REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

SOUTH CENTRAL MINDANAO COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY
Purok Rosal Barangay New Isabela
Tacurong City, Sultan Kudarat

COURSE NO. ET 122 Units: 3

Course Title: Fundamentals of Electricity

VISION OF THE INSTITUTION

The academe envisions of providing graduates who are God fearing, patriotic, academically competent
and skillful individuals. It is committed to offer a safety environment with innovative approaches in teaching
and learning process and always be of service to its community.

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTION

The academe is fully committed to foster and sustain quality education, where students honed their
potential in a safe and caring environment.
Teachers passionately foster learning with competence and provide an avenue that may bring out
students’ skills in challenging and enjoyable way.
Administrators endeavor to be of help always to support and impose programs that will promote quality
teaching and learning.
Individuals in the locality are highly enjoined to share responsibility and be part of implementing
programs that will develop quality and skillful individuals.

CORE VALUES

DETERMINATION = determined to develop an institution that strive to achieve excellence

MOTIVATION = every individual in the academe is full of enthusiasm to pursue the objectives for the
betterment of the institution.
COOPERATION = working hand in hand and be sensitive with the needs of its stakeholders for the betterment
of the college.
CARING = emphatic to the welfare of every individual not only within the institution but with the constituents
in the locality.
LEARNING = we aspire of learning on the highest standard.
RESPECT = mutual respect should be afforded to every individual in the institution
COMMITMENT = we must be strongly committed to provide an academe that is conducive for teaching and
learning.

GRADING SYSTEM:
Module/Portfolio/activities 50%
Laboratory 30%
Exam 20%
100%

GRADE EQUIVALENT

PERCENTAGE NUMERICAL EQUIVALENT

GRADE DESCRIPTION
99-100 1.00 - Excellent
96-98 1.25
93-95 1.50
90-92 1.75
87-89 2.00 -VeryGood
84-86 2.25
81-83 2.50
78-80 2.75
75-77 3.00
74 and Below FAILED
 Program/Course: ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE

Module Title: Signal and Communication System

INTRODUCTION:
Welcome to the Module “Signal and Communication System”. This module contains training materials
and activities for you to complete.
After completing this module ask your teacher to assess your competence. Result of your assessment will be
recorded in your competency profile. All the learning activities are designed for you to complete at your own
pace.

Inside this module you will find the activities for you to complete and relevant information sheets for each
learning outcome. Each learning outcome may have more than one learning activity.

This module is prepared to help you achieve the required competency, in receiving and relaying
information. This will be the source of information that will enable you to acquire the knowledge, skills and
attitude towards learning Signal and communication System.

This module consists of three (e) Learning Outcomes (LO’s) that contains learning activities for both
knowledge and skills supported with information sheets, job/operation sheets and self-check. Before attempting
to perform the manual exercises, see to it that you have already read and understood the information/operation
sheet and answered correctly the self-check provided in every Learning Activities.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Upon completion of this module, the students shall be able to:

LO1. Define What is a Communication system

LO2. Identify Communication Models
LO3. Define what is a Transmission Line
LO4. Understand and Identify Noises in Communication system
LO5. Identify Attenuator and Filters
LEARNING OUTCOME # 1:
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

A communication system conveys information from its source to a destination some distance
away. There are so many different applications of communication systems that we cannot attempt to
cover every type, nor can we discuss in detail all the individual parts that make up a specific system.
A typical system involves numerous components that run the gamut of electrical engineering—
circuits, electronics, electromagnetics, signal processing, microprocessors, and communication
networks, to name a few of the relevant fields. Moreover, a piece-by-piece treatment would obscure
the essential point that a communication system is an integrated whole that really does exceed the
sum of its parts.
A communications system is a collection of communications equipment that is integrated into a
coherent system. These allow different people to stay in touch over a geographical system. One
major application is in disaster response. With a communications system, firefighters, police and
paramedics can coordinate their efforts with other government officials.
 Signals or information’s passes from source to distention through what is called channel,
which represents a way that signal use it to move from source toward destination. To transmit signals
in communication system, it must be first processed by several stages, beginning from signal
representation, to signal shaping until encoding and modulation. After preparing the transmitted
signal, it passed to the transmission line of channel and due signal crossing this media it faces many
impairments such noise, attenuation and distortion.
We therefore approach the subject from a more general viewpoint. Recognizing that all
communication systems have the same basic function of information transfer, we’ll seek out and
isolate the principles and problems of conveying information in electrical form. These will be
examined in sufficient depth to develop analysis and design methods suited to a wide range of
applications. In short, this text is concerned with communication links as systems.
LEARNING OUTCOME # 2:
COMMUNICATION MODELS

Introduction
The Purpose of a communication system is to carry information from one point to
another. A typical communication system consists of three main components as
shown in figure 1.1, they are:
 Source.
 Channel.
 Destination.

Figure 1.1: communication

system model

An example of communication system shown in figure 1.2

Figure1.2:example of
communication system

In telecommunications and computer networking, a communication channel, or channel, refers

either to a physical transmission medium such as a wire, or to a logical connection over a multiplexed
medium such as a radio channel. A channel is used to convey an information signal, for example a
digital bit stream, from one or several senders (or transmitters) to one or several receivers. A channel
has a certain capacity for transmitting information, often measured by its bandwidth in Hz or its data
rate in bits per second.
The channel is a media that information passes through from source to destination
and there are many channel impairments affect in channel performance as shown in
figure 1.3. these impairments such as;

 Attenuation.
 Distortion.
 Noise.
Attenuation
Attenuation can be problematic for long distance communications. This means
due to signal propagate through media the initial signal power decreases if the length
of the media becomes longer.

Figure 1.4: attenuation effect

For example, if the attenuation level is 0.9 /km, so every length that signal passes
the power of the signal becomes lower by 0.9 * Power at every km. As an example,
figure 1.5 shows the attenuation effect in the transmission media.

Figure 1.5: attenuation example

To solve the problem of attenuation, amplifiers used to amplify the signal power, make it able to pass the haul
distance between the source and destination. Also use of digital signals are less susceptible to attenuation than
analog signals.
Figure 1.6: amplifiers in communication system

Distortion
Other channel impairment known as distortion, it means that the signal is distorted and may have a
bandwidth larger than the channel bandwidth. The distortion causes a variation in signal frequency and maybe a
linear or non-linear distortion.
Linear distortion
Linear distortion is said to occur if the system has a not flat amplitude transfer
function or if the group delay is not zero or constant. Phase- and Amplitude errors
cause linear distortions. The linear distortion is shown in figure 1.7 below.

Figure 1.7: linear distortion

Linear distortion can occur for two reasons. A- The first is a not flat amplitude transfer function.
It's called frequency response. It's just a graph of the reproduced amplitude as a function of
frequency (as opposed to amplitude as a function of time-the time domain). B- The second is a
bit more confusing and has to do with the phase shift that can occur. A signal has amplitude, but
it also has a phase characteristic. If the amplitude relationships are reproduced correctly, but the
phase relationships are not, this can cause linear distortion. A certain amount of phase shifting
between frequencies occurs wherever there is not flat frequency response. But a device can have
a flat amplitude transfer function and still have this phase shifting going on between adjacent
frequencies.

Figure 1.8: example of liner distortion

To solve the problem of linear distortion, the message should fit the channel bandwidth by using
and equalizer.

Figure 1.9: Linear distortion Equalizer

 Non-linear distortion
Nonlinear distortion is said to occur when the output waveform has any frequency
components not present in the original signal.

Figure 1.10: nonlinear distortion

Means that Non-linear distortion arises when a signal passes through a system
element that has a non-linear Vin -Vout transfer characteristic. Figure 1.11 shows a
non-linear distortion example for two signals that pass through the same media.

Figure 1.11: nonlinear distortion example

To solve the problem of nonlinear distortion using and equalizer. Equalization

compensates for the differences in signal attenuation and delay associated with
different frequency components. Around a center frequency, relatively high
frequency signals attenuate more than relatively low frequency signals over a
distance, so an equalizer may reduce the amplitude of the low frequency signals and increase the
amplitude of the high frequency signals in order that the signals at the receiver are in the same
relative balance as they were at the transmitter. Adaptive equalizers automatically adjust to levels
of distortion that vary as the signal path or its characteristics change over time.

Noise Effect
Noise is the one of channel impairment, causes an interruption in the received signal at the destination.
Noise maybe caused by external or internal noise source. External Sources: interference from signals
transmitted on nearby channels (crosstalk), interference generated by contact switches, automobile ignition
radiation, natural noise from lightning, solar radiation, as an example of external figure 1.12 shows a crosstalk
noise.
 Internal Sources: thermal noise (random motion of electrons in conductors, random diffusion and
recombination of charged carriers in electronic devices). As an example, figure 1.13 shows an internal noise.

Notice that the effects of external noise can be minimized or eliminated. And the effects of
internal noise can be minimized but never eliminated.
The Solutions for External Noise are;
Shielding or twisting.
A different cable designs.
Proper design of the channel.
Use digital transmission
Using BPF or LPF at the receiver side.

Solutions for Internal Noise are;

Cooling.
Use digital transmission.
Using BPF or LPF at the receiver side.

The effect of Impairments ALL Together (Attenuation + Noise) is calculated as shown in figure 1.14.
LEARNING OUTCOME # 3:
TRANSMISSION LINE

Introduction
The purpose of the transmission line is to transfer from source over some distance to a remote load.
Transmission lines are commonly used in power distribution (at low frequencies) and in communications (at
high frequencies). Various kinds of transmission lines such as the twisted-pair and coaxial cables are used in
computer networks such as the Ethernet internet.
A transmission line basically consists of two or more parallel conductors used to connect a source to a load. The
source may be a hydroelectric generator, a transmitter, or an oscillator; the load may be an antenna, or an
oscilloscope, respectively. Typical transmission lines include coaxial cable, a two-wire line, a parallel-plate or a
wire above the conducting plane, and a micro strip line.

Reflections on transmission line

When signals are travelling down the transmission line, the source does not at first know what the
impedance of the load is. If the voltage and the current travelling down the line do not match the impedance, a
reflection occurs at the load end. there are two types of example of transmission lines that affected by the
reflection they are;

Open circuit line

A voltage V with source resistance R is connected by a switch to the transmission
line of characteristic impedance Zo at time t =0. To get maximum power from the source into the
Transmission Line, R is made equal to Zo. The load is an open circuit. when load is open circuit the
current should be zero but the source cannot do that, so initially current starts to flow at t=0 with value
V/2Zo (there is a potential divider effect between the source resistance and the Zo of the transmission
line, giving 0.5 when R=Zo. When current step arrives at the load it has nowhere to go so it is reflected
and a reverse step is created at time t=δ where δ is time taken to travel down the line. The value of the
reverse step is – V/2Zo the two currents cancel out completely so there is some transient behavior
known as the steady state.

Short circuit line

When the far end is short circuit, the voltage at far end will be zero, but the source does not know what
is connected at the end, so initially the voltage step starts to travel down the line when value V/2
When the voltage step arrives at the load the step is reflected and a backwards-traveling step is created at
the time t=δ and the value of the reverse step is – V/2 and the two voltages cancel out at the short circuit end.
The reflection coefficient is the ratio of the reflected and incident voltage waves. For the short circuit its value is
-1 or magnitude 1 phase 180 degrees.
 Notes that transient behavior in electricity power transmission con cause huge spikes and destroy the
equipment’s. In computer networks the reflections cause data error as bits interface with one another. And in
radio systems reflections can also lead to damage to components, inefficient transfer power and data corruption.
The way to avoid this problem is to ensure Z source = Z load = Zo of the transmission line, in this case
the reflection coefficient of the matched load is zero. For open circuit case the reflection coefficient is 1 angle 0
degrees.

Practical construction of transmission line for RF & Microwaves

Twisted pairs line

Twisted pairs started off life in telephony and were generally regarded as a cheap and simple means of
achieving signal for low frequency transmission line. Nowadays they used widespread in computer networking
a UTP stands for unshielded twisted pair and this cables are used to supply 100Mb/s.

Coaxial cables
Coaxial cable consists of a center connector inside a cylindrical outer ground shield, usable to a few
hundred MHz Other types are usable up to GHz.
 There are other types used for computers supports high data rate connections known as Micro – coaxial.

Hollow waveguide
In this waveguide signal propagates as an electromagnetic wave, with a complicated filed pattern, they
have low loss and handle high power.

Micro strip cables

This type consists of signal conductor mounted above ground plane, usually by using dielectric
substrate. The micro strip is usable to more than 100 GHz.

TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS

It’s easy to describe a transmission line in terms of its line parameters, which are its:

1- Resistance per unit length R

2- Inductance per unit length L
3- Conductance per unit length G
4- Capacitance per unit length C.

Each of the lines has specific formulas for finding R, L, G, and C For coaxial, two-wire, and planar
lines, the formulas for calculating the values of R, L, G, and C are provided in Table below;
 The characteristics of the conductor at each cable are δ, µ, ε and other lengths are also used. Normally
each of the above line R, L, G and C are given to calculate the transmission line equations.

TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS

For calculating the equations of the transmission lines assume that we have a line with two conductors
they support an electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic fields on the line are transverse to the direction
of wave propagation, the fields E and H are uniquely related to voltage V and current I, respectively:

We will use circuit quantities V and / in solving the transmission line problem instead of solving field
quantities E and H, the equivalent circuit for this line shown below. We assume that the wave propagates along
the +z-direction, from the generator to the load.
Steps of Equations
1- By applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to the outer loop of the circuit we obtain;

Divide the equation 2 by ∆z:

Taking the limit of ∆z 0:

2- By applying Kirchhoff's current law to the main node of the circuit we obtain;

From the figure 21 the value of ∆I given by;

So, the equation 5 becomes;

Divid e the
equation 8 by ∆z:

Taking the limit of ∆z 0:

If we assume harmonic time dependence so that;

Where Vs(z) and Is(z) are the phasor forms of V(z, i) and I(z, t), respectively; equation 4 and 10 become;

Take the second derivative of Vs in equation 13 and apply equation 14 to the equation obtained after
second derivative;

or can be written by;

Where γ=;

Take the second derivative of Is in equation 14 and apply equation 13 to the

equation obtained after second derivative;

or can be written by;

for all above equations;

γ = represents the propagation constant.
α= attenuation constant (in nepers per meter or decibels per meter).
β= phase constant (in radians per meter).

The wavelength λ and wave velocity u are, respectively, given by;

So;
The solutions of the linear homogeneous differential equations 16 and 19 similar to;

Where V+o, V-o, I+o, I-o are wave amplitudes; wave traveling along +z-and -z-directions.

The characteristic impedance Zo of the line is the ratio of positively traveling voltage wave to current wave
at any point on the line. By applying equation 20 and 21 into 13 and 14 we will obtain;

So, becomes;

Where; Ro and Xo are real and imaginary of Zo.

Lossless line (R = 0 = G)

A transmission line is said to be a lossless if the conductor of the line are perfect and the dielectric medium
separating them is lossless.

Means that; R=0=G

Distortion less Line (R/L = G/C)

A signal normally consists of a band of frequencies; wave amplitudes of different frequency components
will be attenuated differently in a lossy line as α is frequency dependent. This results in distortion.

A distortion less line is one in which the attenuation constant α is frequency independent while the phase
constant β is linearly dependent on frequency.
- For distortion less line,

- showing that α does not depend on frequency whereas β is a linear function of frequency. Also

Or

Note that; A- The phase velocity is independent of frequency because the phase constant β linearly
depends on frequency. We have shape distortion of signals unless α and u are independent of frequency. B- u
and Zo remain the same as for lossless lines. C- A lossless line is also a distortion less line, but a distortion less
line is not necessarily lossless. Although lossless lines are desirable in power transmission, telephone lines are
required to be distortion less. Table below shows the characteristics of transmission line.

Exa mple 1
An airline has characteristic impedance of 70 Ω and phase constant of 3 rad/m at 100 MHz Calculate the
inductance per meter and the capacitance per meter of the line.

Solutions;

An airline can be regarded as a lossless line;

Divide equation 1 by 2;

Example 2
A distortion less line has Zo = 60 fl, α = 20 mNp/m, u = 0.6c, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum.
Find R, L, G, C, and λ at 100 MHz

Solution;

For a distortion less line,