral Function: (Entire Function)

If a function f (z ) is analytic in every finite region of the z–plane, it is called an integral function or
entire function.
Liouville’s Theorem: If f (z ) is an integral function satisfying the inequality| f (z )| ≤ M
for all values of z , where M is a positive constant, then f (z ) is constant.
(Meerut 2000, 01; Bundelkhand 01; Avadh 07; Rohilkhand 07; Purvanchal 10)

Proof: Suppose z1 and z2 are any two points in the z–plane.

With z1 as centre and radius r draw a circle γ whose equation is
| z − z1 | = r. Take r sufficiently large so that z2 lies inside γ and
1
| z2 − z1 | < r.
2
By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
1 f (z )
f (z1) = ∫ dz
2 πi γ z − z1
 C-122

1 f (z )
and f (z2 ) = dz .
2 πi ∫ γ z − z2

1  1 1 
Now f (z2 ) − f (z1) = ∫ f (z )  −  dz
2 πi γ
 z − z2 z − z1 
z2 − z1 f (z )
= ∫γ dz ⋅ …(1)
2πi (z − z1) (z − z2 )

We have | z − z1 | = r,
| z − z2 | = | z − z1 + z1 − z2 | = | z − z1 − (z2 − z1)|
1 1
≥ | z − z1 | − | z2 − z1 | ≥ r − r = r
2 2
and | f (z )| ≤ M (given).
Taking modulus of both sides of (1), we have
(z − z1) f (z ) 
| f (z2 ) − f (z1)| = 2 ∫γ dz
 2 πi (z − z1) (z − z2 ) 

| z2 − z1 | | f (z )|
≤ ∫ | dz |
2π γ | z − z || z − z |
1 2

| z2 − z1 | M
| dz |
1 ∫γ
≤ ⋅
2π r⋅ r
2
| z − z1 | M 2 | z2 − z1 | M
≤ 2 ⋅ 2 2 πr =
π r r
→ 0 as r → ∞.
Consequently f (z2 ) − f (z1) = 0 or f (z2 ) = f (z1).
Hence f (z ) is constant.
Alternative Proof: By Cauchy’s inequality, we have
M
| f n (z0 )| ≤ n ! n where z0 is any point in the z–plane and r is the radius of the circle γ
r
defined by | z − z0 | = r. For n = 1, we have
M
| f ′ (z0 )| ≤ ⋅
r
As r → ∞, f ′ (z0 ) = 0.
Since the point z0 is arbitrary therefore we conclude that f ′ (z ) vanishes at every point
in the z-plane. Hence f (z ) is constant.

21 Expansion of Analytic Functions as Power Series

Theorem 1: Taylor’s Theorem: Let f (z ) be analytic at all points within a circle C0 with
centre z0 and radius r0 . Then for every point z within C0 , we have
 C-123

f ′ ′ (z0 )
f (z ) = f (z0 ) + f ′ (z0 ) (z − z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + ……
2!
f n(z0 )
+ (z − z0 )n + ……
n!
∞ (z − z0 )n n
= f (z0 ) + Σ f (z0 ) ⋅
n =1 n!
(Kanpur 2001; Purvanchal 07; Gorakhpur 10;
Rohilkhand 09, 12; Garhwal 10)
Proof: Consider a circle C0 with centre z0 and radius r0 .
Suppose z is any point inside the circle| z − z0 | = r. Draw a
circle C with centre z0 and radius R such that r < R < r0 so
that the point z lies inside C. If w is any point on C, equation
of C is given by | w − z0 | = R.
Also by Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
1 f (w)
f (z ) = ∫ dw. …(1)
2πi C w−z
Consider the identity
1 1 1
= =
w − z (w − z0 ) − (z − z0 )  z − z0 
(w − z0 ) 1 − 
 w − z0 
−1
1  z − z0 
= 1 − 
w − z0  w − z0 
2 n −1
1  z − z0  z − z0   z − z0 
= 1 + +  + …… +  
w − z0  w − z0  w − z0   w − z0 


n
 z − z0  1 
+  
 w − z 0  1−
z − z0 
w − z0 

1 z − z0 (z − z0 )2 (z − z0 )n − 1
= + + + …… +
w − z0 (w − z0 )2 (w − z0 )3 (w − z0 )n
(z − z0 )n
+ ⋅
(w − z0 )n (w − z )

f (w)
Multiplying both sides by and integrating around C, we get
2πi
1 f (w) 1 f (w) (z − z0 ) f (w)
dw = dw + dw
2 πi ∫ C w−z 2 πi ∫ C w − z0 2 πi ∫ C (w − z0 )2

(z − z0 )n−1 f (w) (z − z0 )n f (w)

+ …… + ∫C dw + ∫ dw
2πi (w − z0 )n 2πi C (w − z ) (w − z0 )n
 C-124

f ′ ′ (z0 )
or f (z ) = f (z0 ) + (z − z0 ) f ′ (z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + ……
2!
f n − 1(z0 )
+ (z − z0 )n − 1 + Sn …(2)
(n − 1)!
(z − z0 )n f (w)
where Sn = ∫C dw.
2πi (w − z ) (w − z0 )n
In order to get the desired result we have to show that
Sn → 0 as n → ∞.
We have | z − z0 | = r , | w − z0 | = R.
∴ | w − z | = | w − z0 − (z − z0 )| ≥ | w − z0 | − | z − z0 | = R − r.
If M denotes the greatest value of f (w) on C, we have
 (z − z0 )n f (w) 
| S n | = ∫C dw
n
 2πi (w − z ) (w − z0 ) 
| z − z0 |n | f (w)|
≤ ∫C | dw |
2π | w − z || w − z0 |n

rn M
≤ ⋅ ∫C | dw |
2π ( R − r) R n
n
M⋅R r ∵ 
=  
( R − r)  R  ∫ C | dw | = 2πR 
Since r < R therefore (r / R)n → 0 as n → ∞. Consequently Sn → 0 as n → ∞. Hence as
n → ∞, the limit of the sum of the first n terms on the right hand side of (2) is f (z ), so we
can represent f (z ) by the infinite series
f ′ ′ (z0 )
f (z ) = f (z0 ) + (z − z0 ) f ′ (z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + ……
2!
f n(z0 )
+ (z − z0 )n + ……
n!
∞ f n (z0 )
= f (z0 ) + Σ (z − z0 )n ⋅
n =1 n!
It is known as Taylor’s series.
If we put z0 = 0 in the above series, we get
∞ zn n
f (z ) = f (0 ) + Σ f (0 ),
n =1 n!
which is known as Maclaurin’s series.
Remark: For the validity of the expansion as a Taylor’s series, it is essential that f ( y)
be analytic at all points inside the circle C0 for then the convergence of Taylor’s series
for f (z ) is assured.
Hence the greatest radius of C0 is the distance from the point z0 to the singularity of
f (z ) which is nearest to z0 , since we require the function to be analytic at all points
within C0 .
 C-125

Theorem 2: Laurent’s Theorem: Let f (z ) be analytic in the ring shaped region D

bounded by two concentric circles C1 and C2 with centre z0 and radii r1 and r2 (r1 > r2 ) and let z be
any point of D. Then
∞ ∞
f (z ) = Σ an (z − z0 )n + Σ bn (z − z0 )− n
n=0 n =1

1 f (w)
where an = dw ,
2 πi ∫ C1 (w − z0 )n +1
1
and bn = (w − z0 )n −1 f (w) dw , n = 1, 2, 3, ……
2 πi ∫ C2
(Gorakhpur 2007, 13; Rohilkhand 11; Purvanchal 12)

Proof: The function f (z ) is given to be analytic in the ring

shaped region D bounded by concentric circles C1 and C2
with centre z0 and radii r1 and r2 (r1 > r2 ). Let z be any point in
the region D. Then by Cauchy’s integral formula for doubly
connected region, we have
1  f (w) f (w) 
f (z ) = dw − dw ⋅
2 πi ∫ C1 w − z ∫ C2

w−z 
…(1)
For any point w on C1, we have the identity

1 1 1
= =
w − z w − z0 − (z − z0 )  z − z0 
(w − z0 ) 1 − 
 w − z0 
2 n −1
1  z − z0  z − z0   z − z0 
= 1 + +  + …… +  
w − z0  w − z0  w − z0   w − z0 


n
 z − z0  1 
+  
 w − z0  1 − − z0
z 
w − z0 

1 z − z0 (z − z0 )2 (z − z0 )n − 1 (z − z0 )n
= + 2
+ 3
+…+ n
+ ⋅
w − z0 (w − z0 ) (w − z0 ) (w − z0 ) (w − z0 )n (w − z )

Multiplying both sides by f (w) / 2πi and integrating around C1, we get

1 f (w) 1 f (w) (z − z0 ) f (w)

∫ C1 dw = ∫ C1 dw + ∫ C1 dw + …
2 πi w−z 2 πi w − z0 2 πi (w − z0 )2

(z − z0 )n − 1 f (w)
…+ ∫ C1 dw + Rn
2 πi (w − z0 )n
(z − z0 )n f (w)
where Rn = ∫ dw.
2 πi C1 (w − z )n (w − z )
0
 C-126

1 f (w)
Putting an = dw in the above relation, we get
2 πi ∫ C1 (w − z0 )n + 1
1 f (w)
dw = a0 + a1 (z − z0 ) + a2 (z − z0 )2 + ……
2 πi ∫ C1 w − z
+ an − 1 (z − z0 )n − 1 + Rn. …(2)
Now we shall show that Rn → 0 as n → ∞.
Suppose | z − z0 | = r so that r2 < r < r1.
We have | w − z0 | = r1.
∴ | w − z | = | w − z0 − (z − z0 )| ≥ | w − z0 | − | z − z0 | = r1 − r.
 (z − z0 )n f (w) 
Now | Rn | = ∫ dw
2 π i C1 (w − z )n (w − z )
 0 
| z − z0 |n | f (w)|
≤
2π ∫ C1 | w − z0 |n | w − z || dw |
r n . M1
≤
2 π r1n (r1 − r) ∫ C1 | dw |
where M1 is the greatest value of f (w) on C1
n n
r . M1 M1 r1  r 
= 2 πr1 =   ⋅
2 π r1n (r1 − r) r1 − r  r1 

Since r < r1, therefore (r / r1)n → 0 as n → ∞. Consequently Rn → 0 as n → ∞.

∴ from (2), we have

1 f (w) ∞
dw an (z − z0 )n. …(3)
2 πi ∫ C1 w − z
= Σ
n=0

Again for the second integral in (1), consider the identity

1 1 , where w is any point on C2
− =
w − z (z − z0 ) − (w − z0 )
1
=
 w − z0 
(z − z0 ) 1 − 
 z − z0 

 2 n −1
1 w − z0  w − z0   w − z0 
= 1 + +  + …… +  
z − z0  z − z0  z − z0   z − z0 

n
 w − z0  1 
+  
 z − z0  1 − − z0
w 
z − z0 
1 w − z0 (w − z0 )2
= + + + ……
z − z0 (z − z0 )2 (z − z0 )3
(w − z0 )n − 1 (w − z0 )n
+ + ⋅
(z − z0 )n (z − z0 )n (z − w)
 C-127

1 f (w) 1
∴ − ∫ dw = ∫ C2 f (w) dw
2 πi 2 w − z
C 2 πi (z − z0 )
1
+ ∫ C2 (w − z0 ) f (w) dw + ……
2 πi (z − z0 )2
1
+ ∫ C2 (w − z0 )n −1 f (w) dw + Pn ,
2 πi (z − z0 )n
1 (w − z0 )n f (w)
where Pn = ∫ C2 dw.
2 πi (z − z0 )n z−w
1
Putting bn = (w − z0 )n − 1 f (w) dw in the above relation, we get
2 πi ∫ C2
1 f (w)
− ∫ dw = b1 (z − z0 )−1 + b2 (z − z0 )−2 + ……
2 πi 2 w − z
C
+ bn (z − z0 )− n + Pn . …(4)
Now we have to show that Pn → 0 as n → ∞. We have| z − z0 | = r, | w − z0| = r2 for C2
where r2 < r.
∴ | z − w | = |(z − z0 ) − (w − z0 )| ≥ | z − z0 | − | w − z0 | = r − r2 .
1 | w − z0 |n | f (w)|
Now | Pn | ≤ n ∫ C2 | dw |
2 π | z − z0 | | z − w|

1 r2 n M2
≤ n
⋅ ∫ C2 | dw |,
2π r (r − r2 )

where M2 is the greatest value of f (w) on C2

n
M2 r2  r2 
=   ⋅
r − r2  r 

∴ Pn → 0 as n → ∞, since r2 < r.
Thus from (4), we have
1 f (w) ∞
− ∫ dw = Σ bn (z − z0 )− n. …(5)
2 πi C2 w − z n =1

Substituting the values from (3) and (5) in (1), we get

∞ ∞
f (z ) = Σ an (z − z0 )n + Σ bn (z − z0 )− n,
n=0 n =1

1 f (w) 1
where an = dw and bn = (w − z0 )n − 1 f (w) dw.
2 πi ∫ C1 (w − z0 )n + 1 2 πi ∫ C2

Remark: We have bn = a− n . Therefore if C is any circle of radius r and centre z0 such

that r2 < r < r1 then since the integrand is analytic in r2 < | w − z0 | < r1, we can write
1 f (w)
an = ∫ dw
2 πi C (w − z0 )n + 1
1
and bn = a− n = (w − z0 )n − 1 f (w) dw.
2 πi ∫ C
 C-128

In this case the resulting series becomes

∞ 1 f (w)
f (z ) = Σ an (z − z0 )n where an = ∫ dw.
n= − ∞ 2 πi C (w − z0 )n + 1

Theorem 3: Uniqueness Theorem: Suppose that we have obtained in any manner or as

the definition of f (z), the formula
∞
f (z ) = Σ Pn (z − z0 )n , (r2 < | z − z0 | < r1)
n= − ∞

then the series is necessarily identical with Laurent’s series of f (z ).

Proof: Suppose C is the circle defined by | z − z0 | = r, where r2 < r < r1. Then the
Laurent’s series is given by
∞
f (z ) = Σ an (z − z0 )n
n= − ∞

1 f (w)
where an = ∫ dw
2 πi C (w − z0 )n + 1
1 1 ∞
= ∫ Σ Pm (w − z0 )m dw
2 πi C (w − z0 )n + 1 m=−∞

1 ∞ (w − z0 )m
= Σ Pm ∫C dw
2 πi m=−∞ (w − z0 )n + 1
[Term by term integration is possible since the series is
uniformly convergent on every closed subset of the annulus]
m
1 ∞ 2π r e imθ
= Σ Pm ∫0 n +1
r i e i θ dθ,
2 πi m=−∞ r e i (n + 1) θ
putting w − z0 = r e i θ
1 ∞ 2π
= Σ Pm ∫ r m − n e i (m − n) θ dθ . …(1)
2π m=−∞ 0

When m ≠ n, we have
2π
2π  e i (m − n) θ  1
∫0 e i (m − n) θ dθ =   = [e i (m − n) 2 π − e0 ]
 i (m − n ) 0 i (m − n)

1
= (1 − 1) = 0
i (m − n)
and when m = n, we have
2π 2π
∫0 e i (m − n) θ dθ = ∫0 dθ = 2 π.

1
∴ We have an = ⋅ Pn . 2 π, from (1)
2π
= Pn .
Hence the given series is identical with the Laurent’s series of f (z ).
 C-129

1
Example 9: Expand f (z ) = in a Laurent’s series valid for the regions
(z + 1)(z + 3)

(i) | z | < 1 (ii) 1 < | z | < 3

(iii) | z | > 3 (iv) 0 < | z + 1| < 2.
(Purvanchal 2007, 09, 12; Gorakhpur 15)
1
Solution: We have f (z ) = ⋅
(z + 1)(z + 3)
Resolving into partial fractions, we get
1 1
f (z ) = − ⋅
2 (z + 1) 2 (z + 3)
(i) | z |< 1 .
−1
1 1 1 + z 
We have f (z ) = (1 + z )−1 −  
2 6  3
2 3
1 1 z z z 
= [1 − z + z 2 − z 3 + ……] − 1 − +   −   + ……
2 6  3  3   3 
1 1 1 1 1 1 2
=( − )−( − )z +( − ) z − ……
2 6 2 18 2 54
1 4 13 2
= − z+ z − ……
3 9 27
(ii) 1 < | z | < 3
1 |z|
Then we have < 1 and < 1.
|z| 3
−1
1 1 1  1
Now = = 1 + 
2 (z + 1) 1 2z  z
2 z 1 + 
 z
1  1 1 1  1 1 1
= 1 − + 2 − 3 + …… = − 2
+ − ……
2z  z z z  2z 2z 2 z3
−1
1 1 1 z 1 z z2 z3 
and = = 1 +  = 1 − + − + ……
2 (z + 3) z 6 3 6 3 9 27 
6 1 + 
 3
1 1 1 2 1 3
= − z+ z − z + …… .
6 18 54 162
Thus the Laurent’s series valid for the region 1 < | z | < 3 is

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3
f (z ) = …… + 3
− 2
+ + − z+ z − z + ……
2z 2z 2 z 6 18 54 162
 C-130

(iii) | z | > 3 .Then (3 /| z |) < 1.

−1 −1
1 1 + 1 1 1 + 3 
∴ f (z ) =   −  
2z  z 2z  z
2 3
=
1 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + …… − 1 1 − 3 +  3  −  3  + ……
       
2z  z z2 z3  2z 
 z z z 
1 4 13 40
= 2
− 3
+ 4
− + ……
z z z z5
(iv) 0 < | z + 1| < 2 .
Let z + 1 = u. Then we have 0 < | u| < 2.
−1
1 1 1  u
∴ f (z ) = = = 1 + 
(z + 1)(z + 3) u (u + 2) 2 u  2
2 3
1  u  u  u  1 1 u u2
= 1 − +   −   + …… = − + − + ……
2u  2 2 2  2 u 4 8 16
1 1 z + 1 (z + 1)2
= − + − + ……
2 (z + 1) 4 8 16
Example 10: Obtain the Taylor’s and Laurent’s series which represent the function
z2 − 1
f (z ) = in the regions
(z + 2) (z + 3)

(i) | z |< 2 (Garhwal 2010) (ii) 2 < | z | < 3 (Gorakhpur 2009, 11, 13)
(iii) | z | > 3. (Avadh 2008; Gorakhpur 09, 11, 13)

z2 − 1 5z + 7
Solution: Let f (z ) = = 1− ⋅
(z + 2) (z + 3) (z + 2)(z + 3)

Resolving into partial fractions, we get

3 8
f (z ) = 1 + − ⋅
z +2 z +3
(i) | z | < 2. We have
−1 −1
3 z 8 z
f (z ) = 1 + 1 +  − 1 + 
2  2 3  3
3 z z2 z3  8  z z2 z3 
= 1+ 1 − + 2 − 3 + …  − 1 − + 2 − 3 + … 
2 2 2 2  3  3 3 3 
∞ n ∞ n
3 z 8 z
= 1+ Σ (− 1)n   − Σ (− 1)n   ⋅
2 n=0  2 3 n=0  3

2 |z|
(ii) 2 < | z | < 3. Then < 1 and < 1.
|z| 3
−1 −1
3 2 8 z
∴ f (z ) = 1 + 1 +  − 1 + 
z  z 3 3
 C-131

3 2 22  8 z z2 z3 
= 1+ 1 − + 2 − …… − 1 − + 2 − 3 + ……
z  z z  3 3 3 3 
∞ n ∞ n
3 2 8 z
= 1+ Σ (− 1)n   − Σ (− 1)n   ⋅
z n=0  z  3 n=0  3
3
(iii) | z | > 3. Then < 1.
|z|
−1 −1
3 2 8 3
∴ f (z ) = 1 + 1 +  − 1 + 
z  z z  z
3  2  2 2  2 3 
= 1+ 1 − +   −   + ……
z  z z z 

8  3  3 2  3 3 
− 1 − +   −   + ……
3  z z z 
∞ n ∞ n
3 2 8 3
= 1+ Σ (− 1)n   − Σ (− 1)n   .
z n=0  z  3 n=0  z

1
Example 11: Find different developments of in powers of z according to the
(z − 1) (z − 3)
position of the point in the z-plane. Expand the function in Taylor’s series about z = 2 and indicate
the circle of convergence.
1
Solution: Let f (z ) = ⋅
(z − 1) (z − 3)
Resolving into partial fractions, we get
1 1
f (z ) = − + ⋅
2 (z − 1) 2 (z − 3)
Obviously f (z ) is regular everywhere except at z = 1 and 3.

(i) 0 < | z | < 1.

−1 ∞ ∞ n
1 1 z 1 1  z 
f (z ) = (1 − z )−1 − 1 −  = Σ zn − Σ  
2 6 3 2 n=0 6 n=0  3

∞ 1 1  n
= Σ 1 − n + 1  z
n=0 2  3 

which is Taylor’s expansion of f (z ) in 0 < | z | < 1.

(ii) 1 < | z | < 3.
−1 −1 ∞ ∞ n
1  1 1 z 1 1 1  z 
f (z ) = − 1 −  − 1 −  =− Σ − Σ  
2z  z 6  3 2z n=0 zn 6 n=0  3

which is Laurent’s series in the positive and negative powers of z in the region1 < | z | < 3.
 C-132

(iii) | z | > 3.
−1 −1
1  1 1  3
f (z ) = − 1 −  + 1 − 
2z  z 2z  z
∞ ∞ n ∞
1 1 1 3 1 1
=− Σ n
+ Σ   = Σ (3 n − 1)
2z n=0 z 2z n=0  z  2 n=0 z n +1
which is a Laurent’s series in the negative powers of z for | z | > 3.
Consider a circle with centre at z = 2. Then the distance of both the singularities z = 1
and z = 3 from the centre of the circle is 1. Hence if we draw the circle| z − 2 | = 1then the
function f (z ) is regular within this circle so that f (z ) can be expanded in a Taylor’s
series within this circle i. e., in the region| z − 2 | < 1. Consequently| z − 2 | = 1is the circle
of convergence.
1 1 1
Now f (z ) = = 2 =
(z − 1)(z − 3) z − 4 z + 3 (z − 2)2 − 1
∞
= − [1 − (z − 2)2 ] −1 = − Σ (z − 2)2 n,
n=0

which is a Taylor’s expansion of f (z ) about z = 2.

Example 12:Expand log (1 + z ) in a Taylor’s series about z = 0 and determine the region of
convergence for the resulting series.
Solution: Let f (z ) = log (1 + z ).
Taylor’s expansion for f (z ) about z = 0 is given by
z2
f (z ) = f (0 ) + z f ′ (0 ) + f ′ ′ (0 ) + …… . …(1)
2!
1 1
We have f ′ (z ) = , f ′ ′ (z ) = − ,
1+ z (1 + z )2
2 (n − 1)!
f ′ ′ ′ (z ) = ,……, f n (z ) = (− 1)n − 1 ⋅
(1 + z 2 )3 (1 + z )n
∴ f (0 ) = 0 , f ′ (0 ) = 1, f ′ ′ (0 ) = − 1, f ′ ′ ′ (0 ) = 2, ……,
f n (0 ) = (−1)n − 1 (n − 1)!.
Substituting these values in (1), we get
1 2 2 3 (−1)n − 1 (n − 1)! z n
log (1 + z ) = z −
z + z −…… + + ……
2! 3! n!
z2 z3 zn
=z− + − …… + (− 1)n − 1 + ……
2 3 n
Let un be the nth term of the series. Then we have
zn (− 1)n z n + 1
un = (− 1)n − 1 , un + 1 =
n n +1
lim  un  lim  n + 1
∴  = = 1 ⋅
n → ∞ un +1 n → ∞  nz  | z |
 
Hence by D ′Alembert’s ratio test the series converges for | z | < 1.
 C-133

z
Example 13: Find the Laurent expansion of about the singularity z = − 2.
(z + 1) (z + 2)
Specify the region of convergence.
z 2 1
Solution: We have f (z ) = = −
(z + 1) (z + 2) z + 2 z + 1
2 1
or f (z ) = − ⋅ ...(1)
(z + 2) z + 1
1
To find Laurent expansion for φ (z ) = about z = − 2, we write
z +1
∞
φ (z ) = Σ an (z + 2)n ...(2)
n=0
(n)
φ (− 2) (− 1)n n !
where an = . But φ(n) (z ) = ⋅
n! (z + 1)n + 1
φ(n) (− 2) (− 1)n (− 1)n φ(n) (− 2)
∴ = n + 1
= n + 1
= − 1 or an = = −1
n! (− 2 + 1) (− 1) n!
Putting this in (2), we get
1 ∞ 1 ∞
= φ (z ) = Σ (− 1) (z + 2)n or − = Σ (z + 2)n.
z +1 n=0 z +1 n=0

2 ∞
Now (1) reduces to f (z ) = + Σ (z + 2)n. ...(3)
2+z n=0

This is the required expansion.

∞
Second Part: Let Σ (z + 2)n = Σun.
n=0

un + 1 (z + 2)n + 1

Then   =  = | z + 2 |.
n
 un   (z + 2) 
un + 1
Series will be convergent if < 1 i.e., if | z + 2 | < 1.
 un 
∴ Radius of convergence = 1.
Series is convergent V z inside the circle whose centre is z = − 2 and radius = 1.
z3 z5
Example 14:Prove that tan−1 z = z − + − …… when | z | < 1.
3 5
Solution: Let f (z ) = tan−1 z .

By Taylor’s theorem, we have

(z − z0 )2
f (z ) = f (z0 ) + f ′ (z0 ) (z − z0 ) + f ′ ′ (z0 ) + ……
2!
Taking z0 = 0 , we get
z2
f (z ) = f (0 ) + f ′ (0 ) z + f ′ ′ (0 ) + …… . …(1)
2!
 C-134

We have f (z ) = tan−1 z so that f (0 ) = tan−1 0 = 0 .

1 2z
f ′ (z ) = , f ′ ′ (z ) = − ,
1 + z2 (1 + z 2 )2

2 (1 − 3 z 2 ) 24 (− z + z 3 )
f ′′′ z = − , f iv (z ) = − ,
(1 + z 2 )3 (1 + z 2 )4
24 (− 1 + 10 z 2 − 5 z 4 )
f v (z ) = − and so on.
(1 + z 2 )5

∴ f ′ (0 ) = 1, f ′ ′ (0 ) = 0 , f ′ ′ ′ (0 ) = − 2, f iv (0 ) = 0 , f v (0 ) = 24 etc.
Substituting all these values in relation (1), we get
1 3 1 5
tan−1 z = z − z + z − …… .
3 5
1 ∞ 1
Example 15: Prove that cosh  z +  = a0 + Σ an  z n + n 
 z n =1  z 
1 2π
where an = ∫0 cosh nθ cosh (2 cos θ) dθ.
2π
(Gorakhpur 2007, 09; Rohilkhand 12; Purvanchal 08)

1
Solution:The function cosh  z +  is analytic in every finite part of the z-plane except
 z
at z = 0. Thus the given function is analytic in the annulus r ≤ | z | ≤ R where r is small
and R is large so that we can expand f (z ) in a Laurent’s series in the annulus r < | z | < R.
1 ∞ ∞
∴ cosh  z +  = Σ an z n + Σ bn z − n,
 z  n=0 n =1

1 1 dz 1 1
where an = cosh  z +  n + 1 and bn = cosh  z +  z n − 1 dz ,
2 πi ∫ C  z z 2 πi ∫ C  z
C is a circle with centre at origin.
Let C be the unit circle defined by | z | = 1. Then z = e iθ , dz = ie i θ dθ.

1 2π ie iθ
∴ an = ∫ cosh (e i θ + e − i θ ) i (n + 1) θ dθ
2 πi 0 e
1 2π
= ∫0 cosh (2 cos θ) e − i n θ dθ
2π
1 2π
= ∫0 cosh (2 cos θ) (cos nθ − i sin nθ) dθ
2π
1 2π
= ∫0 cosh (2 cos θ) cos nθ dθ,
2π
{since the other integral becomes zero by the property
2a
∫0 f (θ) dθ = 0 if f (2 a − θ) = − f (θ)}
 C-135

1
Now the function cosh  z +  remains unchanged by replacing z by 1 / z, therefore
 z
we have
1 2π
bn = a− n = ∫0 cosh (2 cos θ) cos (− nθ) dθ
2π
1 2π
= ∫0 cosh (2 cos θ) cos nθ dθ = an .
2π
1 ∞ ∞
Hence cosh  z +  = Σ an z n + Σ bn z − n
 z n=0 n =1

∞ ∞
= Σ an z n + Σ an z − n [∵ bn = an]
n=0 n =1

∞
= a0 + Σ an (z n + z − n),
n =1

1 2π
where an = ∫0 cosh (2 cos θ) cos nθ dθ.
2π
1
c (z − 1 / z) ∞
Example 16: Show that e 2 = Σ an z n ,
n= − ∞

1 2π
where an = ∫0 cos (nθ − c sin θ) dθ .
2π
(Meerut 2001, 02; Gorakhpur 2004, 06, 08, 11; Avadh 07)

Solution: The given function is analytic at every point in the z-plane except at z = 0 so
it is analytic in the annulus r < | z | < R where r is small and R is large. Therefore it can be
expanded in a Laurent’s series in the region r < | z | < R.
1
c (z − 1 / z) ∞ ∞
∴ e 2 = Σ an z n + Σ bn z − n
n=0 n =1

1 dz 1
where an = ∫ f (z ) n + 1 , bn = f (z ) z n − 1 dz
2 πi C z 2 πi ∫ C
and C is any circle with centre at origin.
Let C be the unit circle defined by | z | = 1.
Then z = e i θ , dz = i e i θ dθ.
1
1 2π 2 c (e i θ − e − i θ ) ie iθ
Now an = e dθ
2 πi ∫0 e i (n + 1) θ
1 2π
= ∫0 e i c sin θ e − i n θ dθ
2π
1 2π
= ∫0 e − i (n θ − c sin θ) dθ
2π
1 2π
= ∫0 {cos (nθ − c sin θ) − i sin (nθ − c sin θ)} dθ
2π
 C-136

1 2π
= ∫0 cos (nθ − c sin θ) dθ, …(1)
2π
the second integral becomes zero by the property of definite integrals.
Since the given function remains unchanged if z is replaced by (− 1 / z ) therefore
bn = (− 1)n an.
1
c (z − 1 / z) ∞ ∞
Hence e2 = Σ an z n + Σ bn z − n
n=0 n =1
∞ ∞
= Σ an z n + Σ (− 1)n an z − n
n=0 n =1
∞
= Σ an z n, where an is given by (1).
n= − ∞

Example 17: If the function f (z) is analytic when | z | < R and has the Taylor’s expansion
∞
Σ an z n, show that for r < R, we have
n=0
1 2π ∞
∫0 | f (r e i θ )|2 dθ = Σ | an |2 r2 n.
2π n=0 (Avadh 2007)
Hence prove that if | f (z )| ≤ M where | z | < R,
∞
Σ | an |2 r 2 n ≤ M 2 .
n=0

Solution: Here f (z ) is analytic within the circle | z | = r, (r < R) therefore it can be

expanded in a Taylor’s series within the circle | z | = r.
∞ ∞
∴ f (z ) = Σ an z n or f (r e i θ ) = Σ an r n e i n θ , where z = r e i θ .
n=0 n=0

If an is the conjugate of an , we have

∞
f (r e i θ ) = Σ am r m
e − im θ .
m =0

Now | f (r e i θ )| 2 = f (r e i θ ) f (r e i θ )
∞ ∞
= Σ an r n e inθ Σ am r m e − im θ .
n=0 m =0

2π 2π  ∞ n inθ  
∞
m − im θ 
∴ ∫0 | f (r e i θ )|2 dθ = ∫0  Σ an r e   Σ am r e  dθ.
 n=0   m =0 
…(1)
iθ iθ
Since the two series for f (r e ) and f (r e ) are absolutely convergent therefore their
product is uniformly convergent for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2 π. Hence the term by term integration is
justified.
Also we have
2π
∫0 e i(n − m) θ dθ = 0 if n ≠ m

= 2π if n = m.
 C-137

Hence from (1), we have

2π ∞ 2π
∫0 | f (r e i θ )|2 dθ = Σ an an r 2 n ∫ dθ
n=0 0

∞
= 2π Σ | an |2 r2 n
n=0

1 2π ∞
or ∫0 | f (r e i θ )|2 dθ = Σ | an |2 r 2 n.
2π n=0

This proves the first result.

Again it is given that | f (z )| ≤ M when | z | < R.
∞ 1 2π
∴ Σ | an |2 r 2 n = ∫0 | f (z )|2 dθ [ ∵ z = r ei θ ]
n=0 2π
1 2π 1
≤ ∫0 M 2 dθ = M2 . 2π = M2 .
2π 2π
∞
Hence Σ | an |2 r2 n ≤ M 2 . Proved.
n=0

Example 18: If the function f (z ) is analytic and one valued in| z − a | < R , prove that when
0 < r < R,
1 2π
f ′ (a) = ∫0 P (θ) e − i θ dθ
πr
where P (θ) is the real part of f (a + r e i θ ). (Kumaun 2008)

Solution: The function f (z ) is given to be analytic in| z − a | < R and r < R therefore
f (z ) is also analytic inside the circle C defined by | z − a | = r so that
1 f (z )
f ′ (a) = ∫ dz . …(1)
2 πi C (z − a)2
Also we can expand f (z ) in a Taylor’s series about z = a.
∞
∴ f (z ) = Σ an (z − a)n
n=0

∞
or f (z ) = f (a + re i θ ) = Σ an r n
e i n θ , putting z − a = re i θ .
n=0

∞
n
Then f (z ) = Σ an r e − i n θ.
n=0

1 f (z ) 1 2 π Σ an r n e − i n θ
Now dz rie i θ dθ
2 πi ∫ C (z − a)2 2 πi ∫0
=
r2 e i 2 θ
1 n −1 2π
= Σ an r ∫0 e − i (n + 1) θ dθ
2π
= 0. …(2)
 C-138

From (1) and (2), we have

1 f (z ) + f (z )
f ′ (a) = dz
2 πi ∫ C (z − a)2
1 2 real part of f (z )
dz
2 πi ∫ C
=
(z − a)2

1 2 π real part of f (a + r e i θ ) ire i θ dθ

[∵ z = a + re iθ ]
πi ∫0
=
r2 e i 2 θ
1 2π
P (θ) e − i θ dθ ,
π r ∫0
=

where P (θ) is the real part of f (a + re iθ ).

Comprehensive Exercise 3

(z − 2)(z + 2)
1. Expand for
(z + 1)(z + 4)
(i) | z | < 1 (ii) 1 < | z | < 4
(iii) | z | > 4. (Garhwal 2000; Kanpur 04, 09, 12, 15)
1 5 7
2. Express f (z ) = in a Laurent’s series in the region ≤ | z |≤ ⋅
z (z + 1)2 (z + 2)3 4 4
1
3. (i) Find the Laurent series of the function f (z ) = 2
about z = 0.
z (1 − z ) (Kanpur 2004)
(ii) Find two Laurent’s series expansions in power of z of the function
1
f (z ) =
z (1 + z 2 ) (Kumaun 2010)
4. Obtain the Taylor’s or Laurent’s series which represents the function
1
f (z ) =
(1 + z 2 ) (z + 2)
when (i) | z | < 1, (Kumaun 2013) (ii) 1 < | z | < 2,
(iii) | z | > 2. (Kanpur 2008)
z
5. If 0 < | z − 1| < 2, then express f (z ) =
(z − 1) (z − 3)
in a series of positive and negative powers of (z − 1). (Rohilkhand 2010)
z −1
6. Expand f (z ) = as a Taylor’s series about
z +1
(i) z = 0 (ii) z = 1
(iii) its Laurent’s series for the domain 1< | z | < ∞. (Kanpur 2000)
 C-139

1
7. Find Laurent’s series of the function f (z ) = valid in the region
(z 2 − 4) (z + 1)
1 < | z | < 2. (Kanpur 2001)
π
8. Expand sin z in a Taylor’s series about z = ⋅
4 (Kanpur 2002)
1
9. (i) Expand as a Taylor’s series about z = 1.
z
sin z
(ii) Determine Laurent’s expansion of the function f (z ) = 3
in the
z − π
 
π  4
annulus 0 < z − < 1.
 4
4z + 3
10. Represent the function f (z ) = in Laurent’s series
z (z − 3) (z + 2)
(i) within | z | = 1
(ii) in the angular region between | z | = 2 and | z | = 3 (Kumaun 2014)

(iii) exterior to | z | = 3.
∞ ∞
11. Prove that e u / z + v z = Σ an z n + Σ bn z − n,
n=0 n =1

1 2π
where an = ∫0 exp {(u + v) cos θ} cos {(v − u) sin θ − nθ} dθ
2π
1 2π
and bn = ∫0 exp {(u + v) cos θ} cos {(u − v) sin θ − nθ} dθ.
2π
(Rohilkhand 2011)
 1 
12. Show that sin  c  z +   can be expanded in a series of the type
  z 
∞ ∞
Σ an z n + Σ bn z − n,
n=0 n =1

where the coefficients of both z n and z − n are

1 2π
sin (2 c cos θ) cos nθ dθ.
2 π ∫0 (Garhwal 2000)
3 2 ∞
13. Show that if c > 0, then e z + c /2 z
= Σ an z n,
n= − ∞

e − c /2 2π 2
where an = n ∫0
θ)
e c (cos θ + cos
cos {c sin θ (1 − cos θ) − nθ} dθ.
2 πc
14. By using the integral representation of f n (0 ), prove that
2
 x n 1 n e xz
x dz ,
2πi ∫ C
  =
 n ! n ! z n +1
where C is any closed contour surrounding the origin. Hence show that
2
 x n 1 2π
Σ  = ∫0 e 2 x cos θ dθ.
n
  ! 2π
(Kanpur 2002; Kumaun 07, 08, 10; Gorakhpur 10)
 C-140

A nswers 3

5 17 2 65 3
1. (i) f (z ) = − 1 − z− z − z − ……
4 16 64
1 1 1 1 z z2 z3
(ii) f (z ) = …… + − + − + − + − ……
z4 z3 z2 z 4 42 43
5 17 65
(iii) f (z ) = 1 − + − + ……
z z2 z3
3 2 ∞ 1
2. f (z ) =  2 + 3  Σ (− 1)n + 1 (n + 1) n
z z  0 z
∞ n
1  17 z
+ 3 z + + 15 Σ (− 1) n + 1 (n + 1) (n + 2)  
16  z  0  2
1 1 ∞
3. (i) f (z ) = 2
+ + 1+ Σ zn
z z n =1

1 1 1 1
(ii) f (z ) = − z + z 3 − z 5 + ……; f (z ) = 3 − 5 + 7 − …….
z z z z
1 ∞ zn z −2 ∞
4. (i) f (z ) = Σ (− 1)n . n
− Σ (− 1)n z 2 n
10 n=0 2 5 n=0

1 ∞ zn z −2 ∞ 1
(ii) f (z ) = Σ (− 1)n n
− 2
Σ (− 1)n
10 n=0 2 5z n=0 z2 n
n
1 ∞ 2 1 1 2 ∞ (− 1)n
(iii) f (z ) = Σ (− 1)n   −  − 2  Σ
5z n=0 z 5 z z  n=0 z2 n
∞ n
5.
1 3  z − 1
f (z ) = − − Σ  
2 (z − 1) 4 n=0  2 
∞ ∞ (− 1)n (z − 1)n
6. (i) f (z ) = 1 − 2 Σ (− 1)n z n (ii) f (z ) = 1 − Σ
n=0 n=0 2n
2 ∞ 1
(iii) f (z ) = 1 − Σ (− 1)n n
z n=0 z
n n
1 ∞
z + 1 ∞ z 1 ∞ (− 1)n
7. f (z ) = − Σ   Σ (− 1)n   − Σ n
24 n=0  2 8 n=0  2 3z n=0 z
n
z − π
∞  
π nπ   4
8. f (z ) = Σ sin  + 
n=0 4 2 n!
∞
9. (i) f (z ) = Σ (− 1)n (z − 1)n
n=0
 C-141

∞ n ∞
π bn
(ii) f (z ) = Σ an  z −  + Σ n
n=0  4 n =1 z − π
 
 4
1 2π sin φ . cosh (sin θ) . cos (mθ) 
where an = ∫0  dθ
2π  + cos φ . sinh (sin θ) . sin (mθ)
π
φ= + cos θ, m = n + 3; and bn = a(− n).
4
1 ∞
10. (i) f (z ) = − − Σ  1 + (− 1)n 1  z n
2z n=0 3 n + 1 2 n + 2 
1 ∞ zn ∞ 2n −1
(ii) f (z ) = − − Σ n +1
+ Σ (− 1)n + 1
2z n=0 3 n=0 z n +1
1 ∞ 3n ∞ 2n −1
(iii) f (z ) = − + Σ n +1
+ Σ (− 1)n + 1
2z n=0 z n=0 z n +1

Objective Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from (a),
(b), (c) and (d).
1. If C is closed contour | z | = r and n ≠ − 1, then ∫ z n dz =
C

(a) 2πi (b) 2π

(c) i (d) 0.
1
2. The value of ∫ dz where C is circle z = e i θ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π is
C z
(a) πi (b) − πi
(c) 2πi (d) 0
3. ∫L dz , where L is any rectifiable arc joining the points z = a and z = b is equal to

(a) z (b) b − a
(c) a − b − z (d) z − a − b
4. ∫ L | dz |, where L is any rectifiable arc joining the points z = a and z = b is equal
to
(a) b − a (b) | b − a |
(c) arc length of L (d) 0
 C-142

dz
5. If C is circle | z − a | = r, then ∫C is
z−a
(a) 2πi (b) − 2πi
(c) πi (d) 0

6. If f (z ) is analytic in a simply connected domain D enclosed by a rectifiable

Jordan curve C and f (z ) is continuous on C, then for any point z0 in D, we have
f (z0 ) =
1 f (z ) 1 f (z )
(a) ∫C dz (b) ∫C dz
2π z − z0 2πi z − z0
f (z ) f (z )
(c) 2πi ∫C dz (d) 2π ∫C dz
z − z0 z − z0

7. Let f (z ) be continuous on a contour L of length l and let| f (z )| ≤ M on L, then

 f (z ) dz is
 ∫L 
(a) ≤ Ml (b) ≥ Ml
(c) > Ml (d) < Ml (Kumaun 2007, 13)

8. If a function f (z ) is analytic within a circle C with its centre z = a and radius R,

∞
then for every point z inside C, f (z ) = Σ an (z − a) n, where an =
n=0
(n) (n)
f (a) f (a)
(a) (b)
n n!
(n)
(c) f (a) (d) none of these

2! z 2 + 3z + 4
9. Value of ∫| z | = 3 dz is
2 πi (z − 1)3
(a) 2 (b) 0
(c) πi (d) none of these

10. If C is a circle | z | = 1 then ∫ z dz is

C

(a) πi (b) 2πi

(c) 0 (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2008. 15)
dz
11. If L is a circle | z | = r > 0 , then ∫ is equal to :
L z2
(a) πi (b) 0
(c) 2πi (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2009. 11, 12)
 C-143

12. If f (z ) is analytic within a circle C , given by | z − a | = R , and | f (z )| ≤ M on

C, then
M n! M n!
(a) | f n(a)| = n
(b) | f n(a)| ≥
R Rn
M n! M n!
(c) | f n(a)| ≤ (d) | f n(a)| ≠
Rn Rn
(Kumaun 2012, 15)

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……” so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1. Let a function f (z ) be analytic in a simply connected domain D and let C be any
closed continuous rectifiable curve in D. Then

∫C f (z ) dz = …… .
b
2. The path of the definite integral ∫a f (z ) dz is any ……… joining the points

z = a and z = b.
3. If C is straight line from (1, 0) to (1, 1), then the value of integral ∫ z dz is ……
C

4. Let D be a doubly connected region bounded by two simple closed curves C1 and
C2 such that C2 is contained in C1 and f (z ) is analytic in the region between these
curves and continuous on C1, then

∫ C1 f (z ) dz = ……… ,

where both C1 and C2 are traversed in the positive sense.

5. If L is any rectifiable arc joining the points z = a and z = b, then ∫ z dz is equal
L

to …… .
6. If f (z ) be continuous in a simply connected domain D and

∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0 where Γ is any rectifiable closed Jordan curve in D, then f (z ) is

…… in D.

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
1. A contour is said to be closed if it does not intersect itself and the starting point of
the first arc in it coincides with the end point of the last arc.
dz
2. If C is a closed curve with z = a inside C, then ∫ = 2πi.
C z − a

3. If f (z ) is an integral function satisfying the inequality| f (z )| M for all values of

z, where M is a positive constant, then f (z ) is constant.
 C-144

4. For the indefinite integral of a function f (z ) to exist in a simply connected

domain D, it is not necessary that f (z ) be analytic in D.
∞ 1 f (z ) dz
5. The series f (z ) = an (z − z0 )n , where an = represents
2 πi ∫ C (z − z0 )n + 1
Σ
n= − ∞

Laurent’s series.

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a)
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (c)

Fill in the Blank(s)

1
1. 0. 2. curve 3. +i 4. ∫ C2 f (z ) dz
2
1 2
5. (b − a2 ) 6. analytic
2

True or False
1. T 2. T 3. F 4. F 5. T

¨
 4
P oles, Z eros and S ingularities

1 The Zeros of an Analytic Function

efinition: The value of z for which the analytic function f (z ) becomes zero is said to be the
D zero of f (z ).
If f (z ) is analytic in a domain D and z0 is any point of D, then we can expand f (z ) as
Taylor’s series about z = z0 given by
∞
f (z ) = Σ an (z − z0 )n.
n=0

If a0 = a1 = a2 = …… = am − 1 = 0 and am ≠ 0, f (z ) is said to have a zero of order m at

z = z0 .
In this case Taylor’s expansion of f (z ) reduces to
∞ ∞
f (z ) = Σ an (z − z0 )n = Σ an + m (z − z0 )n + m
n= m n=0
∞
= (z − z0 )m Σ an + m (z − z0 )n.
n=0

A zero of order one (m = 1) is said to be a simple zero.

 C-146

2 The Zeros are Isolated

(Gorakhpur 2004)
Theorem: If f (z ) is an analytic function in a domain D, then unless f (z) is identically zero,
there exists a neighbourhood of each point in D throughout which the function has no zero except
possibly at the point itself.
Proof: Let z = z0 be a zero of order m of the function f (z ).
Then we can write
∞
f (z ) = (z − z0 )m Σ an + m (z − z0 )n. …(1)
n=0
∞
Let φ (z ) = Σ an + m (z − z0 )n.
n=0

Then φ (z0 ) = am ≠ 0 .
Now the series (1) is uniformly convergent and its each term is continuous at z0 so that
φ (z ) is also continuous at z0 . Therefore for ε > 0 there will exist δ > 0 such that
| φ (z ) − φ (z0 )| < ε , …(2)
where | z − z0 | < δ.
a
Let ε = m and δ1 be the corresponding value of δ. Then we have from (2)
 2
a
| φ (z ) − am | < m, …(3)
 2
where | z − z0 | < δ1.
Thus φ (z ) is non-zero at any point in the neighbourhood of| z − z0 | < δ1. For if we have
φ (z ) = 0, (3) will not hold. The argument also holds when m = 0 in which case φ = f and
f (z0 ) ≠ 0 .
Hence the zeros of an analytic function are isolated.

3 Singularities of an Analytic Function

(Gorakhpur 2006)
If a function is analytic at all points of a bounded domain except at a finite number of
points then these exceptional points are called singular points or singularities. Thus
the singularity of a function is a point at which the function ceases to be analytic.

4 Isolated and Non-isolated Singularities

(Purvanchal 2010)
If z0 is a singularity of f (z ) and if f (z ) is analytic at each point in some neighbourhood of z0 , then
z0 is called an isolated singularity of f (z ) otherwise it is called non-isolated singularity.
 C-147

z2 + 5
For example the function f (z ) = is analytic at every point except
z (z − 3)(z 2 + 1)
z = 0 , 3, ± i. These are the isolated singular points of f (z ).
1
Consider another function f (z ) = ⋅ It has infinite number of isolated
tan (π / z )
singularities which lie on the real axis from z = − 1 to z = 1. These isolated singularities
1
are given by z = ± , n = 1, 2, 3, … . The origin (z = 0 ) is also a singular point but it is not
n
isolated since in every neighbourhood of 0 there are infinite number of other
singularities.
The function Log z has a non-isolated singularity at origin since every neighbourhood
of zero contains points on the negative real axis where Log z is not analytic.

5 Isolated Essential Singularities

Let f (z ) be an analytic function in a domain D except at the point z = z0 . Then there
exists a deleted neighbourhood 0 < | z − z0 | < R in which f (z ) is analytic. In the
annulus 0 < | z − z0 | < R the Laurent expansion of f (z ) is
∞ ∞
f (z ) = Σ an (z − z0 )n + Σ bn (z − z0 )− n.
n=0 n =1
∞
The term Σ bn (z − z0 )− n of the Laurent’s series is called the principal part of f (z ) at
n =1

z = z0 .
Now there arise three possibilities :
(i) The principal part contains infinite number of terms.
(ii) All the bn are zero i.e., there is no term in the principal part.
(iii) There are finite number of terms in the principal part. The above three
possibilities give rise to three types of singularities :
Isolated essential singularity:If there are infinite number of terms in the principal part of
f (z ) at z = z0 , then z0 is called an isolated essential singularity of f (z ).
(Gorakhpur 2007)
1
For example sin has an isolated essential singularity at z = 0 since
z
1 1 1 1 1 1
sin = + ⋅ + ⋅ + ……has infinite number of terms in negative powers of z.
z z 3! z3 5 ! z5

6 Removable Singularity
If all the coefficients bn are zero i.e., if the principal part of f (z) at z = z0 consists of no terms, then
z0 is called removable singularity of f (z ).
 C-148

We can remove this singularity by defining the function f (z ) at z = z0 in such a way

that it becomes analytic at z0 .
sin (z − 1)
For example the function f (z ) = has removable singularity at z = 1because
z −1

sin (z − 1) 1  (z − 1)3 (z − 1)5 

= (z − 1) − + − ……
z −1 z − 1  3! 5! 
(z − 1)2 (z − 1)4
= 1− + − ……
2! 5!
contains no negative powers of (z − 1). This singularity can be made to disappear by
sin (z − 1)
defining = 1 at z = 1 so that the function becomes analytic at z = 1.
z −1

7 Pole
If the principal part of f (z) at z = z0 consists of a finite number of terms, say m, then z = z0 is said
to be a pole of order m of the function f (z ). (Gorakhpur 2006; Purvanchal 10)

For m = 1, the point z = z0 is said to be a simple pole. If z = z0 is a pole of order m, f (z )

has an expansion of the form
∞ b1 b2 bm
f (z ) = Σ an (z − z0 )n + + + …… + ⋅
n=0 z − z0 (z − z0 )2 (z − z0 )m

8 Residue at Pole
Let z0 be a pole of order m of the function f (z ). Then we have
∞ b1 b2 bm
f (z ) = Σ an (z − z0 )n + + + …… + , bm ≠ 0 .
n=0 z − z0 (z − z0 )2 (z − z0 )m

The coefficient b, which may also be zero is called the residue of f ( z) at z = z0 .

lim
If z = z0 is a simple pole, then we have b1 = (z − z0 ) f (z ).
z → z0

9 Meromorphic Function
A function which has poles as its only singularities in the finite part of the plane is said to be a
meromorphic function.

10 Entire Function
A function which has no singularity in the finite part of the plane is called an entire function.
(Purvanchal 2009)
 C-149

11 Polynomials
An expression of the form Pn(z ) = a0 + a1z + a2 z 2 + … + an z n, where a0 , a1, ……, an are
complex numbers and an ≠ 0 is said to be a polynomial of degree n.
In particular, every constant is a polynomial of degree 0. The degree of the constant
polynomial 0 remains undefined.
For example, z n is a polynomial of degree n, 5 + 4 z 2 + 2 z 3 is a polynomial of degree 3.

12 Behaviour of a Polynomial at Infinity

Let P (z ) be a polynomial of degree n defined by
P (z ) = a0 + a1z + a2 z 2 + …… + an z n, an ≠ 0 .

In order to discuss the behaviour of P (z ) at ∞, let us consider the function

1
P   = P1 (z ). Then
z
a1 a2 a
P1 (z ) = a0 + + 2 + …… + nn
z z z
1
= (a0 z n + a1z n − 1 + …… + an).
zn
P1(z ) → ∞ as z → 0, because an ≠ 0. Consequently P (z ) has a pole of order n at infinity.
Hence every polynomial of degree n has a pole of order n at infinity.

13 Characterization of Polynomials
Theorem 1: The order of a zero of a polynomial equals the order of its first non-vanishing
derivative.
Proof: Suppose z = a is a zero of order m of a polynomial P (z ).
Then P (z ) = (z − a)m Q (z ), Q (a) ≠ 0 .
Differentiating both sides successively m times, we get
P ′ (z ) = m (z − a)m − 1 Q (z ) + (z − a)m Q ′ (z )
P ′ ′ (z ) = m (m − 1) (z − a)m −2 Q (z ) + 2 m (z − a)m − 1 Q ′ (z )

+ (z − a)m Q ′ ′ (z )

…… …… …… ……
…… …… …… ……
m m
P (z ) = m ! Q (z ) + C1 m !(z − a) Q ′ (z ) + …… + (z − a)m Q m (z ).

Putting z = a in above relations, we get

m −1
P (a) = P ′ (a) = P ′ ′ (a) = …… = P (a) = 0
 C-150

and P m (a) = m ! Q (a) ≠ 0 .

Hence the order of a zero of a polynomial equals the order of its non-vanishing
derivative.
Theorem 2: (Luca’s Theorem): If all the zeros of a polynomial lie in a half plane, then all
the zeros of its derivative also lie in the same half plane.
Theorem 3: Show that a function which has no singularity in the finite part of the plane and
has a pole of order n at infinity is a polynomial of degree n.
Theorem 4: A polynomial of degree n has no singularities in the finite part of the plane but has
a pole of order n at infinity.
Theorem 5: A function f (z) is a polynomial of degree n if and only if f (z) has no singularities
in the finite part of the plane and has a pole of order n at infinity.
Theorem 6: If a function f (z) is analytic for all finite values of z and as
| z | → ∞,| f (z )| = a | z | k then f (z) is a polynomial of degree ≤ k.

14 Rational Function
A function R (z ) which is obtained by applying the rational operations of arithmetic (addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division) finitely many times is called a rational function.
Thus a rational function R (z ) is of the form
P (z )
R (z ) = ,
Q (z )

where P (z ) and Q (z ) are polynomials given by

P (z ) = a0 + a1z + …… + an z n, an ≠ 0
Q (z ) = b0 + b1z + …… + bm z m , bm ≠ 0

having no factors in common.

R (z ) will tend to ∞ at the zeros of Q (z ). The zeros of Q (z ) are called poles of R( z) and
the order of a pole of R (z ) is defined as the order of the corresponding zero of Q (z ).
P ′ (z ) Q (z ) − Q ′ (z ) P (z )
We have R ′ (z ) = , provided Q (z ) ≠ 0 .
Q 2(z )
Obviously numerator and denominator of R ′ (z ) are polynomials. Therefore the
derivative of a rational function is also a rational function having the same poles as R (z )
and order of each pole is increased by one.
Poles and Zeros of a Rational Function at Infinity:
Consider a rational function
P (z )
R (z ) =
Q (z )
where P (z ) = a0 + a1 z + …… + an z n, an ≠ 0
Q (z ) = b0 + b1 z + …… + bm z m , bm ≠ 0 .
 C-151

Let R (1 / z ) = R1 (z ). Then the order of zero or pole at ∞ of R(z ) is defined as the order of
the zero or pole of R1 (z ) at the origin. We have
a0 + a1z + …… + anz n
R (z ) =
b0 + b1z + …… + bm z m
 a z n + a1z n − 1 + …… + an 
so that R1 (z ) = z m − n  0 m ⋅
 b0 z + b1z
m −1
+ …… + bm 

Now there arise three cases :

Case 1: For m > n, R1(z ) has a zero of order m − n at the origin and consequently R (z )
has a zero of order m − n at infinity.
Case 2: For m < n, R1(z ) has a pole of order n – m at the origin and therefore R (z ) has a
pole of order n − m at infinity.
Case 3: For m = n we have R (∞) = R1(0 ) = (an / bm ) ≠ 0 or ∞, therefore R (z ) has
neither a zero nor a pole at infinity.
The rational function R (z ) has n zeros and m poles in the finite part of the plane.
Therefore the total number of zeros and poles of R (z ) are as given below :

Number of zeros Number of poles

In the finite At ∞ Total In the finite At ∞ Total

plane plane

m> n n m−n m m — m

m< n n — n m n−m n

m=n n — m=n m — n=m

Hence the number of zeros of a rational function is equal to the number of its poles.
The total number of zeros or poles (the number of zeros and poles is equal) of a rational function is
called its order.

15 Characterization of Rational Functions

Theorem 1: If a single valued function f (z) has no singularities other than poles in the finite
part of the plane or at infinity, f (z) is a rational function.
Proof: Suppose z1, z2 , ……, z k are poles of f (z ) of orders m1, m2 , ……, mk in the finite
part of the z-plane. Then we can write
P (z )
f (z ) =
(z − z1)m1 (z − z2 )m2 …… (z − z k )mk
where P (z ) is an analytic function for all finite values of z.
∴ P (z ) = (z − z1)m1 (z − z2 )m2 …… (z − z k )mk f (z ).
 C-152

Since P (z ) is analytic for all finite values of z therefore the Taylor’s expansion of P (z ) is
of the form
∞
P (z ) = Σ an z n. …(1)
n=0

 1 ∞ an
Then P  = Σ , where z = 1 / ζ.
 ζ n=0 ζn
The behavior of P (z ) at infinity is the same as the behavior of P (1 / ζ) at ζ = 0. Since the
singularity of P (z ) at z = ∞ is a pole therefore the singularity of P (1 / ζ) at ζ = 0 is also a
pole. As a result the expansion of P (1 / ζ) will consist of a finite number of terms.
Consequently the expansion (1) of P (z ) must contain a finite number of terms.
Therefore P (z ) is a polynomial.
Since the numerator and denominator of f (z ) are polynomials therefore f (z ) is a
rational function.
Theorem 2: A rational function has no singularities other than poles.
Proof: Let f (z ) be a rational function given by
P (z )
f (z ) = ,
Q (z )
where P (z ) and Q (z ) are polynomials having no factor in common.
The singularities of the function f (z ) in the finite part of the plane are given by
1
Q (z ) = 0 . We know that zeros of Q (z ) are the poles of ⋅ Hence the rational
Q (z )
P (z )
function f (z ) = has no singularities other than poles in the finite part of the
Q (z )
plane.
Now we shall discuss the behavior of f (z ) near z = ∞.
a0 + a1z + …… + anz n
Taking f (z ) = , an ≠ 0 , bm ≠ 0 ,
b0 + b1z + …… + bm z m
 a0 a1
+ + …… + an 
n− m  z n
z n −1 
=z  ⋅
b0 b1
 m
+ m − 1 + …… + bm 
 z z 
The coefficient of z n − m is regular for large values of | z | , therefore we can write
 c c 
f (z ) = z n − m  c0 + 1 + 22 + …… , c0 ≠ 0 .
 z z 
The power series in the bracket converges for| z | > r if r is sufficiently large. As a result
the behavior of f (z ) near z = ∞ depends on the value of n − m. For n − m ≤ 0, the
Laurent expansion of f (z ) near z = ∞ contains no positive powers of z therefore f (z ) is
analytic near z = ∞. For n − m > 0, f (z ) has a pole of order n − m at z = ∞. Hence all the
singularities of a rational function are poles.
 C-153

16 Theorems on Poles and Other Singularities

Theorem 1: A function which has no singularity in the finite part of the plane or at infinity is
constant.
Proof: Let f (z ) be the function which has no singularity in finite part of the plane or
at infinity.
Then f (z ) can be expanded as a Taylor’s series in any circle | z | = r, where r is large.
∞
∴ f (z ) = Σ an z n. …(1)
n=0

1
Since f (z ) has no singularity at infinity therefore f   is analytic at z = 0. Also
 z 
f (1 / z ) has no singularity in the finite part of the plane because f (z ) has no singularity
in the finite part of the plane. Consequently f (1 / z ) can be expanded as a Taylor’s
series.
∞
∴ f (1 / z ) = Σ bn z n. …(2)
n=0

Replacing z by 1 / z in (1), we get

∞
f (1 / z ) = Σ (an / z n). …(3)
n=0

From (2) and (3), we get

∞ ∞
Σ bn z n = Σ an z − n.
n=0 n=0

For the above relation to hold we must have

bn = an = 0 , n = 1, 2, 3,…… and b0 = a0 .
Hence we have f (z ) = a0 = b0 = constant.

Theorem 2: If z0 is a pole of f (z), there exists a neighbourhood of z0 which contains no other

pole of f (z) i.e., poles are isolated.
Proof: If z0 is a pole of order m of f (z ), there exists a deleted neighbourhood
0 < | z − z0 | < r of z0 in which f (z ) is analytic and has a Laurent’s expansion of the form
∞ ∞
f (z ) = Σ an (z − z0 )n + Σ bn (z − z0 )− n.
n=0 n =1

Thus f (z ) contains no other pole in the neighbourhood 0 < | z − z0 | < r i.e., poles are
isolated.

Theorem 3:If f (z) is a function such that for some positive integer m, a value φ (z0 ) exists with
φ (z0 ) ≠ 0 such that the function φ (z ) = (z − z0 )m f (z ) is analytic at z0 . Then f (z) has a pole of
order m at z0 .
Proof: The function φ (z ) is given to be analytic at z0 , so that it can be expanded in a
Taylor’s series about z0 .
 C-154

∴ φ (z ) = (z − z0 )m f (z )

φ m (z0 )
= φ (z0 ) + (z − z0 ) φ′ (z0 ) + …… + (z − z0 )m + ……
m!
φ (z0 ) φ′ (z0 ) φ m − 1 (z0 ) 1
or f (z ) = + + …… + ⋅
(z − z0 )m (z − z0 )m − 1 (m − 1) ! (z − z0 )
∞ φ n (z0 )
+ Σ (z − z0 )n − m .
n= m n!
Since we have φ (z0 ) ≠ 0 therefore f (z ) has a pole of order m at z0 .
1 φ m − 1 (z0 )
Also the residue at z0 = coeff. of = ⋅
z − z0 (m − 1)!

Remark: It follows from the above theorem that if a function f (z ) can be put in the
φ (z )
form f (z ) = where φ (z ) is analytic at z0 with φ (z0 ) ≠ 0 , then f (z ) has a pole of
(z − z0 )m
order m at z0 .

Theorem 4: If f (z) has a pole of order m at z0 , then the function φ defined by

φ (z ) = (z − z0 )m f (z ) has a removable singularity at z0 and φ (z0 ) ≠ 0.

φ m − 1 (z0 )
Also show that the residue at z0 is given by ⋅
(m − 1)!

Proof: Since z = z0 is a pole of order m of f (z ), therefore there exists a deleted

neighbourhood of z0 given by 0 < | z − z0| < r (r > 0 ) in which f (z ) has a Laurent’s
expansion
∞ b1 b2 bm
f (z ) = Σ an (z − z0 )n + + 2
+ …… + , …(1)
n=0 z − z0 (z − z0 ) (z − z0 )m

where bm ≠ 0.
Consider a function φ defined by
φ (z ) = (z − z0 )m f (z ). …(2)
Then φ (z ) is defined in the neighbourhood of z0 except at z0 .
From (1) and (2), we have
∞
φ (z ) = Σ an (z − z0 )m + n + b1 (z − z0 )m − 1 + b2 (z − z0 )m − 2 +…… + bm .
n=0

…(3)
Let us define φ (z0 ) = bm . Then φ (z0 ) ≠ 0 , so that the expansion of φ (z ) given by (3) is
valid throughout a neighbourhood of z0 including z0 . It can be easily shown that (3) is a
convergent power series. Thus φ (z ) is analytic at z0 . Therefore we have made φ (z )
analytic at z0 by setting φ (z0 ) = bm . Hence φ (z ) has a removable singularity at z0 .
Since φ (z ) has become analytic at z0 , therefore (3) represents a Taylor’s series for φ (z ).
Consequently coefficient of
 C-155
m −1
φ (z0 )
(z − z0 )m − 1 = ⋅
(m − 1)!
But from (3) coefficient of (z − z0 )m − 1 = b1, which is the residue at z0 .

φ m − 1 (z0 )
Hence the residue at z0 = ⋅
(m − 1)!

In particular when z0 is a simple pole, then the residue at z0 is

lim
φ (z0 ) = (z − z0 ) f (z ) .
z → z0

Theorem 5: Let a function f (z) be analytic in an open domain D and let φ (z ) be defined by
1
φ(z ) = where f (z ) ≠ 0 . Then f has a zero of order m at a point z0 in D if and only if φ has a
f (z )
pole of order m at z0 .
Proof: The if part: Suppose the function φ (z ) has a pole of order m at z0 . Then we
have to show that f (z ) has a zero of order m at z0 .
Since φ (z ) has a pole of order m at z0 therefore we can write
g (z )
φ (z ) =
(z − z0 )m

where g (z ) is analytic function in a neighbourhood of z0 and g (z0 ) ≠ 0 .

1 1 (z − z0 )m
It is given that φ (z ) = , so that f (z ) = = ⋅
f (z ) φ (z ) g (z )

Because g (z ) is an analytic function and g (z0 ) ≠ 0 , therefore f (z ) has a zero of order m

at z0 .
The only if part: Again suppose f (z ) has a zero of order m at z0 .Then we can write
f (z ) = (z − z0 )m h (z ) …(1)
where h (z ) is analytic and h (z0 ) ≠ 0 .
1 (z − z0 )m
∴ =
h (z ) f (z )

is an analytic function in a neighbourhood of z0 so it can be expanded in the Taylor’s

series about z0 .
1
Thus = A0 + A1 (z − z0 ) + A2 (z − z0 )2 + …… + Am (z − z0 )m + ……
h (z )
…(2)
1
Now φ (z ) = therefore from (1) and (2), we have
f (z )
1 A0 A1
φ (z ) = m
= m
+ + ……
h (z ) (z − z0 ) (z − z0 ) (z − z 0 ) m − 1
∞
+ Am + Σ A m + n (z − z0 )n.
n =1
Thus φ (z ) has a pole of order m at z0 .
 C-156

Theorem 6. (Riemann): Let z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z) and if| f (z )|is bounded
on some deleted neighbourhood of z0 , z0 is a removable singularity. (Kanpur 2008)

Proof: Suppose | f (z )| is bounded in a deleted neighbourhood N (z0 ) of z0 . Then

there exists a positive number M such that| f (z )| ≤ M where M is the greatest value of
f (z ) on a circle γ defined by | z − z0 | = ρ where ρ is so small that γ lies entirely within
N (z0 ). By Laurent’s theorem, we have
∞ 1 f (z )
f (z ) = Σ an (z − z0 )n, where an = ∫ dz .
n= − ∞ 2 πi γ (z − z0 )n + 1
 1 f (z )  1 | f (z )|| dz |
Now | an | = ∫ n 1
dz ≤ ∫
 2 πi
γ (z − z0 ) +
 2π
γ | z − z0 | n + 1
M 1 M M
| dz | = 2 πρ = n → 0 as n → ∞
2 π ρn + 1 ∫ γ
≤ ⋅
2 π ρn + 1 ρ
i. e., an becomes zero when n is negative so that the principal part of f (z ) contains no
terms of negative powers of z − z0 in the Laurent’s expansion for f (z ). Hence f (z ) has
removable singularity at z0 .

Behavior of a function in the neighbourhood of an essential singularity.

(Avadh 2008)

Theorem 7: (Weierstrass’s Theorem): Let z0 be an essential singularity of a function f

(z) and let c be an arbitrary constant. Then for every ε > 0 and every neighbourhood
0 < | z − z0 | < ρ of z0 , there exists a point z of this neighbourhood such that| f (z ) − c | < ε .
OR
In every arbitrary neighbourhood of an essential singularity there exists a point (and therefore an
infinite number of points) at which the function differs as little as we please from any pre-assigned
number.
Proof: We shall prove the theorem by contradiction. Let the theorem be false. Then
for a given ε > 0, there exists a constant c and a positive number ρ such that
| f (z ) − c | > ε, where z satisfies 0 < | z − z0 | < ρ.
1
Thus < ε for 0 < | z − z0 | < ρ.
| f (z ) − c |
1
By Riemann’s Theorem (Theorem 6) we see that the function has a
f (z ) − c
removable singularity at z0 so that the principal part of Laurent’s expansion for
1
contains no negative powers of (z − z0 ). Then we can write
f (z ) − c
1 ∞
= Σ an (z − z0 )n.
f (z ) − c n=0
1 1 1
If a0 ≠ 0 , defining = a0 or f (z0 ) = c + , then becomes analytic
f (z0 ) − c a0 f (z ) − c
and non-zero at z0 so that f (z ) itself is analytic at z0 . This contradicts the initial
assumption that z0 is not an essential singularity of f (z ). Again if we take
a0 = a1 = a2 = …… = am − 1 = 0, we can write
 C-157

1 ∞
= Σ an (z − z0 )n
f (z ) − c n= m

= am (z − z0 )m + am + 1 (z − z0 )m + 1 + ……
∞
= (z − z0 )m Σ am + n (z − z0 )n
n=0

1
which shows that z0 is a zero of order m of so that z0 is a pole of order m of
f (z ) − c
f (z ) − c . Since c is merely a constant therefore f (z ) has a pole of order m at z0 which
again contradicts the hypothesis. Hence the theorem is true.

17 Limit Points of Zeros

Theorem 1: Let f (z ) be analytic in a domain D and let E be a set of zeros of f (z ) having a limit
point α in D. Then f (z ) vanishes for all z ∈ D.
Proof: Since f (z ) is analytic in D therefore it is continuous in D. E is the set of zeros
of f (z ) and α is the limit point of E in D therefore f (z ) vanishes at infinite number of
points in every small neighbourhood of α. Since f (z ) is continuous at α therefore we
must have f (α) = 0 . But α cannot be a zero of f (z ) since zeros are isolated. Hence f (z )
vanishes identically in D i. e., f (z ) vanishes for all z ∈ D.
Remark: If f (z ) is not analytic in D and f (z ) is not continuous at z = α then f (z )
must have a singularity at z = α. In this case α is an isolated singularity but it is not a pole
since| f (z )|does not tend to ∞ as z → α in any manner. Hence z = α which is the limit
point of zeros is an isolated essential singularity of f (z ).
Theorem 2: (Identity Theorem): If f (z) and g (z) are analytic in a domain D and if f (z)
= g (z) on a subset E of D which has a limit point α in D, then f (z) = g (z) in the whole of D.
Proof: Let F (z ) = f (z ) − g (z ). Then F (z ) is analytic in D. Since f (z ) = g (z ) on E
therefore F (z ) vanishes at an infinite number of points in every arbitrary small
neighbourhood of α. The function F (z ) is continuous at α ∈ D therefore we have
F (α) = 0 . But zeros are isolated so that α cannot be a zero of F (z ) unless F (z ) vanishes
identically in D i. e., we must have f (z ) = g (z ) in the whole of D.

18 The Limit Point of Poles

Theorem 1: The limit point of a sequence of poles of a function f (z) is a non-isolated essential
singularity.
Proof: Let z0 be the limit point of a sequence of poles of f (z ). Then every
neighbourhood of z0 contains infinite number of points at which f (z ) becomes
unbounded so that f (z ) cannot be analytic at z0 . Thus z0 is a singularity of f (z ) which
is not isolated. Hence z0 is a non-isolated essential singularity of f (z ).
 C-158

1
Illustration: The zeros of the function sin are given by
z
1
z=± , n = 1, 2, 3,…
nπ
1
The limit point of these zeros is the point z = 0.Thus 0 is an isolated singularity of sin ⋅
z
1
Again the function tan has poles at points given by
z
2
z= , n = ± 1, ± 3, ± 5,…
nπ
The limit point of this sequence of poles is z = 0 which is therefore a non-isolated
essential singularity.

Theorem 2: (Picard's Theorem): An integral function which is constant takes every finite
value an infinite number of times with at most one possible exception.
Proof: Recall that a function f (z ) is called an integral function if f (z ) has no
singularities except at infinity. We shall not try to prove this theorem but only give an
example.
The equation e z = A has an infinite number of roots if A ≠ 0 as the reader can easily
verify. But if A = 0,this equation has no finite root. Thus 0 is an exceptional value of e z .

On the other hand, there exist integral functions with no exceptional values. The
function sin z provides a simple example of such a case.

Example 1: Show that the function e1 / z actually takes every value except zero an infinite number
of times in the neighbourhood of z = 0. (Gorakhpur 2004)

Solution: Let f (z ) = e1 / z .

To prove the required result we have to show that f (z ) has an isolated essential
singularity at z = 0.
1 1 1 ∞ 1 1
We have f (z ) = e1 / z = 1 + + 2
+ 3
+ …… = 1 + Σ ⋅ n⋅
z 2! z 3! z n =1 n ! z

The principal part of f (z ) contains infinite number of terms therefore z = 0 is an

isolated essential singularity of f (z ).
Example 2: Show that the function (z 2 + 4) / e z has an isolated essential singularity at z = ∞.

z2 + 4
Solution: We have f (z ) = ⋅
ez
1  1  1
Putting z = , we get f   = 4 + 2  e − 1 / y
y  y  y 
 C-159

 1  1 1 1 1 1 
= 4 + 2  1 − + . 2 − 3
+ …
 y   y 2! y 3! y 
 4 1 2 1 1 1 1 
= 4 + − + (1 + 2) 2 +  − 1 −  3 +  +  4 + ....
 y y  3  y  2 6  y 
 4 3 5 2 
= 4 + − + 2 − 3
+ 4
− ...... ⋅
 y y 3y 3y 
We have infinite number of terms in the negative powers of y in the principal part of
 1  1
the expansion of f   ,therefore f   has an isolated essential singularity at y = 0.
 y  y
Hence f (z ) has an isolated essential singularity at z = ∞.
Example 3: What kind of singularity have the following functions:
cot πz 1
(i) 2
at z = 0 , z = ∞ (ii) sin at z = 1
(z − a) 1− z
(Kumaun 2009; Purvanchal 12) (Gorakhpur 2010, 13; Kumaun 14)
1
(iii) sin z − cos z at z = ∞ (iv) cosec at z = 0
z
(Gorakhpur 2008)
1
(v) tan at z = 0 .
z
cot πz cos πz
Solution: (i) Let f (z ) = 2
= ⋅
(z − a) sin πz (z − a)2

Poles of f (z ) are obtained by equating to zero the denominator of f (z ).Then we have

(z − a)2 sin πz = 0

∴ sin πz = 0 or (z − a)2 = 0 .

Now sin πz = 0 gives πz = nπ or z = n, where n is any integer,

and (z − a)2 = 0 gives z = a.

Hence z = a is a double pole and z = 0 , ± 1, ± 2, …… are simple poles.

z = ∞ is a limit point of these simple poles therefore z = ∞ is non-isolated essential
singularity.
1
(ii) Let f (z ) = sin ⋅
1− z

Zeros of f (z ) are given by

1 1 1 ,
sin =0 or = nπ or z = 1 − where n is any integer.
1− z 1− z nπ
z = 1 is a limit point of these zeros therefore z = 1 is an isolated essential singularity.
(iii) Let f (z ) = sin z − cos z .
Zeros of f (z ) are given by
sin z − cos z = 0 or sin z = cos z
 C-160
π
or tan z = 1 or , n is any integer.
z = nπ +
4
z = ∞ is a limit point of these zeros which is therefore an isolated essential singularity.
1 1
(iv) Let f (z ) = cosec = ⋅
z sin (1 / z )
Poles of f (z ) are given by
1 1
sin = 0 or = nπ or z = (1 / nπ), where n is any integer.
z z
Since z = 0 is a limit point of these poles therefore z = 0 is a non- isolated essential
singularity.
sin (1 / z )
(v) Let f (z ) = tan (1 / z ) = .
cos (1 / z )
Poles of f (z ) are given by
1 π
cos (1 / z ) = 0 or = 2 nπ ±
z 2
1
or z= , where n is any integer.
1
(2 n ± ) π
2
Since z = 0 is a limit point of these poles therefore z = 0 is a non-isolated essential
singularity.
e c /(z − a)
Example 4:Show that z = a is an isolated essential singularity of the function ⋅
ez / a − 1
Solution: We have
c /(z − a) c /(z − a)
e e
f (z ) = z /a
=
e −1 e 1 + (z − a) / a − 1
c c2 c3
1+ + 2
+ + ……
z − a 2 !(z − a) 3 !(z − a)3
=
 z − a (z − a)2 
e 1 + + 2
+ …… −1
 a 2! a 
 2 
c c
= − 1 + + 2
+ ……
 z − a 2 !(z − a) 
−1
  z − a (z − a)2 
× 1 − e 1 + + + ……
  a 2 ! a2  
 c c2   z − a (z − a)2 
= − 1 + + + …… 1 + e 1 + + + ……
 z − a 2 !(z − a)2    a 2! a2

2 
2 z − a (z − a)2 
+ e 1 + + + …… + ……
a 2 
 2 ! a  
Obviously in the expansion of f (z ) there are infinite number of terms containing
negative powers of (z − a). Hence z = a is an isolated essential singularity of f (z ).
 C-161

Example 5: Discuss the nature of singularities of the following functions :

1 z sin z
(i) tan z (ii) 2
(iii) 4
(iv) ⋅
z (1 − z ) 1+ z (z − π)2
sin z
Solution: (i) Let f (z ) = tan z = ⋅
cos z

To obtain the singularities of f (z ) equating to zero the denominator of f (z ), we get

π
cos z = 0 or z = 2 nπ ± , n ∈ I
2
π π
or z = (4 n ± 1) , n ∈ I or z = (2 n + 1) , n ∈ I .
2 2
π
Hence z = (2 n + 1) , (n ∈ I ) give the simple poles of f (z ).
2
1
(ii) Let f (z ) = ⋅
z (1 − z 2 )

Singularities of f (z ) are given by

z (1 − z 2 ) = 0 or z = 0 , − 1, 1, which are the simple poles.
z
(iii) Let f (z ) = ⋅
1 + z4

Singularities of f (z ) are given by

1 + z4 = 0 or z = (− 1)1 /4

or z = (cos π + i sin π)1 /4 = {cos (2 nπ + π) + i sin (2 nπ + π)}1 /4

π
π π i (2 n + 1)
= cos (2 n + 1) + i sin (2 n + 1) = e 4 ⋅
4 4
Putting n = 0 , 1, 2, 3, we get
z = e iπ /4 , e 3 πi /4 , e 5 πi /4 , e 7πi /4 which are the simple poles of f (z ).
sin z
(iv) Let f (z ) = ⋅
(z − π)2

Singularities of f (z ) are given by (z − π)2 = 0 .

Thus z = π is a pole of order two of f (z ).

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. Show that the function e z has an isolated essential singularity at z = ∞.

(Gorakhpur 2016)
2. What kind of singularity have the following functions :
(i) cot z at z = ∞ (Kumaun 2007)
1
(ii) sec at z = 0.
z (Kumaun 2007, 15)
 C-162

3. Specify the nature of singularity at z = − 2 of

1
f (z ) = (z − 3) sin ⋅
z +2
2
 z +1
4. (i) Find zeros and poles of  2  .
 z + 1 (Kumaun 2008, 11)
z
e
(ii) What kind of singularity has the function ?
z2 + 4
5. Find the kind of the singularities of the following functions :
1− e z 1 π
(i) at z = ∞ (ii) at z =
1+ e z sin z − cos z 4 (Kumaun 2013)
(Gorakhpur 2010, 13)
1
(iii) sin at z = 0 (iv) z cosec z at z = ∞.
z (Purvanchal 2007)
6. Find the zeros and discuss the nature of singularities of
z −2 1
f (z ) = 2 sin ⋅
z z −1 (Kanpur 2007; Kumaun 12)
2
7. Show that the function e −1 / z has no singularities.
(Kumaun 2010; Gorakhpur 14)

A nswers 1

2. (i) non-isolated essential singularity

(ii) non-isolated essential singularity
3. isolated essential singularity
4. z = − 1, − 1 ; z = − i, − i, i, i ; z = 2 i, − 2 i are simple poles.
5. (i) non-isolated essential singularity ; (ii) simple pole.
(iii) isolated essential singularity
(iv) non-isolated essential singularity
6. zeros of order one; isolated essential singularity

19 Maximum Modulus Principle

Theorem: Let f (z ) be analytic within and on a simple closed contour C. Then| f (z )|reaches
its maximum value on C, unless f (z ) is a constant. In other words, if M is the maximum value of
| f (z )| on and within C, then, unless f is a constant, | f (z )| < M for every point within C.
(Rohilkhand 2009, 10)
(This is known as Maximum modulus principle.)
 C-163

Since f (z ) is an analytic function, it is continuous within

and on C so| f (z )| must reach its maximum value M at
some point on or within C. Let us assume that f (z ) is not
constant. Then we wish to prove that | f (z )| takes the
value M at some point on C. If possible, suppose this value
is not attained on the boundary of C but at a point a
within C, so | f (a)| = M . Let Γ be a circle inside C with
centre at a.
Since | f (z )| = M is the maximum value of | f (z )| and
f (z ) is not a constant, there must exist a point, b, inside Γ such that | f (b)| < M .
Let | f (b)| = M − ε, where ε > 0. Since | f (z )| is continuous at b, therefore for ε > 0,
there exists a δ > 0 such that
1
|| f (z )| − | f (b)|| < ε, …(1)
2
where | z − b | < δ.
We have | f (z )| − | f (b)| ≤ | f (z )| − | f (b)| therefore from (1), we have
1
| f (z )| − | f (b)| < ε
2
1 1 1
or | f (z )| < | f (b)| + ε = M − ε + ε = M − ε
2 2 2
1
∴ | f (z )| < M − ε for all points z satisfying | z − b | < δ.
2
Draw a circle Γ ′ with centre at a, which passes through b.
Since the arc QR of the circle Γ ′ lies inside γ therefore on this arc, we have
1
| f (z )| < M − ε.
2
On the remaining arc of Γ′, we have | f (z )| ≤ M .
Radius of the circle Γ′ = | b − a | = r, say.
By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
1 f (z ) 1 2π f (a + re i θ )
f (a) = dz = rie iθ dθ,
2πi ∫Γ ′ z − a 2 πi ∫0 re iθ

putting z − a = re i θ
1 2π
= ∫0 f (a + re i θ ) dθ.
2π
Measuring θ from PQ in the anti-clockwise direction and taking ∠ QPR = α,we have
1 α 1 2π
f (a) = ∫ f (a + re i θ ) dθ + f (a + re i θ ) dθ.
2π 0 2π ∫ α
1 α 1 2π
Now | f (a)| ≤ | f (a + re i θ )| dθ + | f (a + re iθ )| dθ
2 π ∫0 2π ∫ α
1 α  1  1 2π
∫  M − ε dθ + M dθ
2π ∫ α
<
2π 0  2 
 C-164

=
α M − 1 ε +
M
(2 π − α) = M −
αε
⋅

2π  2  2π 4π
αε
∴ M = | f (a)| < M − , which is absurd.
2π
Hence| f (z )|cannot attain its maximum value at any point within C, so it must attain
its maximum value on C.

20 Minimum Modulus Principle

Theorem 1: Let f (z ) be analytic inside and on a closed contour C and let f (z ) ≠ 0 inside C.
Then | f (z )| must reach its minimum value on C.
OR
If m is the minimum of | f (z )| inside and on C, then unless f is constant ,| f (z )| > m for every
point z inside C.
Proof: Since f (z ) is analytic inside and on C and f (z ) ≠ 0 inside C therefore1 / f (z )
is analytic inside C. By the previous theorem 1/| f (z )|cannot reach its maximum value
inside C so that | f (z )| cannot attain its minimum value inside C. Since f (z ) is
continuous on and within C therefore| f (z )| must attain its minimum value at some
point on C.

21 The Excess of the Number of Zeros over the Number of

Poles of a Meromorphic Function. The Argument
Principle
Theorem 1: If f (z ) is meromorphic inside a closed contour C and has no zero on C, then
1 f ′ (z )
dz = N − P,
2πi ∫ C f (z )
where N is the number of zeros and P the number of poles inside C, (a pole or zero of order m must be
counted m times). (Avadh 2007; Kanpur 08; Gorakhpur 09, 11, 12)

Proof: Let z = ai (i = 1, 2, ……, m) be the

zeros of f (z ) which lie inside C and ri be
the order of ai . Again suppose
bi (i = 1, 2, ……, n) be the poles of f (z )
inside C and si be the order of bi . Then we
have to show that
1 f ′ (z ) m n
∫ dz = Σ ri − Σ si .
2 πi C f (z ) i =1 i =1

Enclosing each zero and pole by

non-overlapping circles A1, A2 , ……, A m
 C-165

and B1, B2 , ……, Bn respectively each of radii ρ. Since poles and zeros are isolated, we
can always find such ρ. Therefore
1 f ′ (z ) m 1 f ′ (z ) n 1 f ′ (z )
dz = Σ dz + Σ dz .
2 πi ∫ C f (z ) i =1 ∫ Ai 2 πi f (z ) i = 1 2 πi ∫ B i f (z )

…(1)
Since ai is a zero of order ri of f (z ), we may write
f (z ) = (z − ai)ri φ i (z ), where φ i is analytic and non-zero at ai .

Taking log of both sides, we get

log f (z ) = r i log (z − a i) + log φ i (z ).
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. z, we get
f ′ (z ) ri φ i ′ (z )
= + ⋅
f (z ) z − ai φ i (z )

φ i ′ (z )
We have ∫ Ai dz = 0 ,
φ i (z )

φ i ′ (z )
since is analytic at z = ai ,
φ i (z )

ri 2π ρ i e i θ
and ∫Ai dz = r i ∫ dθ = 2 πir i .
z − ai 0 ρ e iθ

m 1 f ′ (z ) m 1 m
∴ Σ ∫ Ai dz = Σ 2 πiri = Σ ri . …(2)
i = 1 2 πi f (z ) i = 1 2 πi i =1

Since bi is a pole of order si of f (z ), we may write

ψ i (z )
f (z ) = , where ψ i is analytic and non-zero at bi .
(z − bi)si

Taking log of both sides and differentiating w.r.t. z, we get

f ′ (z ) ψ i ′ (z ) si
= − ⋅
f (z ) ψ i (z ) z − bi

f ′ (z )
Proceeding as above, we have ∫ Bi dz = − 2πisi .
f (z )
n 1 f ′ (z ) n 1 n
dz = Σ (− 2 π i si) = − Σ si . …(3)
i = 1 2 πi ∫ B i
∴ Σ
f (z ) i = 1 2 πi i =1

Hence from (1), (2), (3), we have

1 f ′ (z ) m n
dz = Σ ri − Σ si = N − P. …(4)
2 πi ∫ C f (z ) i =1 i =1
 C-166

1
Corollary 1: N − P= ∆C arg f (z ) where ∆C denotes the variation in arg f (z) as z
2π
moves once round C.
Proof: By the above theorem, we have
1 f ′ (z )
N − P= dz .
2πi ∫ C f (z )

Let f (z ) = R e iφ .

Then R = | f (z )|, φ = arg f (z )

and f (z ) dz = d f (z ) = d ( R e iφ ) = e iφ (dR + iRdφ).
1  dR + i d φ
We have N − P= ∫  
2πi C  R 
1 dR 1
= ∫ + ∫C dφ.
2 πi C R 2π
dR
Now ∫C = [log R]C = 0 ,
R
since log R retains its original value if z moves once round C.
1 1 1
Also dφ = [φ]C = ∆C arg f (z ).
2π ∫ C 2π 2π
Hence we have
1
N − P= ∆C arg f (z ). …(5)
2π
Thus the excess of the number of zeros over the number of poles of a meromorphic
function equals (1 / 2π) times the increase in arg f (z ) as z goes once round C.
This is known as the argument principle.

Corollary 2: When f (z ) is analytic, we have P = 0 and in this case

1 f ′ (z ) 1
N = dz = ∆C arg f (z )
2 πi ∫ C f (z ) 2π (Kanpur 2007)

i.e., the number of zeros of an analytic function f (z ) within C is (1 / 2π) times the
increase in arg f (z ) as z goes once round C.
This is known as the argument principle for an analytic function.

Remark: (i) We observe that the variation in arg f (z ) as z moves round C is always
equal to an integer. If z0 is any point on C, we have
∆C arg f (z ) = [arg f (z0 )]* − arg f (z0 )

where [arg f (z0 )]* is the value of the argument after the contour C has been traversed.
Since any two values of an argument differ by an integral multiple of 2π therefore we
have
1 1
∆C arg f (z ) = ⋅ 2 πm = m, where m is an integer.
2π 2π
 C-167

(ii) We can use the formulae (4) and (5) to count the number of times, N α , a function
f (z ) takes the values α. f (z ) − α = 0 iff f (z ) = α and then (4) gives
1 f ′ (z )
Nα − P = dz .
2 πi ∫ C f (z ) − α

Similarly from (5), we get

1
Nα − P = ∆C arg [ f (z ) − α].
2π

22 Rouche’s Theorem
(Gorakhpur 2007, 10, 14; Avadh 07; Purvanchal 09;
Kanpur 07; Rohilkhand 08, 09)

Theorem 1: Let f (z ) and g (z ) be analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and let
| g (z )| < | f (z )|on C. Then f (z ) and f (z ) + g (z ) have the same number of zeros inside C.

Proof: We observe that both f (z ) and f (z ) + g (z ) are non-zero on the boundary C.

If at some point a on C, we have f (a) = 0 , then | g (a)| < | f (a)| ⇒ g (a) = 0, which
contradicts the hypothesis that | g (z )| < | f (z )| on C. Similarly if we take
f (a) + g (a) = 0, then | g (a)| = | f (a)| which is again a contradiction.
Hence neither f (z ) nor f (z ) + g (z ) has a zero on C.
Let F (z ) = g (z ) / f (z ).
Then g (z ) = f (z ) F (z ) so that
g ′ (z ) = f ′ (z ) F (z ) + f (z ) F ′ (z ).
Suppose M and N are the number of zeros of f (z ) and f (z ) + g (z ) inside and on C.
Since f (z ) and f (z ) + g (z ) are analytic within and on C, we have
1 f′ 1 f ′ + g′
M= dz and N = dz ,
2πi ∫ C f 2πi ∫ C f + g
 1 f ′ (z ) 
Using the formula N − P = dz  ⋅
 2π i ∫C f (z ) 

1 f′+ f′ F + f F′ 1 f′
Now N −M= dz − dz
2 πi ∫ C f + f F 2 πi ∫ C f
1 f ′ (1 + F ) + f F ′ 1 f′
dz − dz
2 πi ∫ C 2 πi ∫ C
=
f (1 + F ) f
1 f′ 1 F′ 1 f′
dz + dz − dz
2 πi ∫ C ∫ 2 πi ∫ C
=
f 2 πi C 1+ F f
1
F ′ (1 + F )−1 dz
2 πi ∫ C
=
 C-168

1
F ′ (1 − F + F 2 − F 3 + ……) dz [∵| F (z )| < 1]
2 πi ∫ C
=

1 1 1
∫ F ′ dz − ∫ F ′ F dz + F ′ F 2 dz − ……
2 πi ∫ C
=
2 πi C 2 πi C

= 0,
since f (z ) and g (z ) are analytic and g (z ) ≠ 0 at any point on C, so F and F ′ are also
analytic within and on C, consequently each integral is separately zero.
Hence N = M i.e., f (z ) and f (z ) + g (z ) have the same number of zeros inside C.
Alternative Proof: First show that neither f (z ) nor f (z ) + g (z ) has zero on C.
(Proceed as above)
Suppose M and N are the number of zeros of f (z ) and f (z ) + g (z ) inside and on C.
Since f (z ) and f (z ) + g (z ) are analytic within and on C, by the argument principle for
analytic functions, we have
1
M= ∆C arg f
2π
1
and N = ∆C arg ( f + g).
2π
1
Now N −M= {∆C arg ( f + g) − ∆C arg f }
2π
1   g  
=  ∆C arg f 1 +  − ∆C arg f 
2π   f  

1    g  
= ∆C arg f + arg 1 +  − arg f  
2 π    f   
1  g 
= ∆C arg 1 + 
2π  f 
1
= ∆C arg w , where w = 1 + ( g / f ).
2π
 g 
Since| g | < | f |, we have| w − 1| = < 1so that the point w always lies inside the circle
 f 
with centre w = 1 and radius unity. Thus the point w always lies to the right of the
 g  π π
imaginary axis consequently arg w = arg 1 +  always lies between − and ⋅ It
 f  2 2
 g 
follows that arg 1 +  returns to its original value when z describes C. Since arg
 f 
 g   g 
1 +  cannot increase or decrease by a multiple of 2π,we have ∆C arg 1 +  = 0.
 f   f 

Hence N − M = 0, which gives N = M .

 C-169

23 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Theorem 1: (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra):
(Gorakhpur 2004; Purvanchal 08; Rohilkhand 08, 09)
n
Let P (z ) = a0 + a1z + …… + anz , where n ≥ 1and an ≠ 0 so that P (z ) is a polynomial of degree
one or greater. Then the equation P (z ) = 0 has at least one root.
(We shall prove it with the help of Liouville’s theorem since its proof by purely
algebraic method is extremely difficult).
Proof: We shall prove it by contradiction. Suppose P (z ) is not zero for any value of z.
Then
1
f (z ) = , is analytic everywhere.
P (z )
1 1
We have f (z ) = =
P (z ) a0 + a1 z + …… + an z n

1
= → 0 as z → ∞.
a
 0 a1 
z n  n + n − 1 + …… + an
z z 

∴ For every ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that | f (z )| < ε for | z | > δ.
Since f (z ) is continuous in the bounded closed domain | z | ≤ δ therefore f (z ) is
bounded in the closed domain | z | ≤ δ so there exists a positive number K such that
| f (z )| < K for | z | ≤ δ.

 1 
If M = max (ε, K), then we have | f (z )| = < M , for every z.
P (z )
Hence by Liouville’s theorem f (z ) is constant. This gives a contradiction since P (z ) is
not constant for n = 1, 2, 3, …… and an ≠ 0. Thus P (z ) must be zero for at least one value
of z i.e., P (z ) = 0 must have at least one root.
Corollary: Every polynomial equation
P (z ) = a0 + a1z + a2 z 2 + …… + an z n = 0 ,
where n ≥ 1, an ≠ 0 has exactly n roots. (Gorakhpur 2006, 11, 13)

Proof: By the fundamental theorem of Algebra P (z ) = 0 has at least one root, say α1.
Then we have P (α1) = 0 .
Now P (z ) = P (z ) − P (α1)
= (a0 + a1z + a2 z 2 + …… + an z n) − (a0 + a1α1 + a2α12 + …… + anα1n)

= a1 (z − α1) + a2 (z 2 − α12 ) + …… + an (z n − α1n)

= (z − α1) P1 (z ), where P1 (z ) is a polynomial of degree n − 1.

 C-170

Again by fundamental theorem of Algebra P1 (z ) = 0 must have at least one root,

say α2 , (α2 may be equal to α1).
Proceeding as above, we have P (z ) = (z − α1) (z − α2 ) P2 (z ),
where P2 (z ) is a polynomial of degree n − 2.
Continuing in this way we see that P (z ) = 0 has exactly n roots.
Alternative Proof: We shall use Rouche’s theorem to show that P (z ) = 0 has exactly
n roots.
Let f (z ) = an z n and g (z ) = a 0 + a1z + …… + a n − 1 z n − 1.

g (z ) 1  a0 a1 an − 1 
Then =  n + n − 1 + …… +  → 0 as z → ∞.
f (z ) an  z z z 

∴ there exists a δ > 0 such that

 g (z ) 
 < 1 for | z | > δ. …(1)
 f (z )
We now take the closed curve C as the circle| z | = δ + 1. Then from (1),| g (z )| < | f (z )|
on C. Also f (z ) and g (z ) are analytic on and inside C. Therefore by Rouche’s theorem
f (z ) and f (z ) + g (z ) have the same number of zeros inside C. Since f (z ) = an z n has n
zeros at the origin therefore f (z ) + g (z ) must also have n zeros. Hence the polynomial
equation P (z ) = 0 has exactly n roots.

Example 6: Prove that all the roots of z 7 − 5 z 3 + 12 = 0 lie between the circles | z | = 1 and
| z | = 2. (Kanpur 2008; Gorakhpur 14)

Solution: Let C1 represent the circle | z | = 1 and C2 represent the circle | z | = 2.

Suppose f (z ) = 12 and g (z ) = z 7 − 5 z 3 .

We observe that both f (z ) and g (z ) are analytic within and on C1.

7 3
 g (z )   z 7 − 5 z 3  | z | + | − 5 z | | z |7 + 5 | z |3 1+ 5 1
Now   = ≤ = = = ,
 f (z )   12  12 12 12 2

since | z | = 1 on C.

 g (z ) 
∴  < 1 or | g (z )| < | f (z )| on C1.
 f (z )

Hence by Rouche’s theorem f (z ) + g (z ) = z 7 − 5 z 3 + 12 has the same number of zeros

inside C1 as f (z ) = 12. Since f (z ) = 12 has no zeros inside C1 therefore

7 3
f (z ) + g (z ) = z − 5 z + 12 has no zeros inside C1.
 C-171

Now consider the circle C2 . Take F (z ) = z 7, φ (z ) = 12 − 5 z 3 . We observe that both

F (z ) and φ (z ) are analytic within and on C2 . We have

 φ (z )  |12 − 5 z 3 | |12 | + 5 | z |3 12 + 5 . 23 52
 = 7
≤ 7
= 7
= < 1,
 F (z )  | z | | z | 2 128

since | z | = 2 on C2 .

Thus on C2 ,| φ (z )| < | F (z )|. Hence by Rouche’s theorem F (z ) + φ (z ) = z 7 − 5 z 3 + 12

has the same number of zeros as F (z ) = z 7 inside C2 . Since F (z ) = z 7 has all the seven
zeros inside the circle| z | = 2 as they are all located at the origin therefore all the seven
zeros of z 7 − 5 z 3 + 12 lie inside the circle C2 .

Hence all the roots of the equation z 7 − 5 z 3 − 12 = 0 lie between the circles| z | = 1and
| z | = 2.

Example 7: Use Rouche’s theorem to show that the equation z 5 + 15 z + 1 = 0 has one root
3 3
in the disc | z | < and four roots in the annulus < | z | < 2.
2 2 (Kanpur 2007)

Solution: Let f (z ) = z 5 and g (z ) = 15 z + 1.

Now on the circle | z | = 2, we have

| f (z )| = | z |5 = 25 = 32

and | g (z )| = |15 z + 1| ≤ 15 | z | + 1 = 31.

∴ | g (z )| < | f (z )| on the circle | z | = 2.
Hence by Rouche’s theorem the function
f (z ) + g (z ) = z 5 + 15 z + 1
has as many zeros in| z | < 2 as the function f (z ) = z 5 .Since the function f (z ) has a zero
of order 5 at z = 0 therefore all the five roots of z 5 + 15 z + 1 = 0 must lie inside the disc
| z | < 2.
3
Again for | z | = , we have
2
243 45
| z 5 + 1| ≤ | z |5 + 1 =
+ 1< = |15 z |.
32 2
3
The function z 5 + 15 z + 1has as many zeros in| z | < as the function15z. Since15z has
2
exactly one zero in this region, so does z 5 + 15 z + 1. Hence four of the zeros of
3
z 5 + 15 z + 1 must lie in the ring < | z | < 2.
2
 C-172

Comprehensive Exercise 2

1. If a > e, use Rouche’s theorem to prove that the equation

e z = az n

has n roots inside the circle | z | = 1. (Kanpur 2008)

2. Using Rouche’s theorem determine the number of zeros of the polynomial

P (z ) = z10 − 6 z 7 + 3 z 3 + 1 in | z | < 1 .
3. Apply Rouche’s theorem to determine the number of roots of the equation
z 8 − 4z 5 + z 2 − 1 = 0

that lie inside the circle | z | = 1.

4. Show that the polynomial z 5 + z 3 + 2 z + 3 has just one zero in the first
quadrant of the complex plane.

A nswers 2

2. seven zeros
3. five roots

Objective Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from (a),
(b), (c) and (d).
1. If a function is analytic at all points of a bounded domain except at finitely many
points, then these exceptional points are called
(a) zeros (b) singularities
(c) poles (d) simple points.

2. A function which has poles as its only singularities in the finite part of the plane is
said to be
(a) an analytic function (b) an entire function
(c) a meromorphic function (d) none of these.
 C-173

3. For the function f (z ) = e z , z = ∞ is

(a) isolated essential singularity (b) pole
(c) ordinary point (d) none of these.

1
4. Number of poles of the function f (z ) = tan is
z
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) infinite (d) none of these.

1
5. Number of zeros of the function f (z ) = sin is
z
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) infinite (d) none of these.

z +3
6. The number of isolated singular points of f (z ) = is
z (z 2 + 2)
2

(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4. (Kumaun 2007, 11)

f ′ (z )
7. If f (z ) = z 5 − 3 iz 2 + 2 z + i − 1 and C encloses zeros of f (z ), then ∫ dz
C f (z )
is
(a) 5πi (b) 0
(c) 10 πi (d) none of these.

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……’’ so that the following statements are complete and correct.
ez
1. The function f (z ) = has a pole of order ……… at z = 1.
(z − 1)3
sin (z − 1)
2. The function f (z ) = has removable singularity at z = ……… .
z −1

3. The function f (z ) = e1 / z has an isolated essential singularity at z = …… .

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
1. The zeros of an analytic function are isolated.
2. A rational function has singularities other than poles.
3. Let f (z ) and g (z ) be analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and let
| g (z )| < | f (z )|on C. Then f (z ) and f (z ) + g (z ) have the same number of zeros
inside C.
4. Every polynomial of degree n has exactly n zeros.
 C-174

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c)
6. (c) 7. (c)

Fill in the Blank(s)

1. 3 2. 1 3. 0

True or False
1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T

¨
 5
T he C alculus of R esidues

1 Residue at a Pole
efinition: Let z = a be a pole of order m of a single-valued function f (z ) and γ be
D any circle of radius r and centre z = a containing no other singularities except
z = a. Then the function f (z ) is regular within the region 0 < | z − a | < r so we can
expand f (z ) in a Laurent’s series in the region 0 < | z − a | < r.
∞ ∞
∴ f (z ) = Σ an (z − a)n + Σ bn (z − z0 )− n
n=0 n =1
1 f (z )
where an = ∫ dz
2 πi γ (z − a)n + 1
1
and bn = (z − a)n − 1 f (z ) dz .
2 πi ∫ γ
1
In particular, b1 = f (z ) dz .
2 πi ∫ γ
The coefficient b1 is called the residue of f (z ) at z = a.
 C-176

2 Computation of Residue at a Finite Pole

(i) Residue at a simple pole: If z = a is a simple pole of f (z ) then the Laurent’s
expansion of f (z ) is of the form
∞ b1
f (z ) = Σ an (z − a)n + ⋅
n=0 z−a
lim
∴ b1 = (z − a) f (z ).
z→a
Hence the residue at the simple pole z = a is given by
lim ( z − a) f ( z)
z→ a
Another form is obtained as follows :
φ (z )
If f (z ) = where ψ (z ) = (z − a) F (z ), F (a) ≠ 0 , then
ψ (z )
lim lim φ (z )
(z − a) f (z ) = (z − a)
z→a z→a ψ (z )

lim (z − a) [ φ (a) + (z − a) φ′ (a) + ……]

= , by Taylor’s theorem
z→a ψ (a) + (z − a) ψ ′ (a) + ……

lim φ (a) + (z − a) φ′ (a) + ……

= , since ψ (a) = 0
z→a ψ ′ (a) + ……
φ (a)
= ⋅
ψ ′ (a)
φ (a)
Hence the residue at the simple pole z = a is ⋅
ψ ′ (a)

(ii) Residue at a pole of order greater than unity :

(Residue at a pole of order m) (Gorakhpur 2014)

Let z = a be a pole of order m of f (z ) and suppose

φ (z )
f (z ) = ⋅
(z − a)m

We then have, by the definition of a pole,

φ (z ) m Mr
f (z ) = m
= ψ (z ) + Σ ,
(z − a) r =1 (z − a)r

where ψ (z ) is regular at z = a,
φ (z ) M1 M2 Mm
or = ψ (z ) + + +…+ ⋅
(z − a)m (z − a) (z − a)2
(z − a)m

∴ φ (z ) = ψ (z ) (z − a)m + M1 (z − a)m − 1 + M2 (z − a)m − 2 + .... M m

Differentiating both the sides with respect to z , (m − 1) times, we have

 C-177

φ(m − 1) (z ) = ψ(m − 1) (z ) (z − a)m + (m − 1) ψ m − 2 (z ) . m (z − a) m − 1

(m − 1) (m − 2) (m − 3)
+ .ψ . (z ) m (m − 1) . (z − a)m − 2 + …
2!
m!
+ ψ (z ) (z − a) + M1 (m − 1) !
1!
∴ φ(m − 1) (a) = M1 (m − 1) !.

φ(m − 1) (a)
Hence M1 = which is the required residue at z = a.
(m − 1)!
φ (z ) φ (z )
In particular if f (z ) = , the residue at z = a is φ′ (a) and if f (z ) = , the
(z − a)2 (z − a)3
φ′ ′ (a)
residue at z = a is etc.
2!
Alternative Proof (a): Suppose z = a is a pole of order m. Then f (z ) is of the form
φ (z )
where φ (z ) is analytic.
(z − a)m

Residue of f (z ) at z = a is given by
1 1 φ (z )
b1 = ∫ f (z ) dz = ∫ dz
2 πi γ 2πi γ (z − a)m

φ m −1 (a)
= , by Cauchy’s integral formula.
(m − 1)!
φ m − 1 ( a)
Hence the residue of f (z ) at the pole of order m is , where z = a is the pole of order m.
( m − 1) !

Alternative Proof (b): If z = a is the pole of order m of f (z ) then we have

φ (z )
f (z ) = where φ (z ) is analytic at z = a.
(z − a)m

The residue at z = a is the coefficient of (z − a)−1 in f (z )

= coeff. of (z − a)m −1 in φ (z )

= coeff. of (z − a)m −1 in [ φ (a) + (z − a) φ′ (a) + ……

(z − a)m − 1 m − 1
+ φ (a) + ……]
(m − 1)!
φ m − 1 (a)
= ⋅
(m − 1)!

Remark: We have seen that the residue of f (z ) at the pole z = a is the coefficient of
1
in the Laurent’s expansion of f (z ). If we put z − a = t or z = a + t, where t is small
(z − a)
then the Laurent’s expansion of f (z ) becomes
∞ b1 b2 b
n
f (a + t) = Σ an t + + 2 + …… + m ⋅
n=0 t t tm
 C-178

We see that b1 is the coefficient of 1 / t in the above expansion.

Thus to find the residue of f (z ) at z = a, put z = a + t in f (z ) and expand in powers of t, where t
is small, the coefficient of 1 / t is the residue at z = a.

3 Residue at Infinity
Definition: If the function f (z ) has an isolated singularity at infinity or is analytic there then
the residue of f (z ) at z = ∞ is given by
1
f (z ) dz
2πi ∫ C
where C is a large circle containing all the finite singularities of f (z ) and integral along C is
performed in a clockwise direction provided that this integral has a definite value.
If the integral along C is taken in anti-clockwise direction the residue at infinity is
1
f (z ) dz .
2πi ∫ C
−

4 Computation of Residue at Infinity

1
Method I: By definition the residue of f (z ) at z = ∞ is f (z ) dz taken in
2πi ∫ C
clockwise direction round a large circle C which encloses in its interior all other
singularities.
1
Therefore the residue of f   at w = 0 is given by
 w
1 1 dw 1 1 1
∫ f    − 2  = ∫ − 2 f   dw,
2 πi γ  w   w  2 πi γ w  w
taken in anti-clockwise direction around a small circle γ with centre at origin.
Hence the residue of f ( z) at infinity
 − w f (1 / w) 
= lim = lim [− z f ( c)] ,
w → 0  w2  z → ∞

provided the limit exists.

Method II: Suppose f (z ) has a pole of order m at infinity. Then f (1 / w) has a pole of
order m at w = 0.
By Laurent’s theorem the expansion of f (1 / w) at w = 0 is given by
1 ∞ m bn
f   = Σ an w n + Σ ⋅
 w n=0 n =1 wn
Therefore the expansion of f (z ) in the neighbourhood of z = ∞ is given by
m ∞
f (z ) = Σ bn z n + Σ an z − n .
n =1 n=0
 C-179

m ∞
Now ∫C f (z ) dz = ∫C Σ bn z n dz + ∫C Σ an z − n dz
n =1 n=0
m ∞
= Σ ∫C bn z n dz + Σ ∫C an z − n dz
n =1 n=0

a1
= ∫C dz , all other integrals vanish since
z
dz
each of them is of the form ∫C , k ≠1
zk
∵ dz
= a1 ⋅ 2πi = 2πi
 ∫ C z 
1
Thus the residue at infinity = − f (z ) dz = − a1, which is the coefficient of 1 / z
2 πi ∫ C
with sign changed in the expansion of f (z ) in the neighbourhood of z = ∞.
1
Hence the residue of f ( z) at infinity is the negative of the coefficient of in the
z
expansion of f ( z) in the neighbourhood of z = ∞.
An Important Observation: We can easily show that the residue of a function at a
finite point is zero if the function is analytic there. On the other hand a function may be
analytic at z = ∞ but yet has a residue there.
1
Consider f (z ) = ⋅ The only singularity of f (z ) is a simple pole at z = a. The
z−a
function is analytic at z = ∞.
1 dz
Now the residue at infinity = −
2πi ∫ C z − a

1 2 π rie i θ
dθ, putting z − a = re i θ
2 πi ∫0
=−
re i θ
1 2π
dθ = − 1.
2 π ∫0
=−

5 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

If f (z ) is regular, except at a finite number of poles within a closed contour C and continuous on the
boundary of C, then

∫C f (z ) dz = 2πi Σ R ,

where Σ R is the sum of the residues of f (z ) at its poles within C.

(Meerut 2001; Kanpur 01; Gorakhpur 06, 11; Rohilkhand 08, 12)

Proof:Let z1, z2 ,……, z n be the n poles within the closed contour C. Let γ1, γ 2 ,……, γ n
be the circles with centres z1, z2 ,……, z n respectively and each of radius r so small that
all the circles lie entirely within C and do not overlap. Then f (z ) is analytic in the region
lying between C and the circles. Then by Cauchy’s theorem
 C-180

n
∫C f (z ) dz − Σ ∫ f (z ) dz = 0
k =1 γ k

or ∫C f (z ) dz = ∫γ1 f (z ) dz

+ ∫γ2 f (z ) dz + …… + ∫γ n f (z ) dz .
…(1)

Suppose f (z ) has a pole of order m1 at z = z1

then we have
m1
br
f (z ) = φ1 (z ) + Σ , where φ1 is analytic within and on γ1.
k =1 (z − z1)r
b1
Now ∫γ1 f (z ) dz = ∫γ1 φ1 (z ) dz + ∫γ1 dz + ……
z − z1
bm
1
+ ∫γ1 dz . …(2)
(z − z1)m1

We have ∫γ1 φ1 (z ) dz = 0 since φ1 is analytic within and on γ1.

b1 2π b1 rie i θ
Also ∫γ1 dz = ∫0 dθ, putting z − z1 = r e i θ
z − z1 r e iθ
2π
= ∫0 b1 i dθ = 2 π i b1

bm 2π bm r i e i θ
and ∫γ1 1
dz = ∫0 1
dθ, putting z − z1 = re i θ
(z − z1)m1 r m1 e i m1 θ
i bm 2π
= m1 −1
1
∫0 e − i (m1 −1) θ dθ = 0 , m1 ≠ 1.
r
Substituting these values in (2), we get

∫γ1 f (z ) dz = 2 π i b1 = 2 π i × residue of f (z ) at z = z1.

Proceeding as above, we have

∫γ2 f (z ) dz = 2 π i × residue of f (z ) at z = z2 and so on.

Hence from (1), we have

∫C f (z ) dz = 2πi (sum of the residues at z1, z2 ,……, z n)

= 2π i Σ R.
Corollary: If an analytic function has singularities at a finite number of points (including that
at infinity), then the sum of the residues at these points along with infinity is zero.
Let C be the circle enclosing within it all the singularities excluding infinity. Then by
the previous theorem, we have
 C-181

1
f (z ) dz = sum of the residues at all the finite singular
2 π i ∫C
points within C,
1
also the residue at infinity is − f (z ) dz .
2 π i ∫C

Hence the sum of the residues at all the finite poles along with infinity is zero.

z3
Example 1: Find the residue of at z = 1.
(z − 1)4 (z − 2) (z − 3)
(Kumaun 2007, Rohilkhand 09)
3
z
Solution: Let f (z ) = ⋅
(z − 1)4 (z − 2) (z − 3)

z = 1 is the pole of order 4 of f (z ).

To find the residue at z = 1we shall put z = 1 + t in f (z ) then the coefficient of1 / t will be
the residue at z = 1.
z3 (1 + t)3
Now f (z ) = 4
= 4
, putting z − 1 = t
(z − 1) (z − 2) (z − 3) t (t − 1)(t − 2)
1 1 −1
= 4
(1 + t)3 (1 − t)−1 (1 − t)
2t 2
1
= (1 + 3 t + 3 t2 + t3 )(1 + t + t2 + t3 + ……)
2t 4
1 1 1
(1 + t + t2 + t3 + ……)
2 4 8
1 3 7 15 3
= (1 + 3 t + 3 t2 + t3 )(1 + t + t2 + t + ……).
2t 4 2 4 8
The coefficient of 1 / t in the above expansion
1 15 21 9  101
=  + + + 1 =
28 4 2  16
which is the residue at z = 1.
z2
Example 2: Determine the poles of the function f (z ) =
(z − 1)2 (z + 2)

and the residue at each point.

Hence evaluate ∫C f (z ) dz where C is the circle | z | = 2 ⋅ 5.

z2 1 z2
Solution: We have f (z ) = = φ (z ), where φ (z ) = ⋅
(z − 1)2 (z + 2) (z − 1)2 z +2

Here z = 1 is a pole of order 2 of f (z ) and z = − 2 is a simple pole.

 C-182

Now residue at z = 1 is
1  d  z2    z 2 + 4z  5
[φ′ (z )]z = 1 =    = 2
= ⋅
1!  dz  z + 2   (z + 2)  9
z =1 z =1

lim lim z2 4
Residue at z = − 2 is (z + 2) f (z ) = = ⋅
z→ −2 z → − 2 (z − 1)2 9

The function f (z ) is analytic on| z | = 2 ⋅ 5 and at all points inside it except at z = 1, − 2

therefore by residue theorem, we have

∫C f (z ) dz = 2πi [residue at (z = − 2) + residue at (z = 1)]

4 5
= 2 πi  +  = 2 πi.
 9 9
z 2 − 2z
Example 3: Find the residues of at all its poles in the finite plane.
(z + 1)2 (z 2 + 4)

z 2 − 2z z 2 − 2z
Solution: Here f (z ) = = ⋅
(z + 1)2 (z 2 + 4) (z + 1)2 (z + 2 i) (z − 2 i)

Poles of f (z ) are given by (z + 1)2 (z + 2 i) (z − 2 i) = 0 .

f (z ) has a double pole at z = − 1 and simple poles at z = 2 i, − 2 i.

Residue at z = 2 i is
lim lim z 2 − 2z
(z − 2 i ) f (z ) =
z → 2i z → 2 i (z + 1)2 (z + 2 i )

(2 i )2 − 2 . 2 i 7+i
= 2
= ⋅
(2 i + 1) (2 i + 2 i ) 25

Residue at z = − 2 i is
lim lim z 2 − 2z
(z + 2 i ) f (z ) =
z → − 2i z → − 2 i (z + 1)2 (z − 2 i )

(− 2 i)2 − 2 . (− 2 i) 7−i
= 2
= ⋅
(− 2 i + 1) (− 2 i − 2 i) 25

1d z 2 − 2z
Residue at z = − 1 is φ (z ) , where φ (z ) = is
1!  dz  z = −1 z2 + 4

 d  z 2 − 2z   2 z 2 + 8 z − 8  14
=  2  = 2 2 
=− ⋅
 dz  z + 4   z = −1  (z + 4)  z = −1
25

Example 4: Find the residues of e z cosec 2 z at all its poles in the finite plane.

ez
Solution: Let f (z ) = e z cosec2 z = ⋅
sin2 z
 C-183

The poles of f (z ) are given by sin2 z = 0

or z = mπ, m ∈ I are the poles of f (z ) of order 2.

The limit point of these poles is z = ∞ which is therefore a non-isolated essential
singularity.
Putting z = mπ + t in f (z ), we get
e mπ + t 1
f (mπ + t) = 2
= e mπ e t . 2
sin (mπ + t) sin (mπ + t)

1 2
e mπ 1 + t + t + ....
 2 ! 
= 2
t − 1 1
 t3 + t5 − ......
 3! 5! 

−2
mπ 1  t2   t 2 t 4 
=e 2 1 + t + + ..... 1 −  − + .... 
t  2!    3 ! 5 !  

1  t2   t 2 t 4 
= e mπ 2 1 + t + + ..... 1 + 2  − + ....
t  2 !    3 ! 5 ! 
2 
t 2 t 4 
+3 − + .... + ......
 3! 5!  

1
Now residue at z = mπ is the coeff. of in the above expansion = e mπ .
t

sin πz 2 + cos πz 2
Example 5: Evaluate ∫ dz , where C is the circle | z | = 3.
C (z − 1)2 (z − 2)

sin πz 2 + cos πz 2
Solution: We have f (z ) = ⋅
(z − 1)2 (z − 2)

The function f (z ) is analytic at every point within C except at the poles z = 1, 2.

lim lim sin πz 2 + cos πz 2
Residue at z = 2 is (z − 2) f (z ) = = 1.
z→2 z→2 (z − 1)2

Residue at z = 1 is
1d  d  sin πz 2 + cos πz 2  
(z − 1)2 f (z ) =   = 2π + 1 .
1!  dz  z =1  dz  z −2   z =1

∴ By residue theorem, we have

∫C f (z ) dz = 2πi [sum of residues at z = 1 and z = 2]

= 2 πi [1 + (2 π + 1)]
= 4 πi (π + 1).
 C-184

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1
1. Find the residue of at z = i.
(z 2 + 1)3 (Kumaun 2009)
1
2. Find the residue of at z = ia.
(z 2 + a2 )2 (Kumaun 2010, 12, 13)
2
z
3. Find the residue of at z = ia.
z 2 + a2 (Kumaun 2015)
cot πz
4. Find the residues of the function ⋅
(z − a)2
z4
5. Find the residues of the function ⋅
(c 2 + z 2 )4 (Kumaun 2011)
z2
6. Find the residues of at infinity.
(z − a)(z − b)(z − c )

A nswers 1
3i −i ia
1. − 2. 3
3.
16 4a 2
1 i
4. 2
5. − 6. −1
π (n − a) 32 c 3

6 Evaluation of Real Definite Integrals by

Contour Integration
Now we shall evaluate the real definite integrals with the help of contour integration
and Cauchy’s residue theorem by properly choosing the integrand and the contour. It
should be noted that a large number of real definite integrals whose evaluation by usual
methods is difficult can be easily evaluated by using Cauchy’s residue theorem, yet
there are many integrals which cannot be evaluated by contour integration. Before
discussing the procedure of the evaluation of definite integrals we are going to prove
two useful theorems :
lim
Theorem 1: If (z − a) f (z ) = A and if C is the arc θ1 ≤ θ ≤ θ2 of the circle
z→a
lim
| z − a | = r, then f (z ) dz = i A (θ2 − θ1).
r → 0 ∫C
 C-185

In particular, if (z − a) f (z ) → 0 as z → 0, then we have

∫C f (z ) dz → 0 as z → 0.
lim
Theorem 2: If C is an arc θ1 ≤ θ ≤ θ2 of the circle| z | = R and if z f (z ) = A then
R→ ∞
lim
∫C f (z ) dz = i (θ2 − θ1) A.
R→ ∞

7 Integration Round the Unit Circle

(Gorakhpur 2016)
We shall discuss here the method of evaluation, by contour integration, of the integrals
which are of the type
2π
∫0 f (cos θ, sin θ) dθ

where integrand is a rational function of cos θ and sin θ.

Putting z = e i θ , we have dz = i e i θ dθ

1 1 1  1
and cos θ =  z +  and sin θ = z −  ⋅
2  z  2i  z

2π 1 1 1 1 1  dz
Now ∫0 f (cos θ, sin θ) dθ = ∫ f   z +  ,  z −  
i C 2  
z 2i  z  z

= ∫C φ (z ) dz , say,

where C is the circle | z | = 1.

It is obvious that F (z ) is a rational function of z.
Thus by residue theorem we have

∫C φ (z ) dz = 2πi Σ RC ,

where Σ RC is the sum of the residues of φ (z ) at its poles inside C.

Example 6: Show that

2π dθ 2π dθ 2π
∫0 = ∫0 = , a > b > 0.
a + b cos θ a + b sin θ √ (a − b2 )
2

2π dθ
Solution: Let I = ∫0 a + b cos θ
 C-186

2π dθ 1 dz
= ∫0 = ∫ ,
1 iθ −i θ i C  1 1 
a + b (e + e ) z  a + b  z +  
2  2  z 
putting e i θ = z , i e i θ dθ = dz

2 dz
= ∫C , where C is the unit circle | z | = 1.
i bz 2 + 2 az + b
2
The poles of the integrand f (z ) = 2
are given by
i (bz + 2 az + b)
bz 2 + 2 az + b = 0
− 2 a ± √ (4 a2 − 4 b2 ) − a ± √ (a2 − b2 )
or z= = ⋅
2b b
− a + √ (a2 − b2 ) − a − √ (a2 − b2 )
Let α= and β = ⋅
b b
Since a > b > 0 therefore | β | > 1. Also | αβ | = 1 so we have | α | < 1.
Thus z = α is the simple pole lying inside C.
Since α, β are the roots of bz 2 + 2 az + b = 0 , therefore we have
2
f (z ) = ⋅
i b (z − α)(z − β)

Residue of f (z ) at the simple pole z = α is

lim 2 lim 2
= (z − α) =
z→α i b (z − α)(z − β) z → α b i (z − β)
2 2 1
= = 2 2
= ⋅
b i (α − β) 2 √ (a − b ) i √ (a − b2 )
2
bi
b
2π dθ
Hence, ∫0 = 2 πi. sum of the residues of f (z ) at the poles inside C
a + b cos θ
1 2π
= 2 πi ⋅ 2 2
= ⋅
i √ (a − b ) √ (a − b2 )
2

2π dθ
Similarly, we can evaluate ∫0 ⋅
a + b sin θ

2π a cos θ
Example 7:Evaluate ∫− π dθ, a > 1
a + cos θ

by putting e i θ = z and using the theory of residues.

π a cos θ π a cos θ
Solution: Let I = ∫− π dθ = 2 ∫ dθ
a + cos θ 0 a + cos θ

2π 2 a cos θ
= ∫0 dθ
2 a + 2 cos θ
 C-187

2π 2a e i θ
= real part of ∫0 dθ
2 a + 2 cos θ
2 az dz
= real part of ∫ ⋅
C 1 iz
2a + z +
z
2 az
= real part of ∫C dz
i (z 2 + 2 az + 1)

= real part of ∫C f (z ) dz , say, ...(1)

where C is the unit circle | z | = 1.

Solving z 2 + 2 az + 1 = 0 , we get
z = − a + √ (a2 − 1) = α , z = − a − √ (a2 − 1) = β,

which are the simple poles of f (z ).

Since | β | > 1 and | αβ | = 1 therefore | α | < 1. Thus z = α is the simple pole inside C.
lim
Residue at z = α is (z − α) f (z )
z→α
lim (z − α) 2 az lim 2 az 2 aα
= = =
z → α i (z − α)(z − β) z → α i (z − β) i (α − β)

2 a {− a + √ (a2 − 1)}  a 
= 2
= ai  2
− 1 ⋅
2 i √ (a − 1)  √ (a − 1) 
∴ by Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have
 a   a 
∫C f (z ) dz = 2 πi . ai  2
− 1 = 2 aπ 1 − 2 ⋅
 √ (a − 1)   √ (a − 1)
π a cos θ
Hence, ∫− π dθ = real part of ∫ f (z ) dz , from (1)
a + cos θ C

 a 
= 2 aπ  1 − 2 ⋅
 √ (a − 1)

2π cos2 3θ 1 − p + p2
Example 8:Prove that ∫0 dθ = π , 0 < p < 1.
1 − 2 p cos 2θ + p2 1− p

2π cos2 3θ
Solution: We have I = ∫0 dθ
1 − 2 p cos 2θ + p2
1 2π 1 + cos 6θ
= ∫0 dθ
2 1 − 2 p cos 2θ + p2

1 2π 1 + e i6 θ
= real part of ∫0 dθ
2 1 − 2 p cos 2θ + p2
 C-188

1 1 + z6 dz
= real part of ∫ ⋅ , putting z = e i θ
2 C  2 1 2 iz
1 − p z + 2  + p
 z 
1 z (1 + z 6 )
= real part of ∫ dz
2 C i (1 − pz 2 )(z 2 − p)

1
= real part of ∫ f (z ) dz , say,
2 C

where C is the unit circle.

z = ± √ p, ± 1 / √ p are the simple poles of f (z ).
Since 0 < p < 1 therefore z = √ p, − √ p are the only simple poles which lie within C.
Residue at z = √ p is
lim (z − √ p) z (1 + z 6 ) 1 1 + p3 
(z − √ p) f (z ) = lim 2 2
=  2

z→√p z → √ p i (1 − pz ) (z − p) 2 i 1 − p 

and residue at z = − √ p is
lim lim z (1 + z 6 )
(z + √ p) f (z ) = (z + √ p)
z→−√p z→−√p i (1 − pz 2 )(z 2 − p)

1 1 + p3
= ⋅ ⋅
2 i (1 − p2 )

∴ Sum of the residues at the poles inside C

1 1 + p3 
=  ⋅
i 1 − p2 

2π 1+ e i6 θ 1 1 + p
3  1 + p3 
Hence, 2 i .  = 2 π  ⋅
∫0 1 − 2 p cos 2θ + p2
= π 
i  1 − p2  1 − p2 
 
2π cos2 3θ 1 2π 1+ e i6 θ
∴ ∫0 2
dθ = real part of ∫0 dθ
1 − 2 p cos 2θ + p 2 1 − 2 p cos 2θ + p2

1 + p3  (1 + p + p2 )
= π  2
 = π ⋅
 1− p  1− p
π a dθ π
Example 9: (i) Prove that ∫ = ,a>0
0 a2 + sin2 θ √ (1 + a2 ) (Avadh 2007)
2π adθ 2π
(ii) ∫0 = , a > 0.
a2 + sin2 θ 2 1 + a2
π a dθ π 2 a dθ
Solution: (i) We have I = ∫0 = ∫0
a2 + sin2 θ 2 a2 + 2 sin2 θ
π 2 a dθ 2π a dt
= ∫0 2
= ∫0 , putting 2θ = t
2 a + 1 − cos 2θ 2 a2 + 1 − cos t
 C-189

a dz
= ∫C 1
⋅
2 a + 1 − (z + 1 / z ) iz
2
2
2a dz
=
i ∫ C 2 z (2 a + 1) − z 2 − 1
2

dz
= 2 ai ∫ = ∫C f (z ) dz , say,
C z − 2 (2 a2 + 1) z + 1
2

where C is the unit circle.

Solving z 2 − 2 (2 a2 + 1) z + 1 = 0 , we get

z = (2 a2 + 1) ± 2 a √ (a2 + 1)

or z = (2 a2 + 1) + 2 a √ (a2 + 1) = α,
z = (2 a2 + 1) − 2 a √ (a2 + 1) = β.
Thus z = α, β are the simple poles of f (z ).
Since a > 0 therefore | α | > 1. Also we have | αβ | = 1 therefore | β | < 1.
Thus z = β is the only simple pole inside C.
Residue at z = β is
lim lim 2 ai 2 ai
(z − β) f (z ) = (z − β) =
z→β z→β (z − α)(z − β) β − α
2 ai i
=− 2
=− ⋅
4 a √ (a + 1) 2 √ (a2 + 1)
π a dθ
Hence, ∫0 = 2 πi. sum of the residues inside C
a + sin2 θ
2

 i  π
= 2 πi − 2 = 2
⋅
 2 √ (a + 1) √ (a + 1)
2π a dθ π a dθ 2π
(ii) ∫0 2 2
= 2∫ 2 2
= ⋅
a + sin θ 0 a + sin θ 2 √ (1 + a2 )

Example 10: By the method of contour integration, prove that

2π 2π 2π
∫0 e cos θ cos (nθ − sin θ) dθ = ∫0 e cos θ cos (sin θ − nθ) dθ = ,
n!
where n is a positive integer. (Gorakhpur 2005; Kanpur 07, 08)

Solution: We have
2π 2π
∫0 e cos θ cos (nθ − sin θ) dθ = ∫0 e cos θ cos (sin θ − nθ) dθ.

[ ∵ cos (− θ) = cos θ]
2π cos θ i (sin θ − nθ)
Now consider I = ∫0 e e dθ
2π
= ∫0 e cos θ + i sin θ e − i n θ dθ
 C-190
2π iθ
= ∫0 ee e − i n θ dθ

dz
= ∫C ez z −n
. , putting z = e i θ
iz
ez
= ∫C dz
i z n +1

= ∫C f (z ) dz , say,

where C is the unit circle.

The function f (z ) has a pole of order (n + 1) at z = 0.
1  n ez  1
The residue at z = 0 is D  = ⋅
n!  i  in !
z =0

1 2π
Hence I = 2 πi ⋅ = ⋅
in ! n !
Equating real parts on both sides, we get
2π 2π
∫0 e cos θ cos (sin θ − nθ) dθ = ⋅
n!

Comprehensive Exercise 2

π 1 + 2 cos θ
1. Prove that ∫ dθ = 0 .
0 5 + 4 cos θ (Kanpur 2007, Rohilkhand 12)

2π dθ 2π 2 π dθ π
2. (i) Show that ∫ ,
2 + cos θ √ 3 ∫0 5 + 3 cos θ 2
= = ⋅
0
(Kumaun 2012)
2π dθ 2π
(ii) Show that ∫ = , a2 < 1.
0 1 + a cos θ √ (1 − a2 )
π dθ 1 2π dθ π
(iii) Prove that ∫ = ∫0 = ⋅
0 a + b cos θ 2 a + b cos θ √ (a2 − b2 )

3. Use the method of contour integration to prove that

2π dθ 2π
∫0 1 + a2 − 2a cos θ = 1 − a2 , 0 < a < 1.
4. Apply the method of contour integration to prove that
2π cos 2θ π
∫0 5 + 4 cos θ dθ = 6 ⋅
5. By the method of contour integration prove that
π cos 2θ πa2
∫0 dθ = , (− 1 < a < 1).
1 − 2 a cos θ + a2 1 − a2 (Gorakhpur 2006)
 C-191

2π sin nθ
6. Evaluate ∫0 dθ
1 + 2 a cos θ + a2 (Rohilkhand 2010)
2π cos nθ
and ∫0 dθ,
1 + 2 a cos θ + a2

a2 < 1 and n is a positive integer.

π
7. Show that ∫ tan (θ + ia) dθ = iπ, where R (a) > 0 .
0
2π 2π
8. Prove that ∫ e − cos θ cos (nθ + sin θ) dθ = (− 1)n ,
0 n!
where n is a positive integer.

A nswers 2

2 π (− 1)n a n
6. ;0
1 − a2

8 Evaluation of the Integral ∫ −∞∞ f ( x ) dx

Theorem: If the function f (z ) is analytic in the upper half of the z-plane except at a finite
number of poles in it, having no poles on the real axis and if further z f (z ) tends to zero as| z |tends
to infinity then by contour integration
∞
∫ −∞ f ( x) dx = 2πi Σ R +

where Σ R + represents the sum of the residues at the poles in the upper half plane.

Proof: Under the given conditions the integral

∞
∫− ∞ f ( x) dx is convergent. To evaluate such integrals

we shall integrate f (z ) round a contour C consisting of

a semi-circle Γ of radius R large enough to include all
the poles of f (z ) and the part of the real axis from
x = − R to x = R. The only singularities of f (z ) in the
upper half plane are poles.
∴ By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have

∫C f (z ) dz = 2πi Σ R +

R
or ∫− R f ( x) dx + ∫Γ f (z ) dz = 2πiΣ R +
…(1)
 C-192

where Σ R + represents the sum of the residues of f (z ) at the poles in the upper half
plane.
Since z f (z ) → 0 as | z | → ∞, therefore we have

∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0 . [ By theorem 2 of article 6]

lim R
Also ∫− R f ( x) dx
R→ ∞
∞
=P ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx, where P stands for principal value of the integral

∞
= ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx, since the integral is convergent.

Now taking limit of both sides of (1) when R → ∞, we get

∞
∫− ∞ f ( x) dx = 2πi Σ R + .

Corollary: If the function f (z ) is of the form P (z ) / Q (z ) where P (z ) and Q (z ) are

both polynomials such that (i) Q (z ) = 0 has no real roots (ii) degree of P (z ) is at least
two less than that of Q (z ) so that z f (z ) → 0 as | z | → ∞ then
∞
∫− ∞ f (z ) dz = 2πi Σ R+ .

∞ dx π
Example 11: (i) If a > 0, prove that ∫0 2 2 2
= ⋅
(x + a ) 4 a3
∞ dx π
(ii) Prove that ∫ = ⋅
0 (1 + x2 )2 4 (Kumaun 2014)

Solution: (i) Consider

dz
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫C ,
(a + z 2 )2
2

where C is the contour consisting of a large semi-circle

Γ of radius R together with real axis from − R to R.
z = ai, − ai are the poles of f (z ) of second order. Out of
these only z = ai lies inside C.
Residue at z = ai is
1
φ′ (ai) = [(d / dz ) (z + ai)−2 ]z = ai = [− 2 (z + ai)−3 ]z = ai = ⋅
4 a3 i
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have
R dx dz
∫ C f (z ) dz = ∫ − R (a2 + x2 )2 + ∫Γ 2 2 2
= 2 πi Σ R + . …(1)
(a + z )
 C-193

lim lim z
Now z f (z ) = = 0,
R→ ∞ z → ∞ (a2 + z 2 )2

lim dz
∴ ∫Γ =0
R→ ∞ (a2 + z 2 )2

lim R dx ∞ dx
and ∫− R = ∫− ∞ ⋅
R→ ∞ (a2 + x2 )2 (a2 + x2 )2
Hence we have from relation (1)
∞ dx ∞ dx 1 π
∫ − ∞ (a2 + x2 )2 = 2 ∫ 0 (a2 + x2 )2 = 2πi ⋅ 4a3 i = 2a3
∞ dx π
or ∫0 = ⋅
(a2 + x2 )2 4 a3
(ii) Proceed as in part (i) taking a = 1.
∞ x2 π
Example 12: Prove that ∫ dx = , provided that R (a) is +ve. What is the
−∞ ( x + a2 )3
2
8 a3
value of this integral when R (a) is negative ?
z2
Solution: Consider the integral ∫ f (z ) dz = ∫C dz ,
C (z + a2 )3
2

where C is the contour as described in Ex. 11.

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have
R x2 z2
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫− R 2 2 3
dx + ∫Γ 2 2 3
dz = 2 πi Σ R+ . …(1)
(x + a ) (z + a )
lim lim 2
z
Since z f (z ) = z⋅ = 0 , therefore we have
R→ ∞ z→∞ (z + a2 )3
2

lim z2
∫Γ dz = 0 .
R→ ∞ (z + a2 )3
2

Also z = ± ai are the poles of f (z ) of order three. Out of these only z = ai lies inside C.
1  2 2 z2  1
Residue at z = ai is (d / dz )  = ⋅
2!  (z + ai)3  z = ai
16 a3 i

Now from (1), we have

∞ z2 1 π
∫− ∞ dz = 2 πi ⋅ = ⋅
(z + a2 )3
2
16 a3 i 8 a3

If R (a) < 0 then z = − ai is the pole inside C.

∞ z2 π
In this case, ∫− ∞ dz = − ⋅
(z + a2 )3
2
8 a3
 C-194

z 2 dz
Aliter: Consider ∫ = ∫C f (z ) dz , where C is the same contour as in Ex. 11.
C (z + a2 )3
2

By residue theorem,
R
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫− R f ( x) dx + ∫Γ f (z ) dz = 2πi ΣR + .

lim lim
Since z f (z ) = 0 , we have ∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0 .
z→∞ R→ ∞

∴ Proceeding to the limits, when R → ∞, we get from (1),

∞
∫− ∞ f ( x) dx = 2πi ΣR + . ...(2)

Now f (z ) has poles at z = ± ai of order three, of which z = ai lies inside C provided R(a)
is positive.
1
Residue of f (z ) (at z = ai) = coeff. of in f (t + ai)
t
1 (t + ai)2
= coeff. of in ⋅
t [(t + ai )2 + a2 ]3
−3
(t + ai)2 1 t 
Now =− (t2 + 2 ait − a2 ) 1 + 
(t2 + 2 ait)3 3 3
8 a it  2 ai

1  3t 6 t2 
=− [t2 + 2 ait − a2 ] 1 −
3 3
− 2 + ......
8 a it  2 ai 4 a 

1 1  6 ai 6 a2  1
∴ coeff. of in f (t + ai) = − 3 1 − + = ⋅
t 8 a i  2 ai 4 a2  16 a3 i

1
∴ Residue of f (z ) (at z = ai) = ⋅
16 a3 i
∞ 1 π
∴ From (2), ∫ f ( x) dx = 2 πi . = ⋅ ...(3)
−∞ 16 a3 i 8 a3
When R (a) is − ve, pole within C is at z = − ai.
∞ π
∴ In this case ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx = − ⋅ [Replacing − a by a in (3)]
8 a3

∞ dx
Example 13: Evaluate ∫ 4
, a > 0.
0 x + a4
(Meerut 2002; Purvanchal 09; Gorakhpur 14, 16)

dz
Solution: Consider the integral ∫ f (z ) dz = ∫C ,
C z + a4
4

where C is the contour as described in Ex. 11.

 C-195

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have

R dx dz
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫− R 4 4
+ ∫Γ 4
= 2 πi Σ R + .
x +a z + a4
lim lim dz
Since z f (z ) = 0 therefore ∫Γ 4
=0
R→ ∞ R→ ∞ z + a4
lim R dx
so that ∫− R = 2πi Σ R +
R→ ∞ x4 + a4
∞ dx
or ∫− ∞ = 2πi Σ R + . …(1)
x4 + a4

Poles of f (z ) are given by z 4 + a4 = 0

or z = a e(2 n + 1) πi /4 , where n = 0 , 1, 2, 3.

∴ z = a e i π /4 , a e3 i π /4 , a e5 i π /4 , a e7i π /4 are the simple poles of f (z ).

Out of these only z = a e i π /4 , a e i3 π /4 lie inside C.

If α denotes any of these poles then residue at z = α is

lim lim z −α Form 0 
(z − α) f (z ) =
z→α z → α z 4 + a4  0 
lim 1 1 α α
= 3
= 3
= 4
=− 4 ⋅ [ ∵α4 = − a4 ]
z → α 4z 4α 4α 4a
Now sum of the residues at poles inside C
1 1 2i i√2
=− 4
{a e i π /4 + a e i 3 π /4 } = − 3
. =− ⋅
4a 4a √2 4 a3
Hence from (1), we have
∞ dx  i √ 2 π √ 2
∫− ∞ 4 4
= 2 πi  − 3
=
x +a  4a  2 a3
∞ dx π √2
or ∫0 = ⋅
x4 + a4 4 a3

Example 14: Prove by contour integration that

∞ dx 1 1 . 3 . 5 . …… (2 n − 3) 1
∫0 (a + bx2 )n = 2n b1 /2 ⋅ 1. 2 . 3 .…… (2n − 1) ⋅ a(n−1) /2 ⋅
(Rohilkhand 2011)
dz
Solution: Consider the integral ∫C = ∫C f (z ) dz , where C is the same
(a + bz 2 )n
contour as described in Ex. 11.
By Cauchy’s residue theorem , we have
R dx dz
∫ C f (z ) dz = ∫ − R (a + bx2 )n + ∫Γ = 2 πi Σ R + .
(a + bz 2 )n
 C-196

lim lim dz
Since z f (z ) = 0 therefore ∫Γ =0
R→ ∞ R→ ∞ (a + bz 2 )n

so we have
lim R dx ∞ dx
∫− R 2 n
= 2πi Σ R + or ∫− ∞ = 2πi Σ R + .
R→ ∞ (a + bx ) (a + bx2 )n
…(1)

z = ± i √ (a / b) are the poles of f (z ) of order n. The pole z = √ (a / b) i lies inside C.

Residue at z = i √ (a / b) is

1  1 
 Dn−1 n 
(n − 1)!  a 
 b n  z + i    
  b   z = √(a / b) i


1 1  (− n)(− n − 1)……{− n − (n − 1) + 1} 
= ⋅
(n − 1)! b n  
2 n −1 
  a  
  z + i    
 b  z = i √(a / b )

(− 1)n − 1 n (n + 1)……(2 n − 2)
= n
⋅
(n − 1)! b {2 i √ (a / b)}2 n − 1

(− 1)n − 1 1 . 2 . 3 . …… (n − 1) . n (n + 1) …… (2 n − 2)
=
2 2 n − 1 {√ (a / b)} 2 n − 1 i2 n − 1 b n (n − 1)!. (n − 1)!

1 . 3 . 5 …… (2 n − 3) . 2 n − 1 1 . 2 . 3……(n − 1)
=− i
2 2 n − 1 a n − 1 / 2 b 1 / 2 (n − 1)!. (n − 1)!
1 . 3 . 5 …… (2 n − 3) i
=− ⋅
2 n a n − 1 / 2 b 1 / 2 1 . 2 . 3……(n − 1)

Hence from (1), we have

∞ dx  1 . 3 . 5 …… (2 n − 3) i 
∫− ∞ = 2 πi  − n n − 1 / 2 1 / 2
2 n 
(a + bx )  2 a b 1 . 2 . 3 …… (n − 1) 
∞ dx π 1 . 3 . 5 …… (2 n − 3)
or ∫0 2 n
= n n −1 / 2 1 /2
⋅ ⋅
(a + bx ) 2 a b 1 . 2 . 3 …… (n − 1)

Comprehensive Exercise 3

∞ dx 3π
1. Prove that ∫ = ⋅
−∞ ( x2 + 1)3 8
∞ x2
2. Evaluate ∫0 dx.
(1 + x2 )3
 C-197

∞ dx
3. Evaluate ∫0 ⋅
1 + x2 (Kanpur 2007; Rohilkhand 10; Kumaun 10, 11;
Gorakhpur 05, 11, 13)
∞ dx π (b + 2 c )
4. Prove that ∫− ∞ 2 2 2 2 2
= , b > 0, c > 0.
( x + b )( x + c ) 2 bc 3 (b + c )3

5. Use the method of contour integration to prove that

∞ x6 3π √ 2
∫0 4 4 2
dx = , a > 0.
(x +a ) 16 a

A nswers 3

π π
2. 3.
16 2

9 Jordan’s Inequality. 2θ ≤ sin θ ≤ θ, where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π ⋅

π 2
Let y = cos x. We know that as θ increases from 0 to π / 2, cos θ decreases from 1 to 0.
Consequently the mean ordinate of the graph y = cos x also decreases steadily over the
range 0 ≤ x ≤ θ.
1 θ sin θ
The mean ordinate is ∫ cos θ dθ = ⋅
θ 0 θ
π 2 sin θ 2θ
Hence when 0 ≤ θ ≤ , ≤ ≤ 1 or ≤ sin θ ≤ θ.
2 π θ π
This is known as Jordan’s inequality.

10 Jordan’s Lemma
If f (z ) tends to zero uniformly as z → ∞ and f (z ) is meromorphic in the upper half plane then
lim
e imz f (z ) dz = 0 , (m > 0 )
R → ∞ ∫Γ

where Γ denotes the semi-circle | z | = R, I (z ) > 0 .

Proof: Here we assume that R is large enough so as to include within it all the
singularities of f (z ) and f (z ) has no singularity on Γ.
lim
Since f (z ) = 0 therefore for ε > 0 there exists R0 > 0 such that| f (z )| < ε when
R→ ∞
| z | = R ≤ R0 .
 C-198

Now let Γ denote any semi-circle with radius R ≥ R0 . Putting z = Re i θ , we get

π iθ
∫Γ e imz f (z ) dz = ∫0 e imRe f ( R e i θ ) R i e i θ dθ
π
= ∫0 e imR cos θ − mR sin θ
e f ( R e iθ ) i R e iθ dθ.

π
 e imz f (z ) dz ≤ ∫0 | e
imR cos θ
| e − mR sin θ | f ( R e iθ )|| R i e iθ| dθ
 ∫Γ 
π
< ∫0 e − mR sin θ ε R dθ [∵ | f (z )| = | f ( R e iθ )| < ε]
π /2
=2ε R∫ e − mR sin θ dθ
0
π /2
≤2ε R∫ e −2 mR θ /π
dθ, by Jordan’s inequality
0

2 ε R (1 − e − mR ) επ επ
= = (1 − e − mR ) < ⋅
2 mR / π m m
lim
Hence ∫Γ e imz f (z ) dz = 0 .
R→ ∞

11 Evaluation of the Integrals of the form

∞ P (x) ∞ P (x)
∫ − ∞ Q ( x ) sin mx dx ; ∫ − ∞ Q ( x ) cos mx dx, m > 0, where

(i) P ( x), Q ( x) are polynomials, (ii) deg Q ( x) > deg P ( x)

(iii) Q ( x) = 0 has no real roots.

Under the above mentioned conditions the given integrals are convergent. Consider
imz imz P (z )
∫ C e f (z ) dz = ∫ C e Q (z ) dz ,
where C is the contour consisting of a semi-circle Γ of radius R so large as to include all
the poles of the integrand in the upper half plane and part of the real axis from − R to R.
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have
R
∫C e imz f (z ) dz = ∫− R e imx f ( x) dx + ∫Γ e imz f (z ) dz = 2πi Σ R + .

lim
We have ∫Γ e iz f (z ) dz = 0 , by Jordan’s lemma.
R→ ∞
lim R
∴ ∫− R e ix f ( x) dx = 2πi Σ R+
R→ ∞
∞ ∞
or ∫− ∞ f ( x) cos mx dx + i ∫ f ( x) sin mx dx = 2π i Σ R + .
−∞

Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides, we shall get the values of the
given integrals.
 C-199

∞ cos mx π − ma
Example 15: Prove that ∫ dx = e , m ≥ 0.
0 a2 + x2 2a (Kumaun 2012, 13)
∞ x sin mx π
Deduce that ∫ 2 2
dx = e − ma .
0 x +a 2 (Gorakhpur 2007, 09, 11, 15)

Solution: Consider the integral

e imz
∫C dz = ∫C f (z ) dz ,
a + z2
2

where C is the contour consisting of a large semi-circle Γ of

radius R containing all the poles of the integrand in the
upper half plane and the part of real axis from − R to R.
By Cauchy’s residue theorem , we have
R e imx e imz
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫− R dx + ∫Γ dz = 2πi ΣR + .
a2 + x2 a2 + z 2
lim 1
Since = 0 therefore we have
z → ∞ z 2 + a2
lim
∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0 , by Jordan’s lemma.
R→ ∞
lim R e imx
∴ ∫− R dx = 2πi ΣR +
R→ ∞ a + x2
2

∞ e imx
or ∫− ∞ dx = 2πi ΣR + …(1)
a2 + x2

z = ± ai are the simple poles of f (z ). The pole z = ai lies inside C.

Residue at z = ai is
lim lim e imz e − ma
(z − ai) f (z ) = 2 2
(z − ai) = ⋅
z → ai z → ai z + a 2 ia

From (1), we have

∞ e imx 2 π i e − ma π − ma
∫− ∞ dx = = e .
x2 + a2 2 ia a

Equating real parts on both sides, we get

∞ cos mx π − ma ∞ cos mx π − ma
∫ − ∞ x2 + a2 dx = a e or ∫0 dx = e .
x2 + a2 2a
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. m, we get
∞ x sin mx π − ma ∞ x sin mx π − ma
∫0 − a2 + x2 dx = 2a (− a) e or ∫0 2 2
dx = e .
a +x 2
 C-200

∞ cos ax
Example 16: Evaluate ∫ dx, a > 0 , b > 0 .
0 ( x + b2 )2
2

e iaz
Solution: Consider ∫C dz = ∫C f (z ) dz ,
(z 2 + b2 )2

where C is the same contour as described in Ex. 15.

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have
R e iax e iaz
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫− R 2 2 2
dx + ∫Γ dz = 2 πi ΣR + .
(x + b ) (z + b2 )2
2

By Jordan’s lemma, we have

lim e iaz
∫Γ dz = 0 .
R→ ∞ (z + b2 )2
2

lim R e iax
∴ ∫− R dx = 2πiΣR +
R→ ∞ ( x2 + b2 )2
∞ e iax
or ∫− ∞ 2 2 2
dx = 2πi ΣR + . …(1)
(x + b )
z = ± ib are the double poles of f (z ).Out of these only z = ib lies in the upper half plane.
Residue at z = ib is
 e iaz 
φ′ (ib) =  D 2
 (z + ib)  z = ib

 iae iaz (z + ib)2 − 2 e iaz (z + ib)

= 
 (z + ib)4  z = ib

e − ab [ia (2 ib) − 2] e − ab
= = (ab + 1).
(2 ib)3 4 b3 i

Hence from (1), we have

∞ e iax e − ab
∫− ∞ dx = 2 πi ⋅ (ab + 1)
( x2 + b2 )2 4 i b3

∞ cos ax + i sin ax π e − ab
or ∫− ∞ 2 2 2
dx = (ab + 1).
(x + b ) 2 b3

Equating real parts on both sides, we get

∞ cos ax π (ab + 1)
∫− ∞ dx =
( x2 + b2 )2 2 b3 e ab
∞ cos ax π (1 + ab)
or ∫0 dx = ⋅
( x2 + b2 )2 4 b3 e ab
 C-201

Example 17: Prove that

∞ sin x 2 π (√ 3 + 2) −√3 /2 1
∫ −∞ dx = e sin ⋅
(1 − x + x 2 )2 3 √3 2

e iz
Solution: Let ∫C f (z ) dz = ∫C dz , where C is the same contour as in
(1 − z + z 2 )2
Ex. 15.
By residue theorem, we have
R
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫ −R f ( x) dx + ∫Γ f (z ) dz = 2πi ΣR + .

By Jordan’s lemma, we have

lim
∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0 .
R→ ∞

lim R
∴ ∫ −R f ( x) dx = 2πi Σ R +
R→ ∞

∞
or ∫ −∞ f ( x) dx = 2πi ΣR + . …(1)

z = (1 ± i √ 3) / 2 are the poles of f (z ) of second order. The only pole which lies within C
is (1 + i √ 3) / 2 = α, say.
Putting z = α + t in f (z ), we get
e i (α + t)
f (α + t) = 2
{t + (2α − 1) t + α2 − α + 1}2

e i (α + t)
= , since α2 − α + 1 = 0
{t2 + (2α − 1) t }2
−2
e i (α + t)  t 
= 1 + 
(2α − 1)2 t 2
 2α − 1
e iα  2t 
= 2 2
(1 + i t + ……) 1 − + …… ⋅
(2α − 1) t  2α − 1 

Residue at z = α is the coefficient of (1 / t) in the expansion of

 i 2 
f (α + t) = e i α  2
− 3
(2α − 1) (2α − 1) 

 i (2α − 1) − 2 
= e iα  3 
 (2α − 1) 
[i (1 + i √ 3 − 1) − 2]
= e i (1 + i √3) /2
(i √ 3)3
 C-202

e −√3 /2 e i /2 (√ 3 + 2)
= ⋅
i3 √ 3
Hence from (1), we have
∞ e ix 2 πe −√3 /2 i /2
∫ −∞ 2 2
dx = (√ 3 + 2) e .
( x − x + 1) 3 √3

Equating imaginary parts on both sides, we get

∞ sin x 2 π e − √3 /2 1
∫ −∞ dx = ( √ 3 + 2) sin ⋅
( x2 − x + 1)2 3 √3 2

∞ cos x2 + sin x2 − 1
Example 18: Prove that ∫ dx = 0 .
0 x2
2
e iz − 1
Solution:Let ∫C f (z ) dz = ∫C dz , where C is the same contour as in Example
z2
15.
Since f (z ) has no poles in the upper half plane therefore by Cauchy’s residue theorem,
we have
R
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫ −R f ( x) dx + ∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0 . …(1)

π exp ( i R2 e i2 θ ) − 1
We have ∫Γ f (z ) dz = ∫0 R i e i θ dθ, putting z = R e i θ
R2 e i2 θ
i π
= ∫0 e − i θ [exp {i R2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ)} − 1] dθ
R
π i − iθ
= ∫0 e [exp (− R2 sin 2θ) exp (i R2 cos 2θ) − 1] dθ.
R

Now  f (z ) dz
 ∫Γ 
1 ∞
≤ ∫0 | i e − iθ |[exp (− R2 sin 2θ)|exp (iR2 cos 2θ)| + | − 1|] dθ
R
1 ∞
≤ ∫0 [exp (− R2 sin 2θ) + 1] dθ, which tends to zero as R → ∞.
R

∴ ∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0 when R → ∞.

Thus when R → ∞, we have from (1)

2
∞ ∞ ei x − 1
∫ −∞ f ( x) dx = 0 or ∫ −∞ dx = 0
x2
2
∞ ei x − 1
or 2∫ dx = 0 .
0 x2
Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides, we get
 C-203

∞ cos x2 − 1 ∞ sin x2
∫0 dx = 0 and ∫0 dx = 0 .
x2 x2
Adding these relations, we get
∞ cos x2 + sin x2 − 1
∫0 dx = 0 .
x2
∞ log (1 + x2 )
Example 19: Prove by contour integration ∫0 dx = π log 2.
1 + x2
(Kanpur 2008; Gorakhpur 09, 13)
Solution: Consider
log (i + z )
∫C dz = ∫C f (z ) dz , where C is the contour of Ex. 15.
1 + z2
By residue theorem, we have
R
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫ −R f ( x) dx + ∫Γ f (z ) dz = 2πi Σ R + .
…(1)
lim lim z log ( i + z )
Now z f (z ) =
z→∞ z → ∞ (i + z )(z − i)
lim z lim log (i + z )
= ⋅ = 0.
z→∞ z−i z→∞ i+ z

∴ when R → ∞, we have from (1)

∞
∫ −∞ f ( x) dx = 2πi ΣR +
…(2)
z = ± i are the simple poles of f (z ) and only z = i lies inside C.
Residue at z = i is
lim lim log (i + z ) log 2 i log 2 + i (π / 2)
(z − i ) f (z ) = = = ⋅
z→i z → i (z + i ) 2i 2i

Hence from (2), we have

∞ log (i + x)
∫ −∞ dx = π {log 2 + i (π / 2)}.
1 + x2

Equating real parts on both sides, we get

1
∞
log ( x2 + 1) ∞ log (1 + x2 )
2 dx = π log 2 or dx = π log 2.
∫ −∞ x2 + 1 ∫0 1 + x2

Comprehensive Exercise 4

∞ sin x π
1. Prove that ∫ 2
dx = − sin 2.
−∞ x + 4x + 5 e
 C-204

∞ x sin x
2. (i) Apply the calculus of residues to evaluate ∫0 dx, a > 0 .
x2 + a2
(Avadh 2008; Gorakhpur 2011)
∞ cos x π e− a
(ii) Prove that ∫ 2 2
dx = , a > 0.
0 a +x a
∞ sin x π
3. Show that ∫ dx = 2 sin 1.
−∞ x2 − 2 x + 5 2e
∞ cos x dx π  e− b e− a 
4. Prove that ∫ =  −  , a > 0, b > 0.
−∞ ( x2 + a2 )( x2 + b2 ) a2 − b2  b a 
5. Prove that when m > 0,
∞ cos mx 2π m π
∫− ∞ 4 2
dx = sin  +  e − (1 /2) m √3 .
x + x +1 √3  2 6
cos mx
∞ π ma π 
6. Prove that ∫0 dx = 3 e − ma / √2 sin  + ⋅
x4 + a4 2a  √ 2 2
(Gorakhpur 2008)
∞ x sin mx π ma
Deduce that ∫ 4 4
dx = 2 e − ma / √2 sin ⋅
0 x +a 2a √2
∞ x3 sin mx π − ma / √2 ma
7. Prove by contour integration that ∫0 4 4
dx = e cos ⋅
x +a 2 √2
8. If a ≥ 4, prove that
∞ (1 + x2 ) cos ax π − a(√3 /2) a
(i) ∫ 2 4
dx = e cos
0 1+ x + x √ 3 2
∞ x sin ax π − a(√3 /2) a
(ii) ∫0 2 4
dx = e sin ⋅
1+ x + x √3 2

A nswers 4
π −a
2. (i) e
2

12 Poles Lie on the Real Axis

We shall now discuss the case when the integrand has poles on the real axis as well as
within the semi-circle.
P (z )
Theorem: Let f (z ) = , where P (z ) and Q (z ) are polynomials such that Q (z ) has only
Q (z )
non-repeated real roots, that is f (z ) has only simple poles on the real axis. Let m > 0 and let the
degree of Q (z ) exceeds that of P (z ) , then
∞ p q
P ∫ −∞ e imx f ( x) dx = 2 πi Σ Res (ak ) + πi Σ Res(bk ),
k =1 k =1

where a1, a2 …, ap are the zeros of Q (z ) in the region Im z > 0 and b1, b2 , …, bq are its zeros in the
real axis, and Res (α) denotes the residue of e imz f (z ) at α.
 C-205

∞ cos mx
Example 20: If m > 0, show that P ∫ dx = − sin mb.
−∞ x−b
1
Solution: Referring to the above theorem, let f (z ) = ⋅ Here f (z ) has simple real
z−b
pole at z = b.
e imz e imz
∴ Res z = b = lim (z − b) ⋅ = e imz .
z−b z→b (z − b)

∞ e imz imb
Hence P ∫ −∞ z − b dz = πie .

Equating real parts on both sides, we get

∞ cos mx
P ∫ −∞ dx = − π sin mb.
x−b
∞ sin mx π
Example 21: If m > 0, prove that P ∫0 dx = ⋅
x 2
1
Solution: Referring to the above theorem, let f (z ) = ⋅ Here f (z ) has simple real pole
z
at z = 0.
e imz e imz
∴ Res z = 0 = lim (z − 0 ) = 1.
z z→0 z
∞ e imx e imz
Thus P∫ dx = πi × Residue of at z = 0
−∞ x z
= πi × 1 = πi .
Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides, we get
∞ cos mx
P∫ dx = 0 …(1)
−∞ x
∞ sin mx
and P∫ dx = π. …(2)
−∞ x
sin mx
Note: The principal part ‘P’ has been dropped in (2), since lim = m,
x→0 x
whereas in the first integral the integrand becomes unbounded at the origin.
Hence from (2), we get the required result.

Indenting Method: We can avoid the poles which lie on the real axis by drawing
semi-circles of small radii about these poles as centres. This method is known as
‘indenting at a point’.
 C-206

∞ sin mx
Example 22: (i) Evaluate ∫ dx, m > 0 .
0 x (Gorakhpur 2007, 10, 13; Kumaun 07)

(ii) By integrating e iz / z around a suitable contour, prove that

∞ sin x π
∫0 dx = ⋅
x 2 (Rohilkhand 2011; Kumaun 14)

e imz
Solution: (i) Consider the integral ∫ f (z ) dz = ∫C dz
C z

where C is the contour consisting of (1) the upper half of the circle | z | = R

(2) real axis from r to R where r is small and R is large

(3) real axis from − R to − r

(4) upper half of the circle γ,| z | = r.

Obviously the function f (z ) has no singularity inside C, therefore by Cauchy’s residue

theorem, we have
R −r
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫r f ( x) dx + ∫Γ f (z ) dz + ∫ −R f ( x) dx + ∫γ f (z ) dz

= 0. …(1)
By Jordan’s lemma, we have
lim
f (z ) dz = 0 .
R → ∞ ∫Γ
lim
Again z f (z ) = 1 therefore
z→0
lim
∫γ f (z ) dz = i (0 − π) = − iπ.
r→0

Thus when r → 0, R → ∞, we get from (1)

∞ 0
∫0 f ( x) dx + ∫ −∞ f ( x) dx − iπ = 0

imx
∞ ∞ e
or ∫ −∞ f ( x) dx = iπ or ∫ −∞ dx = iπ.
x
Equating imaginary parts on both sides, we get
∞ sin mx ∞ sin mx π
∫ −∞ x dx = π or ∫0 x
dx = ⋅
2
(ii) Proceed as in part (i) taking m = 1.

Example 23: Prove that if a > 0

∞ cos x π sin a ∞ sin x
(i) P ∫ −∞ 2 2
dx = (ii) P ∫ −∞ dx = 0.
a −x a a − x2
2
(Gorakhpur 2008, 09)
 C-207

Solution: Consider the integral

e iz
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫C dz ,
a2 − z 2
where C is the contour consisting of the large semi-circle
Γ of radius R, indented at z = a and z = − a. γ1 and γ 2 are
the small semi-circles with radii r1 and r2 and centres at
z = − a and z = a respectively.
The function f (z ) is regular within and on the contour C therefore by Cauchy’s residue
theorem, we have
− (a + r1)
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫Γ f (z ) dz + ∫ −R f ( x) dx + ∫γ1 f (z ) dz

a − r2 R
+ ∫ − (a − r1) f ( x) dx + ∫γ2 f (z ) dz + ∫ a + r2 f ( x) dx = 0 .

…(1)
2 2
Since 1 / (a − z ) → 0 as z → ∞, therefore by Jordan’s lemma, we have
lim
∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0 .
R→ ∞
lim lim e iz e − ia
Also (a + z ) f (z ) = = ,
z→−a z→−a a−z 2a
lim e− i a π − ia
therefore ∫γ1 f (z ) dz = i (0 − π) = − i e .
r1 → 0 2a 2a
lim π ia
Similarly ∫γ2 f (z ) dz = i e .
r2 → 0 2a
Hence when R → ∞, r1 → 0 , r2 → 0 , we have from (1)
−a  π − ia  a iπ ia ∞
∫ − ∞ f ( x) dx +  − i 2a e  + ∫ − a f ( x) dx + 2a e + ∫a f ( x) dx = 0

∞ π ia − ia
or P ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx = − i (e −e )
2a
∞ e ix π
or P ∫− ∞ dx = sin a.
a2 − x2 a
Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides, we get
∞ cos x π ∞ sin x
P ∫− ∞ 2 2
dx = sin a, P ∫− ∞ dx = 0 .
a −x a a − x2
2

∞ sin x π
Example 24: Prove that ∫ 2 2
dx = (1 − e − a ), a > 0 .
0 x (x + a ) 2 a2
e iz
Solution: Consider the integral ∫C f (z ) dz = ∫C dz ,
z (z 2 + a2 )
where C is the contour consisting of
 C-208

(i) a large semi-circle Γ,| z | = R in the upper half

plane
(ii) real axis from r to R
(iii) real axis from − R to −r
(iv) a small semi-circle γ,| z | = r.
z = 0, ± ia are the simple poles of f (z ). Out of these only z = ia lies within C.
Residue at z = ai is
lim lim e iz e− a
(z − ai) f (z ) = = ⋅
z → ai z → ai z (z + ai) − 2 a2
By residue theorem, we have
R −r
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫r f ( x) dx + ∫Γ f (z ) dz + ∫− R f ( x) dx + ∫γ f (z ) dz

= 2πi ΣR+ . …(1)

lim
By Jordan’s lemma, we have ∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0 .
R→ ∞
lim lim e iz 1
Also z f (z ) = = ,
z→0 z → 0 z 2 + a2 a2
lim 1 πi
∴ ∫γ f (z ) dz = i ⋅ 2
(0 − π) = − ⋅
r→0 a a2
∴ when r → 0 and R → ∞, we have from (1)
∞ 0 iπ  e− a 
∫0 f ( x) dx + ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx − = 2 π i − 2 
a2  2a 
∞ iπ
or ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx = (1 − e − a ).
a2
Equating imaginary parts on both sides, we get
∞ sin x π −a
∫ − ∞ x ( x2 + a2 ) dx = a2 (1 − e ).
Example 25: Show that if a and m are positive,
∞ sin2 mx π
∫0 dx = {e −2 am (2 am + 3) + 4 am − 3}.
x (a 2 + x 2 )2
2
8 a5
∞ sin2 mx 1 ∞ 1 − cos 2 mx
Solution: We have ∫0 2 2 2 2
dx = ∫0 dx.
x (a + x ) 2 x 2 (a 2 + x 2 )2

1 1 − e i 2 mz
Consider ∫C f (z ) dz = ∫C 2
dz ,
2 z (a 2 + z 2 )2
where C is the same contour as in Ex. 24.
z = 0, ± ia are the poles of f (z ) of order two. Only z = ai lies within C.
Putting z = ai + t in f (z ), we get
 C-209

1 {1 − e i 2 m (ai + t)} 1 (1 − e −2 am e i2 mt )
f (ai + t) = =
2 (ai + t)2 {a2 + (ai + t)2}2 2 (ai + t)2 (2 ait + t 2 )2
−2 −2
1 t 1 + t 
= (1 − e −2 am e i 2 mt ) 1 +   
8 a4 t 2  ai  2 ai
1 2t t
= 4 2
{1 − e −2 am (1 + i 2 mt + ……)} 1 − + …… 1 − + ……
8a t  ai   ai 
1 2t t
= (1 − e − 2 am − i2 m e − 2 am t) 1 −  1 − 
8 a4 t2  ai   ai
neglecting higher powers of t since t is small

1 3
= {(1 − e −2 am ) − i2 me −2 am t } 1 − t  ⋅
4 2
8a t  ai 
∴ Residue at z (= ai) is = coefficient of (1 / t) in f (ai + t)
1  3
=  − (1 − e
−2 am
) − 2 im e −2 am 
8 a 4  ai 
1
= {3 i (1 − e −2 am ) − 2 iame −2 am} ⋅
8 a5
By residue theorem, we have
R −r
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫r f ( x) dx + ∫Γ f (z ) dz + ∫− R f ( x) dx + ∫γ f (z ) dz

= 2πi Σ R + . …(1)

By Jordan’s lemma, ∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0 , when R → ∞.

lim lim 1 (1 − e i 2 mz ) Form 0 

Since z f (z ) =
z→0 z → 0 2 z (a2 + z 2 )2  0 
lim − i 2 m e i 2 mz − im
= = ⋅
z → 0 2 {(a2 + z 2 )2 + z 2 (a2 + z 2 ). 2 z} a 4
lim im −mπ
∴ ∫γ f (z ) dz = i  − 4  (0 − π) = ⋅
r→0  a  a4
Hence when r → 0, R → ∞, we have from (1)
∞ 0 mπ i
∫0 f ( x) dx + ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx − = 2 πi ⋅ {3 (1 − e −2 am ) − 2 ame −2 am}
a4 8 a5
∞ π
or ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx = 5
[4 am − 3 + e −2 am (3 + 2 am)].
4a
Equating real parts on both sides, we get

1 ∞ 1 − cos 2 mx π
∫− ∞ dx = [4 am − 3 + e −2 am (3 + 2 am)]
2 x2 (a2 + x2 )2 4 a5
 C-210

∞ sin2 mx π
or ∫− ∞ dx = [4 am − 3 + e −2 am (3 + 2 am)]
x2 (a2 + x2 )2 4 a5
∞ sin2 mx π
or ∫0 2 2 2 2
dx = [4 am − 3 + e −2 am (3 + 2 am)].
x (a + x ) 8 a5
∞ x − sin x
Example 26: Evaluate ∫ dx, a > 0 .
0 x (a2 + x2 )
3

z − i + ie iz
Solution: Consider ∫ f (z ) dz = ∫C dz , where C is the same contour as
C z 3 (a2 + z 2 )
in Ex. 24.
z = 0 is the pole of f (z ) of order two and z = ± ia are the simple poles of f (z ). Out of
these only z = ai lies within C.
Residue at z = ai is
lim lim z − i + ie iz (a − 1 + e − a ) i
(z − ai) f (z ) = = ⋅
z → ai z → ai z 3 (ai + z ) 2a 4

By residue theorem , we have

R −r
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫r f ( x) dx + ∫Γ f (z ) dz + ∫− R f ( x) dx + ∫γ f (z ) dz

= 2πi ΣR + . …(1)

By Jordan’s lemma, when R → ∞, ∫ f (z ) dz → 0 .

Γ

lim lim z − i + ie iz Form 0 

Since z f (z ) =
z→0 z → 0 z 2 (a2 + z 2 )  0 
1
z − i + i 1 + iz + i 2 z 2 + ……
lim  2 
=
z→0 z 2 (a2 + z 2 )
1 2
lim − 2 iz + ……
=
z → 0 z 2 (a2 + z 2 )
1
lim − 2 i + terms containing z in Nr. i
= 2 2
=− 2 ⋅
z→0 a +z 2a
lim i π
∴ ∫γ f (z ) dz = i  − 2  (0 − π) = − 2 ⋅
r→0  2a  2a
Hence when r → 0, R → ∞, we have
∞ 0 π (a − 1 + e − a ) i
∫0 f ( x) dx + ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx − = 2 πi
2 a2 2a 4
∞ π π
or ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx = 2
− (a − 1 + e − a ).
2a a4
 C-211

Equating real parts on both sides, we get

∞ x − sin x π 1 2 −a
∫ − ∞ x3 (a2 + x2 ) dx = a 4 (2 a − a + 1 − e )
∞ x − sin x π 1
or ∫0 3 2 2
dx = 4
( a2 − a + 1 − e − a ).
x (a + x ) 2a 2
4
∞ x π √3
Example 27: Prove that P ∫0 6
dx = ⋅
x −1 6

z4
Solution:Consider ∫ f (z ) dz = ∫C 6
dz , where C
C z −1
is the contour consisting of semi-circle Γ of radius R in
the upper half plane indented at z = − 1, 1, r1 and r2 are
the radii of the small semi-circles γ1 and γ 2 with centres
at z = − 1 and z = 1 respectively.
z = e2 n π i /6 , n = 0 , 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

are the simple poles of f (z ) of which only z = e i π /3 , e i 2 π /3 lie within C. Let α denote
any of these poles.
lim z4 lim z 4 1
Residue at z = α is = = ⋅
z → α D (z 6 − 1) z → α 6 z 5 6α

Sum of the residues at poles inside C is

1 1
= (e − i π /3 + e − i2 π /3 ) = (e − iπ /3 − e iπ /3 )
6 6
2i π √3 i
=− sin = − ⋅
6 3 6
By residue theorem, we have
− (1 + r1)
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫Γ f (z ) dz + ∫− R f ( x) dx + ∫γ1 f (z ) dz

1 − r2 R
+ ∫ − (1 − r1) f ( x) dx + ∫γ2 f (z ) dz + ∫1 + r2 f ( x) dx

= 2πi Σ R + . …(1)

 π R4 e i4 θ R i e i θ  π R5
Now f (z ) dz ≤  dθ ≤ dθ
 ∫Γ  ∫0  R6 e i6 θ − 1  ∫0 6
R −1

R5 π
= → 0 as R → ∞.
R6 − 1
lim
∴ ∫Γ f (z ) dz = 0 .
R→ ∞
lim lim (z + 1) z 4 Form 0 
Since (z + 1) f (z ) =
z → −1 z → − 1 z6 − 1  0 
 C-212

4
lim z + 4 z 3 (z + 1) 1
= =− ,
z → −1 6z 5 6
lim 1 iπ
∴ ∫γ1 f (z ) dz = − i (0 − π) = ⋅
r1 → 0 6 6
lim lim z4 Form 0 
Since (z − 1) f (z ) = (z − 1) 6
z →1 z →1 z −1  0 

4
lim z + 4 z 3 (z − 1) 1
= 5
= ,
z →1 6z 6

lim − iπ
∴ ∫γ2 f (z ) dz = ⋅
r2 → 0 6
Hence as r1 → 0 , r2 → 0 , R → ∞, we have from (1)
−1 iπ 1 iπ ∞  √3 
∫− ∞ f ( x) dx + + ∫ −1 f ( x) dx +  −  + ∫1 f ( x) dx = 2 πi  − i
6  6  6 
∞ π √3 ∞ π √3
or P ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx = or P ∫0 f ( x) dx = ⋅
3 6

13 Integrals of Many Valued Functions

a
Such integrals involve functions of the type log z , z where a is not an integer.

These integrals are not single valued. To evaluate such integrals we consider only those
contours whose interiors do not contain any branch point. For these integrals we
generally use double circle contour indented at the centre.

∞ log x π
Example 28:Prove that ∫ 2 2
dx = − , using as a contour a large semi-circle in the
0 (1 + x ) 4
upper half plane indented at the origin.
log z
Solution: Consider ∫ dz = ∫C f (z ) dz ,
C (1 + z 2 )2

where C is the contour as given in the question. (See

figure).
z = ± i are the double poles of f (z ). Only z = i lies inside
C.
Residue at z = i is φ′ ( i), where
log z
φ (z ) = or log φ (z ) = log log z − 2 log (z + i).
(z + i)2
 C-213

Differentiating,
φ′ (z ) 1 2  1 2 
= − or φ′ (z ) = φ (z )  − 
φ (z ) z log z z + i  z log z z + i

log i  1 1 (1 − log i)
∴ φ′ (i) =  − =−
−4  i log i i  4i
1 1
=− (1 − log e iπ /2 ) = − {1 − i (π / 2)}.
4i 4i
By residue theorem, we have
R r
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫r f ( x) dx + ∫Γ f (z ) dz + ∫R f ( x e iπ ) e iπ dx

+ ∫γ f (z ) dz = 2 πi ΣR + . …(1)

π log ( R e i θ )  π log R + θ
Now  f (z ) dz ≤ R i e iθ  dθ ≤ R dθ
 ∫Γ ∫0 ∫0
 2 i2 θ 2
  (1 + R e )  ( R 2 − 1)2

 π log R + 1 π2  R
 
 2  = R2  π log R 1 2 1 
= 2 2  + π 
( R − 1) ( R − 1)2 
2 R 2 R
lim log R
→ 0 as R → ∞, since = 0.
R→ ∞ R
π iθ
Similarly  f (z ) dz≤ ∫0 | f (re ) rie i θ | dθ → 0 as r → 0 ,
 ∫γ 
lim lim log r
since r log r = = 0.
r→0 r → 0 1/ r

Hence when r → 0, R → ∞, we have from (1)

∞ 0
∫0 f ( x) dx − ∫∞ f ( x e i π ) dx = 2 π i ΣR +

∞ log x ∞ log x e i π
or ∫0 dx + ∫0 dx
(1 + x2 )2 (1 + x2 e i 2 π )2
 1  iπ   π i π
= 2 π i − 1 −   = − 1 − ⋅
 4 i  2   2  2
Equating real parts on both sides, we get
∞ log x π ∞ log x π
2∫ dx = − or ∫0 dx = − ⋅
0 (1 + x2 )2 2 (1 + x ) 2 2 4
∞ xb π πb
Example 29: Prove that ∫ dx = sec , − 1 < b < 1.
0 1 + x2 2 2
zb
Solution: Consider ∫C f (z ) dz = ∫C dz , where C is the same contour as in
1 + z2
Example 28.
 C-214

b
Here we have avoided the branch point 0 of z by indenting at origin.
z = ± i are the simple poles of f (z ). Only z = i lies inside C.
Residue at z = i is
lim lim zb ib
(z − i ) f (z ) = =
z→i z → i z + i 2i
b
cos π + i sin π
 
 2 2 1  bπ b π
= = cos + i sin ⋅
2i 2i  2 2 
By residue theorem, we have
R r
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫r f ( x) dx + ∫Γ f (z ) dz + ∫R f ( x e iπ ) e iπ dx

+ ∫γ f (z ) dz = 2 πi ΣR + . …(1)

π Rb e ibθ i R e i θ  π Rb + 1
Now  f (z ) dz ≤  dθ ≤ dθ
 ∫Γ ∫0 ∫0
 2 i2 θ
  1+ R e  R2 − 1

Rb + 1
= π → 0 as R → ∞, since − 1 < b < 1.
R2 − 1

 0 r b +1
Similarly f (z ) dz ≤ dθ → 0 as r → 0. since b + 1 > 0.
 ∫γ  ∫π 1 − r2

Hence from (1), we have

∞ 0 1  πb πb
∫0 f ( x) dx − ∫∞ f ( x e iπ ) dx = 2 πi ⋅ cos + i sin 
2i  2 2
∞ xb ∞ e ibπ x b
πb πb
or ∫0 2
dx + ∫0 2 i2 π
dx = π cos + i sin  ⋅
1+ x 1+ x e  2 2

Equating real parts on both sides, we get

b
∞ x (1 + cos πb) πb
∫0 2
dx = π cos
1+ x 2
b
∞ x π cos (πb / 2) π πb
or ∫0 2
dx = = sec   ⋅
1+ x 1 + cos πb 2  2

Example 30: Prove that

∞ x a −1 2π  2 aπ + π 
∫0 2
dx = cos   cosec aπ, (0 < a < 2).
x + x +1 √3  6 
z a −1
Solution: Consider ∫C f (z ) dz = ∫C dz ,
z2 + z + 1
where C is the contour consisting of
(1) a large circle Γ,| z | = R
(2) radius vector θ = 2 π
 C-215

(3) a small circle γ,| z | = ρ

(4) radius vector θ = 0.
By residue theorem, we have
ρ
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫Γ f (z ) dz + ∫R f (r e i 2 π ) e i 2 π dr
R
+ ∫γ f (z ) dz + ∫ρ f ( x) dx = 2 πi ΣR+ .

…(1)
The poles of f (z ) are given by
− 1± i √ 3
z2 + z + 1 = 0 or z = ⋅
2
−1 √3
Thus z = +i = e2 πi /3 = α
2 2
1 √3
and z = − −i = e4 πi /3 = β are the simple poles of f (z ) and both lie in C.
2 2
lim lim z a − 1 α a − 1
Residue at z = α is (z − α) f (z ) = = ⋅
z→α z→α z −β α −β

Sum of the residues at poles inside C is

α a −1 β a −1 1
= + = (α a − 1 − β a − 1)
α −β β −α α −β
1
= [e i 2 π (a − 1) /3 − e i4 π (a − 1) /3 ]
i√3
e i π (a −1) − i π (a − 1) /3
= [e − e i π (a − 1) /3 ]
i√3

2 e i πa (a − 1) π 2 i πa π π
= sin =− e cos  + (a − 1) 
√3 3 √3 2 3
2 ia π  π + 2 aπ 
=− e cos  ⋅
√3  6 
2π  Ra − 1 exp {i θ (a − 1)} 
Now  f (z ) dz ≤ i R e i θ dθ
 ∫Γ ∫0  iθ 2 i2 θ
 1 + R e + R e 
2π Ra 2 πR a
≤ ∫0 2
dθ = 2
→0
R − R −1 R − R −1
as R → ∞, since 0 < a < 2.
0 a
 ρ
Similarly f (z ) dz ≤ dθ → 0 as ρ → 0.
 ∫γ  ∫2 π 1 − ρ − ρ2

Hence when R → ∞, ρ → 0 , we have from (1)

∞ 0
∫0 f ( x) dx + ∫∞ f (r e i 2 π ) e i 2 π dr = 2 πi ΣR+
 C-216

∞ x a −1 ∞ x a − 1 e i (a − 1) 2 π
or ∫0 dx − ∫0 dx
1 + x + x2 1 + xe i 2 π + x2 e i4 π
 2 i πa  π + 2 aπ  
= 2 πi  − e cos  
 √3  6 
∞ x a −1 4 π i i πa  π + 2 aπ 
or ∫0 2
(1 − e2 iaπ ) dx = − e cos  
1+ x + x √3  6 

(e ia π − e − ia π ) ∞ x a −1 2π  π + 2 aπ 
or ∫0 dx = cos  
2i 1 + x + x2 √3  6 
∞ x a −1 2π  π + 2 aπ 
or ∫0 2
dx = cos   cosec aπ.
1+ x + x √3  6 

e iz log (− iz )
Example 31: By integrating round the contour consisting of a large semi-circle in
z2 + 4
the upper half plane indented at the origin or otherwise prove that

∞ 2 cos x log x + π sin x 1

∫0 2
dx = π e −2 log 2.
x +4 2

e iz log (− iz )
Solution: Consider ∫C f (z ) dz = ∫C dz , where C is the contour as
z2 + 4
given above. (See fig. of Ex. 28).
z = ± 2 i are the simple poles of f (z ). Only z = 2 i lies within C.
Residue at z = 2 i is
lim lim e iz log (− iz ) e −2 log 2
(z − 2 i ) f (z ) = = ⋅
z → 2i z → 2i z + 2i 4i

By residue theorem, we have

R r
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫r f ( x) dx + ∫Γ f (z ) dz + ∫R f ( x e iπ ) e iπ dx

+ ∫γ f (z ) dz = 2 πi ΣR + …(1)

π  e i R e iθ log (− i R e iθ ) 
 iθ
Now f (z ) dz ≤ i R e  dθ
 ∫Γ ∫0 
 
 4 + R 2 e i2 θ
 
π log R + θ + (π / 2)
≤ ∫0 R dθ
R2 − 4
lim log R
→ 0 as R → ∞, since = 0.
R→ ∞ R

Similarly  f (z ) dz→ 0 as r → 0 .
 ∫γ 
Hence when r → 0, R → ∞, we have from (1)
 C-217

∞ 0 e −2 log 2
∫0 f ( x) dx − ∫∞ f ( x e iπ ) dx = 2 πi
4i

∞ e ix log (− ix) ∞ e − ix log (i x) π −2

or ∫0 2
dx + ∫0 dx = e log 2
x +4 x2 + 4 2
π
(cos x + i sin x)  log x − i 
∞  2  dx
or ∫0 x2 + 4
π
(cos x − i sin x)  log x + i 
∞  2 π −2
+ ∫0 dx = e log 2.
x2 + 4 2

Equating real parts on both sides, we get

cos x log x + π sin x dx
 
∞  2  π
2∫ 2
= e −2 log 2
0 x +4 2
∞ 2 cos x log x + π sin x π −2
or ∫0 2
dx = e log 2.
x +4 2

Example 32: Prove that

a −1
∞ x π
(i) ∫0 dx = , 0 < a<1
1+ x sin aπ
∞ x a −1
(ii) ∫0 dx = π cot aπ, 0 < a < 1.
1− x

z a −1
Solution: Let ∫ f (z ) dz = ∫C dz ,
C 1− z

where C is the contour consisting of a large semi-circle

Γ,| z | = R in the upper half plane indented at
z = 0 , z = 1. γ1 and γ 2 are the semi-circles in the upper
half plane with radii ρ1 and ρ2 and centres z = 0 , z = 1
respectively.
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have
− ρ1
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫Γ f (z ) dz + ∫− R f ( x) dx + ∫γ1 f (z ) dz

1 − ρ2 R
+ ∫ρ1 f ( x) dx + ∫γ2 f (z ) dz + ∫1 + ρ2 f ( x) dx = 0 , …(1)

since f (z ) has no pole inside C.

π Ra − 1 e i (a − 1)θ 
Now  f (z ) dz ≤ i R e iθ  dθ
 ∫Γ ∫0  iθ
  1− R e 
 C-218

∞ Ra Ra π
≤ ∫0 dθ = → 0 as R → ∞, since a < 1.
R −1 R −1
lim lim za
Since z f (z ) = = 0, a > 0,
z→0 z → 0 1− z
lim
∴ ∫γ1 f (z ) dz = − i (π − 0 ) 0 = 0 ,
ρ1 → 0

lim lim z a −1
(z − 1) f (z ) = (z − 1) = − 1,
z →1 z →1 1− z
lim
∴ ∫γ2 f (z ) dz = iπ.
ρ2 → 0

Hence as ρ1 → 0 , ρ2 → 0 , R → ∞, we have from (1)

0 1 ∞
∫− ∞ f ( x) dx + ∫0 f ( x) dx + iπ + ∫1 f ( x) dx = 0

0 ∞
or ∫ −∞ f ( x) dx + ∫0 f ( x) dx = − iπ

∞ ∞
or ∫0 f (− x) dx + ∫0 f ( x) dx = − iπ,
putting − x for x in the first integral
∞ (− x)a − 1 ∞ x a −1
or ∫0 dx + ∫0 dx = − iπ
1+ x 1− x
∞ (− 1)a − 1 x a −1 ∞ x a −1
or ∫0 dx + ∫0 dx = − iπ
1+ x 1− x
∞ (e i π )a − 1 x a −1 ∞ x a −1
or ∫0 dx + ∫0 dx = − iπ
1+ x 1− x
∞ e − i π ei a π x a −1 ∞ x a −1
or ∫0 dx + ∫0 dx = − iπ
1+ x 1− x
∞ e ia π x a − 1 ∞ x a −1
or − ∫0 dx + ∫0 dx = − iπ.
1+ x 1− x
Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides, we get
∞ cos aπ x a − 1 ∞ x a −1
− ∫0 dx + ∫0 dx = 0
1+ x 1− x
∞ x a −1 ∞ x a −1
or ∫0 dx = cos aπ ∫0 dx
1− x 1+ x …(2)
a −1 a −1
sin aπ x x π
and − ∫ dx = − π or ∫ dx = ⋅ Proved.
1+ x 1+ x sin aπ
Substituting the above value in (2), we get
∞ x a −1
∫0 dx = π cot aπ.
1− x
 C-219

Comprehensive Exercise 5

∞ cos ax − cos bx
1. Apply the calculus of residues to evaluate ∫0 dx, a > b > 0 .
x2
∞ cos 2 ax − cos 2 bx
2. Prove that ∫0 dx = − π (a − b), a > 0 , b > 0 .
x2
∞ sin mx π π e − ma  2
3. Prove that ∫ dx = − 3 
m +  , m > 0 , a > 0.
0 x ( x2 + a2 )2 2a 4 4a a

∞ sin2 mx π
4. Prove that ∫ dx = (e −2 ma − 1 + 2 ma), m > 0 , a > 0 .
0 x2 (a2 + x2 ) 4 a3
∞ sin πx
5. Prove that ∫ dx = π.
0 x (1 − x2 )
∞ log (1 + x2 )
6. Prove by contour integration ∫ dx = π log 2
0 1 + x2 (Gorakhpur 2009, 13)
1 log ( x + 1 / x) π
and deduce that ∫ dx = log 2.
0 1 + x2 2

(log z )2
7. By integrating round a suitable contour prove that
1 + z2
∞ (log x)2 π3 ∞ log x
∫0 2
dx = and ∫0 dx = 0 .
1+ x 8 1 + x2 (Gorakhpur 2003, 16)
∞ log x
8. Evaluate ∫0 dx.
(1 + x)3

A nswers 5

π 1
1. − (a − b) 8. −
2 2

14 Rectangular and other Contours

z
Example 33: Integrating round the rectangle with vertices at z = ± π, ± πiR, prove
1 − ae − iz
π ax sin x 1
that if a ≥ 1, ∫0 dx = π log 1 +
2 ⋅
1 − 2 a cos x + a  a

What is the value of this integral when 0 < a < 1 ?

 C-220

Solution: Consider the integral

z
∫ C 1 − ae− iz dz = ∫ C f (z ) dz ,
where C is the rectangle with sides x = ± π, y = 0 ,
y = R. f (z ) has simple poles given by
e iz = a = exp (log a + 2 nπi)
or z = − i (log a + 2 nπi), n = 0 , ± 1, ± 2
and so on.
If 0 < a < 1, there is only one pole z = − i log a which lies inside the rectangle C. If
a > 1 there is no pole inside C.
Residue at z = − i log a is
 z  − i log a
 − iz 
= = − log a.
 D (1 − a e ) ai exp (− log a)
z = − i log a

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have

π R −π
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫− π f ( x) dx + ∫0 f (π + iy) i dy + ∫π f ( x + iR) dx

0
+ ∫R f (− π + iy) i dy = 2 πi (− log a). …(1)

| x + iR|
Now  − π f ( x + iR) dx≤ −π
dx
 ∫π  ∫π |1 − a exp (− i x + R)|
−π | x| + R
≤ ∫π dx → 0 , as R → ∞.
a e R −1
π π x dx 0 x dx π x dx
∫− π f ( x) dx = ∫− π − ix
= ∫ −π − ix
+ ∫0 ⋅
1− a e 1− a e 1 − a e − ix

Putting − x for x in the first integral, we get

0 x dx π x dx π  1 1 
I = ∫π ix
+ ∫0 − ix
= ∫0 x − ix
−  dx
1 − ae 1 − ae 1 − ae 1 − ae ix 

π − x a (e ix − e − ix ) π − 2 ixa sin x
= ∫0 ix − ix 2
dx = ∫0 dx.
1 − a (e + e )+ a 1 − 2 a cos x + a2
lim  R 0
Also f (π + iy) i dy + f (− π + iy) i dy
R → ∞ ∫0 ∫R 

∞  π + iy (− π + iy) 
= ∫0  −  i dy
1 − a exp (− iπ + y) 1 − a exp (πi + y)
∞ 2π ∞ 2 πi e − y
= ∫0 y
i dy = ∫0 dy
1 + ae e− y + a
 C-221

y ∞
= − 2 πi [log (e − + a)]0

= 2 πi [log (1 + a) − log a].

Hence as R → ∞, we have from (1)

π − 2 ixa sin x
∫0 dx + 2 πi {log (1 + a) − log a} = 2πi (− log a),
1 − 2 a cos x + a2
0 < a<1
π xa sin x
or ∫0 dx = π log (1 + a).
1 − 2 a cos x + a2
When a > 1, we have from (1)

π − 2 ixa sin x
∫0 dx + 2 πi {log (1 + a) − log a} = 0
1 − 2 a cos x + a2
π ax sin x 1
or ∫0 dx = π log 1 +
2 ⋅
1 − 2 a cos x + a  a

Example 34: Apply the calculus of residues to prove that

∞ cosh ax 1 a
∫0 cosh πx dx = 2 sec 2 , − π < a < π.
Solution: Consider
eaz
∫C dz = ∫C f (z ) dz ,
cosh πz

where C is the rectangle with corners at

1 1 1
R, R + i, − R + i and − R indented at i.
2 2 2
Within and on this contour, f (z ) is regular
and so by Cauchy’s theorem, we get
R 1 /2
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫− R f ( x) dx + ∫0 f ( R + iy) i dy

ρ 1 −R 1
+ ∫R f (x + i ) dx + ∫γ f (z ) dz + ∫− ρ f (x + i ) dx
2 2
0
+ ∫1 /2 f (− R + iy) i dy = 0 . ...(1)

lim lim (z − 1 i) e az
1 2 exp (ai / 2) exp (ai / 2)
Since 1 (z − i) f (z ) = 1 = = ,
z→ i 2 z → i cos h πz 1 πi
2 2 π sinh π i
2
lim 1
we have ∫γ f (z ) dz = (− πi) . . exp (ai / 2) = − exp (ai / 2),
ρ→ 0 πi
 C-222

 1 /2 f ( R + iy) i dy ≤ 1 /2  exp {aR + aiy} 

 i dy
 ∫0  ∫0  cosh π ( R + iy ) 

1 /2 e a R dy
≤ ∫0 cosh πR cos πy − sinh πR sin πy
[∵ |cosh πR cos πy + i sinh πR sin πy |
≤ |cosh πR cos πy | − | i sinh πR sin πy |]

1 /2 e aR dy
∫0 πR
→ 0 as R → ∞, a < π.
e (cos πy − sin πy)

[∵ R is large we can write e πR for cosh πR and sinh πR]

0
Similarly ∫1 /2 f (− R + iy) i dy → 0 as R → ∞.

Hence when R → ∞, and ρ → 0, we get from (1),

∞ 0 1 −∞ 1
∫− ∞ f ( x) dx + ∫∞ f (x + i ) dx − e ai /2 + ∫0 f (x + i) = 0
2 2
∞ ∞ 1
or ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx − ∫− ∞ f (x + i) dx = e ai /2
2
 1
exp {a ( x + i)}
∞  eax 2  dx = e ai /2
or ∫− ∞ cosh πx − 1 
 cosh π ( x + i) 
 2 
∞  e ax ax e a i /2  1 1
or ∫ − ∞ cosh πx
 − e ⋅  dx = (cos a + i sin a)
i sinh πx  2 2

Equating real and imag inary parts,

1
sin a . e ax
∞ e ax ∞ 2 1
∫− ∞ dx − ∫− ∞ dx = cos a ...(2)
cosh πx sinh πx 2
1
e ax cos a
∞ 2 dx = sin 1 a or ∞ e ax 1
and ∫− ∞ ∫− ∞ dx = tan a. ...(3)
sinh πx 2 sinh πx 2
From (2) and (3), we get
∞ e ax 1 1 1
∫− ∞ dx − sin a tan a = cos a
cosh πx 2 2 2
∞ e ax 1
or ∫− ∞ dx = sec a
cosh πx 2
0 e ax ∞ e ax 1
or ∫− ∞ dx + ∫0 dx = sec a.
cosh πx cosh πx 2
 C-223

Putting x = − y in the first integral, we get

0 e − ay ∞ e ax 1
− ∫∞ dy + ∫0 dx = sec a
cosh πy cosh πx 2

∞ e ax + e − ax 1
or ∫0 dx = sec a
cosh πx 2
∞ cosh ax 1 1
or ∫0 dx = sec a.
cosh πx 2 2

Example 35: By integrating e iz / √ z along a suitable path prove that

∞ cos x ∞ sin x π
∫0 dx = ∫0 dx = ⋅
√x √x 2

e iz
Solution: Consider ∫C dz = ∫C f (z ) dz ,
√z
where C is a quadrant of a circle indented at the origin
which is the centre of the circle. Since f (z ) is regular
within and on C,therefore by Cauchy’s theorem, we have
R
∫C f (z ) dz = ∫ρ f ( x) dx + ∫Γ f (z ) dz

ρ
+ ∫R f (r e i π /2 ) e i π /2 dr

+ ∫γ f (z ) dz = 0 . …(1)

 π /2  exp (i R e i θ ) 
Now f (z ) dz≤  1 /2 i θ /2 i R e i θ dθ
 ∫Γ  ∫0  R e 
π /2
≤ ∫0 e − R sin θ R1 /2 dθ

π /2
≤ ∫0 e −(2 θ / π )R R1 /2 dθ, by Jordan’s inequality

π
= (1 − e − R ) → 0 as R → ∞.
2√R

 0 0
Similarly, f (z ) dz ≤ e −ρ sin θ ρ1 /2 dθ ≤ ρ1 /2 dθ,
 ∫γ  ∫ π /2 ∫ π /2
since e − ρ sin θ ≤ 1 for small values of ρ
→ 0 as ρ → 0 .
Hence when R → ∞, ρ → 0 , we have from (1)
i π /2
∞ e ix ∞ e ir e
∫0 dx − i ∫ dr = 0
√x 0 √ r e i π /4
 C-224

∞ e ix ∞
or ∫0 dx = i e − i π /4 ∫0 r − 1 /2
e − r dr
√x
1 i  1 π
= i  −  Γ = (1 + i) ⋅
 √ 2 √ 2 2 2
Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides, we get
∞ cos x π ∞ sin x π
∫0 dx = , ∫0 dx = ⋅
√x 2 √x 2

15 To find the Residue by Knowing the Integral First

So far we evaluated the integrals with the help of residues of the function f (z ) and
Cauchy’s residue theorem. Now we shall illustrate how can we find the residues of f (z )
by integrating f (z ) and then using the residue theorem.

1
Example 36: Find the residue of tann −1 πz at z = , where n is an even positive integer.
2
n −1
 sin πz 
Solution: Let f (z ) = tann − 1 πz =   .
 cos πz 

Poles of f (z ) are given by

cos πz = 0
or e iπz + e − iπz = 0

or e i 2 πz = − 1 = e(2 r + 1) πi
1
or z= (2 r + 1), r = 0 , ± 1, ± 2,……
2
Consider a rectangular contour C with sides x = 0 , 1,
1
y = ± R. The only pole which lies inside C is z = ⋅
2
1
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have the residue at (z = )
2
1 
f (z ) dz + f (z ) dz + f (z ) dz + f (z ) dz  ,
2πi  ∫ AB ∫ BC ∫ CD ∫ DA
=

…(1)
n −1
where f (z ) = tan πz .

On BC, we have z = 1 + iy, dz = i dy,

 C-225

R
∴ ∫ BC tann − 1 π z dz = ∫ −R tann − 1 {π (1 + iy)} i dy
R
= ∫ −R i tann − 1 iπy dy

and on DA, we have z = iy, dz = i dy,

−R
∴ ∫ DA tann − 1 πz dz = ∫R tann − 1 (πiy) i dy

R
=− ∫− R i tann − 1 (πiy) dy.

Thus ∫ BC tann − 1 πz dz + ∫ DA tann − 1 πz dz = 0 .

1
Hence from (1), we have the residue at (z = )
2
1 
tann − 1 πz dz + tann − 1 πz dz 
2 πi  ∫ AB ∫ CD
=


1  1 0
tann − 1 π ( x − iR) dx + tann − 1 π ( x + iR) dx  ⋅
2 πi  ∫0 ∫1
=


1 exp iπ ( x − iR) − exp {− iπ ( x − iR)}

Now tan π ( x − iR) =
i exp iπ ( x − iR) + exp {− iπ ( x − iR)}

1 1 − exp {− 2 iπ ( x − iR)}
=
i 1 + exp {− 2 iπ ( x − iR)}

1 1 − exp (− 2 iπx) exp (− 2 πR) 1

= → as R → ∞.
i 1 + exp (− 2 iπx) exp (− 2 πR) i
1
Similarly tan (πx + iπR) → − as R → ∞.
i
1
∴ the residue at z = is
2
n −1 n −1
1  1 1 0  − 1 
dx + dx
2 πi  ∫0 ∫1
=     
 i  i 

1  1 (− 1)n − 1 
=  n −1 − 
2 πi  i i n −1 

1  1 1 
= + , n is an even positive integer
2 πi  i n − 1 i n − 1 

1 1
= n
= (− 1)n /2 .
πi π
 C-226

Comprehensive Exercise 6

e iaz
1. Integrating , (a is real) round the rectangle of sides x = 0, x = R,
e2 πz − 1
y = 0 , y = 1, indented at 0 and i, prove that

∞ sin ax 1 1 1
∫0 2 πx
dx = coth a − ⋅
e −1 4 2 2a

2. Integrating log (1 − e i 2 z ) round a suitable contour, prove that

π
∫0 log sin x dx = − π log 2.
2
3. By integrating e − z round the rectangle whose vertices are 0, R, R + ia, ia, show
that
∞ 2 1 2
∫0 e − x cos (2 ax) dx = √ π e− a
2
∞ 2 2 a x2
and ∫0 e − x sin (2 ax) dx = e − a ∫0 e dx.

z
4. By integrating round the rectangle with vertices at ± π, ± π + iR ,
a − e −iz

 π log (1 + a) , if 0 < a < 1

π a
x sin x dx
prove that ∫0 2
=
1 + a − 2 a cos x  π log 1 + a  , if a > 1.
 
 a  a 

exp (iaz 2 ) 1
5. By integrating round the rectangle with vertices ± R ± i, show that
sinh πz 2
if 0 < a ≤ π,

∞ cosh ax 1 a ∞ cosh ax 1 a
∫0 cos (ax2 ) dx = cos and ∫0 sin (ax2 ) dx = sin ⋅
cosh πx 2 4 cosh πx 2 4

2
6. By integrating e iz / z round a suitable contour, prove that

∞ sin x2 π
∫0 dx = ⋅
x 4
∞ sin x π
Deduce that ∫0 dx = ⋅
x 2 (Gorakhpur 2004, 07, 10)
 C-227

Objective Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from (a),
(b), (c ) and (d).

1
1. The number of poles of f (z ) = inside the circle | z | = 1 is
z (z + 3) (z 2 + 2)3
2

(a) 1 (b) 9
(c) 5 (d) 2.

dz
2. If C is circle | z | = 3, then the value of ∫ is
C (z − 1) (z + 1)
(a) 1 (b) 0
(c) 2 (d) none of these.

z +1
3. The residue of the function f (z ) = at z = 1 is
(z − 1) (z − 2)
(a) − 2 (b) 2
(c) 1 (d) − 1. (Kumaun 2014)

1
4. The residue of at z = ∞ is
z3 − z5
(a) 1 (b) 0
(c) − 1 (d) 2.

 1 
5. The residue of z 3 cos   at z = 2 is
 z − 2
143 22
(a) (b) −
124 123
143
(c) − (d) none of these.
24
1
6. The residue of the function at z = i is
(z + 1)3
2

3i 3i
(a) − (b)
16 16
3
(c) − (d) none of these.
16i
 C-228

2π dθ
7. The value of ∫ , a > b > 0 is
0 a + b cos θ
π 2π
(a) 2 2
(b)
√ (a − b ) √ (a − b2 )
2

3π
(c) (d) none of these.
√ (a2 − b2 )

∞ dx
8. The value of ∫ is
0 1 + x2
(a) 0 (b) 1
π
(c) (d) none of these.
2
e miz
9. If f (z ) = , then residue of f (z ) at z = ai is
z 2 + a2
e− m a e ma
(a) (b)
2 ia 2 ia
e −m a
(c) (d) none of these.
2a (Kumaun 2007)
sin 2 z
10. If f (z ) = , the residue of f (z ) at z = − 1 is
(z + 1)3
(a) 2 sin 2 (b) − 2 sin 2
(c) 0 (d) none of these.
z2
11. The residue of at infinity is :
(z − a)(z − b)(z − c )
(a) 1 (b) −1
(c) a (d) b (Kumaun 2010, 13)

Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……’’ so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1. The residue of a function f (z ) at ∞ is given by lim ……… .
z→∞
2. If f (z ) is regular, except at a finite number of poles within a closed contour C and
continuous on the boundary of C, then ∫ f (z ) dz is ……… , where ΣR is the
C

sum of residues of f (z ) at its poles within C.

1
3. Residue of 3 at z = ± 1 is ……… .
z − z5

e miz
4. Residue of f (z ) = at z = − ai is ……… .
z + a2
2
 C-229

 1 
5. Residue of cos   at z = 2 is ……… .
 z − 2
lim
6. If (z − a) f (z ) = A and if C is the arc θ1 ≤ θ ≤ θ2 of the circle | z − a | = r,
z→a
lim
then ∫C f (z ) dz = ……… .
r→0

π 2 sin θ
7. When 0 ≤ θ ≤ , ≤ ≤ 1. This is known as …… inequality.
2 π θ

z2
8. If f (z ) = , residue of f (z ) at z = 1 is ……… .
(z − 1) (z − 2) (z − 3)

True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
φ (z )
1. If f (z ) = where ψ (z ) = (z − a) F (z ), F (a) ≠ 0, then residue at the simple
ψ (z )
φ (a)
pole z = a is ⋅
ψ ′ (a)
1
2. The residue of f (z ) at infinity is the coefficient of in the expansion of f (z ) in
z
the neighbourhood of z = ∞.
3. If a function f (z ) is analytic except at finite number of singularities (including
that at infinity), then the sum of residues of these singularities is zero.
φ (z )
4. If f (z ) is of the form where φ (z ) is analytic, the residue of f (z ) at
(z − a) m
φ m (a)
z = a is ⋅
(m − 1)!
lim
5. If C is an arc θ1 ≤ θ ≤ θ2 of the circle | z | = R and if z f (z ) = 0, then
R→ ∞
lim
∫C f (z ) dz = 0 .
R→ ∞

1
6. Residue of at z = 0 is 1.
z (1 − z 2 )

π 1 + 2 cos θ π
7. The value of ∫ dθ is ⋅
0 5 + 3 cos θ 2

z2 i
8. Residue of 2
at z = i is ⋅
(z + 1) 4
 C-230

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c)
6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (b)

Fill in the Blank(s)

1
1. − z f (z ) 2. 2πi Σ R 3. −
2
i ma
4. e 5. 0
2a
1
6. iA (θ2 − θ1) 7. Jordan’s 8.
2

True or False
1. T 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. T
6. T 7. F 8. F