ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND

INSTRUMENTATION List of Contents

1. Introduction to Electrical Measuring Instruments

1.1Concept of measurement and instruments
1.2Concept of measurement of electrical quantities and instruments for their
measurements, sources of error.
1.3Types of electrical measuring instruments – indicating, integrating and recording
type instruments
1.3 Essentials of indicating instruments – deflecting, controlling and damping
torque Multiple choice questions, Short /long answer questions
2. Ammeters and Voltmeters (Moving coil and moving iron type):
2.1 Concept of ammeter and voltmeters and difference between them
2.2 Construction and working principles of moving Iron and moving coil instruments
2.3 Merits and demerits, sources of error and application of these instruments
Multiple choice questions, Short /long answer questions

3 Wattmeters (Dynamometer Type)

3.1Construction, working principle, merits and demerits of dynamometer type wattmeter,
3.2 Digital wattmeter.

4 Energy meter - Construction, working principle

5 Miscellaneous Measuring Instruments:

5.1 Construction, working principle and application of Meggar, Earth tester(analog
and digital) Multimeter, Frequency meter Instrument Transformers:
5.2 Construction, working and applications
a) CT
b) PT
6 Electronic Instruments: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope: Block diagram, working principle of
CRO and its various controls. Applications of CRO.
7 LCR meters.
8 Power Measurements in 3-phase circuits
9 Transducers
10 Measurement of Temperature
 1 Introduction

1.1 Measurement:
It is the act or result of quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and
an unknown quantity.
Instrument:
It is a device or mechanism used to determine the present value of a quantity under observation.
1.2 Instruments can be classified as:
- Absolute instruments
- Secondary instruments
Absolute instruments:
• Absolute instruments indicate the value of the quantity being measured in terms of constant
of instruments and its deflection.
• No comparison with standard instrument is necessary.
• Example: tangent galvanometer, Rayleigh current balance.
Secondary instruments:
• The secondary instruments need calibration with respect to the absolute instruments.
• The secondary instruments determine the value of the quantity being measured from the
deflection of the instruments.
• Calibration is a must for secondary instrument, without calibration the deflection obtained is
meaningless.
Example: Ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.

1.3 Classification
Secondary instruments are further classified according to the nature of operation as
: 1. Indicating
2. Recording
3. Integrating instruments.
• Indicating instruments: They uses scale and pointer to indicate the instantaneous
value of quantity under measurement.
• Recording instruments: They use pen and graph to give a continuous record of variation
of quantity being measured (such as voltage, frequency, power etc.). Recorders
are commonly used in power plants, process industries.
• An integrating instrument: They uses dial and display is one which takes into
consideration the period or the time over which the quantity is supplied. e.g. ampere hour
meter, energy meter.
• Electrical instruments can also classified as:
1. A.C. instruments
2. D.C. instruments
3. A.C./D.C. instruments
Some electrical instruments can measure only A.C. quantity, e.g. induction type
instruments, some can measure only D.C. quantity, e.g. P.M.M.C. instruments. Some can
work on both a.c. and d.c. e.g. moving iron instruments, dynamometer instruments etc.
 Analog or Digital instruments: One more way of classifying instrument is:
1. Analog instruments
2. Digital instruments.
Analog information is continuous and step less function of time. Analog instruments are

easy to understand, calibrate and maintain.Digital information is in form of discrete pulses or

steps. Digital instruments have higher

resolution, high readability

For satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument, following three torques must act
together appropriately: 1. Deflecting torque
2. Controlling torque
3. Damping torque Deflecting Torque:
• It causes the moving system of the instrument to move from its initial position by means of
operating quantities or measurand.
• Deflecting torque is produced by using any one of the following effects of electric current :
Magnetic effect, Electromagnetic induction effect, Heating effect, Electrostatic effect .
Controlling Torque:
• It limits the movement of moving systems means used to bring back the pointer to its
original position by means of spring and gravity control methods.
• Controlling torque acts in the opposite direction to that of the deflecting torque.
• At steady state, Deflecting torque = Controlling torque
Damping Torque:
• Due to deflecting torque, pointer moves in one direction while due to controlling torque
pointer moves in opposite direction.
• Due to these opposite torques, the pointer may oscillate in the forward and backward
direction if the damping torque is not present.
• Damping torque brings the moving system to rest quickly in its final position.
• Damping torque acts only when the moving system is actually moving. If moving system is
at rest, damping torque is zero.
• Depending on the magnitude of torque, damping may be classified as under damped, over
damped or critically damped. Effect of damping on the deflection of the instrument is shown
in Fig. (1).
• If the instrument is under damped, the pointer will come to rest after some oscillations.
• If the instrument is overdamped, pointer takes considerable time to obtain its final deflected
position. If the damping is critical, without oscillation and in short time the pointer reach its
final steady position.
 2 Ammeters and Voltmeters

Connection diagram of an Ammeter:

Ammeter is used for the measurement of current.
An ammeter is always connected in series with the load, the current through which is
to be measured as shown in Fig. (2.1). Since the ammeter is very small, its
introduction in series with load.resistance offered by an

Fig 2.1

Connection diagram of a voltmeter:

A voltmeter is used for the measurement of voltage (potential difference).
So it is connected across the points between which the potential difference is
to be measured.

A voltmeter has a high resistance, so it draws very small current. The connection of a
voltmeter is as shown in Fig.(2.2).

Fig. (2.2)

Comparison of Ammeter and Voltmeter

 Sr. No Ammeter Voltmeter

It is used to measure Current in ampere It is used to measure voltage in volt

1
Connected in series with load Connected in parallel with load
2

3 Resistance are low Resistance is high

4
Instruments based the
To extend on working
range lowPrinciple
resistance is To extend the range high series resistance
connected
Permanent is connected (i.e. multiplier)
magnet moving coil (PMMC) type Moving
iron (MI) type

2.2.1 Moving Coil Instruments

• Moving coil instruments (ammeter and voltmeter) are of two types:
• Permanent magnet moving coil type (PMMC) used only for D.C.
• Dynamometer type can be used for AC as well DC.
• They are also known as d‘Arsonval instruments.
• These instruments works on the electromagnetic effect of current.
• A permanent magnet used to produce magnetic flux and coil that carries the current to
be
measures moves in this field.

Working principle of PMMC - When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic

field, it experiences a force and tends to move in the direction as per Fleming‘s left-hand
rule.

i.e. F = NBIL

where, Where F = Force in Newton, B = Flux density is tesla, I = Current is ampere, L = Length
of conductor in meter, N= number of turn in coil
Deflecting Torque:
It can be proved that the expression for the deflecting torque is given by,
Td = G x I where G = constant , I = Current through the moving
coil Controlling Torque :
The controlling torque is given by,
Tc = C. θ where C = Control spring constant in N-m/rad, θ = Deflection of coil
from zero position
For steady state, the controlling torque is equal to the deflection torque
∴ Tc = Td , i.e. Cθ = GI ,∴θ∝I
Thus deflection of the pointer is proportional to current passed through the coil.
Advantages of PMMC Instruments:
The PMMC consumes less power and has great accuracy.
It has uniformly divided scale and can cover arc of 270 degree.
The PMMC has a high torque to weight ratio.
It produces no losses due to hysteresis.
Disadvantages of PM MC Instruments:
The moving coil instrument can only be used on D.C supply as the reversal of current
produces reversal of torque on the coil. 2.2.2 Types of moving iron instruments:
1. Attraction type
2. Repulsion type

2.2.2.1 Attraction type moving iron instrument:

 Fig .Moving iron instrument

Construction of the attraction type moving iron instrument is as shown in the given figure.
The moving iron, i.e. the disc of soft iron, is eccentrically mounted. Coil is situated around
the disc. When the coil is ex cited it produces magnetic field.
Due to magnetic field the moving iron moves from the weaker field outside the coil to the
stronger field inside the coil. Thus moving iron gets attracted inwards and thus the name
attraction type.
The controlling torque is provided by the balance weights attached to the moving iron.
Spring also can be used to provide controlling torque.
Damping is provided by air friction in which aluminum piston is attached to the moving
system and moves in a closed air damping chamber.
Working principle
In Moving Iron Instruments, a plate or van of soft iron or of high permeability steel forms the
moving element of the system. The iron van is so situated that it can move in the magnetic
field produced by a stationary coil
The stationary coil is excited by the current or voltage under measurement. When the coil is
excited, it becomes an electromagnet and the iron van moves in direction of offering low
reluctance path. Thus the force of attraction is always produced in a direction to increase the
inductance of coil. Mind that as the van follows the low reluctance path, the net flux in air
gap will increase which means increased flux linkage of coil and hence inductance of coil
will increase. It shall also be noticed that, the inductance of coil is variable and depends on
the position of iron van.
Deflecting torque in Moving iron Instruments is given as

Td = (1/2)I2(dL/dƟ)

In moving iron instruments, the controlling torque is provided by spring. Controlling torque due
to spring is given as
Tc = KƟ

At steady state Tc = Td and Ɵ = (1/2)(I2/K)(dL/dƟ)

We observe that the angular deflection of needle of moving iron instruments is square of rms
current flowing through the coil. Therefore, the deflection of moving iron instruments is
independent of direction of current.

2.2.3Repulsion Type

In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the coil one fixed and other movable. These
are similarly magnetized when the current flows through the coil and there is a force of
repulsion between the two vanes resulting in the movement of the moving vane. Two different
nt designs are in common use (I) Radial Vane Type In this type, the vanes are radial strips of
iron. The strips are placed within the coil

as shown in Fig. The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the movable one to the spindle of the
instrument. (a) Radial vane type. (b) Co-axial vane type

(ii) Co-axial Vane Type In this type of instrument, the fixed and moving vanes are sections of
co axial cylinders as shown in Fig. The controlling torque is provided by springs. Gravity control
can also he used in vertically mounted instruments. The damping torque is produced by air
friction as in attraction type instruments. The operating magnetic field in moving iron
instruments is very weak and therefore eddy current damping is not used in them as introduction
of a permanent magnet required for eddy current damping would destroy the operating magnetic

Field. It is clear that whatever may be the direction of the current in the coil of the instrument,
the iron vanes are so magnetized that there is always a force of attraction in the attraction type
and repulsion in the repulsion type of instruments. Thus moving iron instruments are unpolarised

Instruments i.e., they are independent of the direction in which the current passes. Therefore,
these instruments can be used on both A.C. and D.C.

Comparison between Attraction and Repulsion Type of Instruments.

In general it may be said that attraction-type instruments possess the same advantages, and are
subject to the limitations, described for the repulsion type.

• An attraction type instrument will usually have a lower inductance than the
corresponding repulsion type instrument, and voltmeters will therefore be accurate over a
wider range of frequency and there is a greater possibility of using shunts with
ammeters.
• On the other hand, repulsion instruments are more suitable for economical production
in manufacture, and a nearly uniform scale is more easily obtained; they are, therefore,
much more common than the attraction type.
2.4 Errors in Moving Iron Instruments

There are two types of errors, which occur in moving iron instruments — errors which occur
with both a.c. and D.C. and the other which occur only with ac. only. Errors with both D.C. and
A.C i) Hysteresis Error ii) Temperature error iii) Stray magnetic field Errors with only A.C
Frequency errors
Advantages & Disadvantages 1) Universal use (2) Less Friction Errors (3) Cheapness (4)
Robustness (5) Accuracy (6) Scale (7) Errors (8) Waveform errors.

3 Dynamometer Type Wattmeter

The dynamometer type wattmeter are very important because they are commonly employed
for measuring power in AC circuits.
Construction of Dynamometer Type Wattmeter
A dynamometer type wattmeter essentially consists of two coils called fixed coil and moving
coil. The fixed coil is splitted into two equal parts which are placed parallel to each other. The
two fixed coils are air-cored to avoid hysteresis effects when used on AC.
A dynamometer type wattmeter essentially consists of two coils called fixed coil and moving
coil. The fixed coil is splitted into two equal parts which are placed parallel to each other. The
two fixed coils are air-cored to avoid hysteresis effects when used on AC.
The fixed coil is connected in series with the load and carries the circuit current. It is, therefore,
called current coil. The moving coil is pivoted between the two parts of the fixed coil and is
mounted on the spindle. A pointer is attached to the spindle which gives deflection. The moving
coil is connected in parallel with the load and carries the current proportional to the voltage. It is,
therefore, called potential coil.

Generally, a high resistance is connected in series with the moving coil to limit the current
through it. By limiting the current, the moving coil is made of light weight which in turn
increases the sensitivity of the instrument.

The controlling torque is provided by springs which also serve the additional purpose of leading
current into and out of the moving coil. Air friction damping (not shown in fig.) is employed in
such instruments.
Dynamometer Type Wattmeter Working
When power is to be measured in a circuit, the wattmeter is connected in the circuit. The current
coil is connected in series with the load, carries the load current and the potential coil, connected
in parallel with the load, carries the current proportional to the voltage across the load. The fixed
coil produces a field Fm and moving coil produces a field Fr. The field Fr tries to come in line
with the main field Fm, which produces a deflecting torque on the moving coil.
Advantages: It can be used both on AC and DC circuits. It has a uniform scale. High degree of
accuracy can be obtained by careful design.
Disadvantages: At low power factors, the inductance of the potential coil causes serious errors.
The reading of the instrument may be affected by stray fields acting on the moving coil.
In order to prevent it, magnetic shielding is provided by enclosing the instrument in an iron case.
4 Energymeter
Energy meters are the basic part to measure the power consumption. It is used
everywhere, no matter how big or small consumption it is. It is also known as watt-hour
meter. Here we discuss the construction and working principle of induction type energy
meter. To understand the structure of watt-hour meter, we must understand the four
essential components of the meter. These components are as follows:
1. Driving system
2. Moving system
3. Braking system
4. Registering system
Now there are two types of induction meters and they are written as follows:
Single phase type
Three phase type induction meters.
Driving system
It consists of two electromagnets, called “shunt” magnet and “series” magnet, of laminated
construction. A coil having large number of turns of fine wire is wound on the middle limb
of the shunt magnet. This coil is known as ―pressure or voltage‖ coil and is connected
across the supply mains. This voltage coil has many turns and is arranged to be as highly
inductive as possible. In other words, the voltage coil produces a high ratio of inductance to
resistance.

Moving system
The moving system essentially consists of a light rotating aluminum disk mounted on a vertical
spindle or shaft. The shaft that supports the aluminum disk is connected by a gear arrangement to
the clock mechanism on the front of the meter to provide information that consumed energy by
the load.
Braking system damping of the disk is provided by a small permanent magnet, located
diametrically opposite to the a.c magnets. The disk passes between the magnet gaps. The
movement of rotating disc through the magnetic field crossing the air gap sets up eddy currents
in the disc that reacts with the magnetic field and exerts a braking torque.
Phase and Speed Errors:
The phase errors is introduced because the shunt magnet flux does not leg behind the supply
voltage by exactly 90 degree due to some resistance of the coil and iron losses. the angle less
slightly less than 90 degree. Because this errors the torque is not zero at zero power factor of the
load.
In order to remove this error, made supply voltage exact 90 degree . this is accomplished by
adjusting the position of copper shading band provided on central limb of the shunt magnet. an
error on the fast under these condition can be eliminated by bringing the shading and near to the
disc and vice-versa
Sometimes, the speed of the disc of energy meter is faster or slower , when tested on a load
having power factor. there, energy meter register either more or less energy and errors is
introduced.
In order to remove this error, the redial position of the braking magnet is adjusted. Movement of
braking magnet, away from the centre of the disc increase the torque which decreases the speed
of the Disc.

Frictional Error:
This error is introduced due to friction at the rotor bearing and the register mechanism. because
this error is unwanted braking torque acts on the moving system and register less energy then the
actual energy passing though it
This error is compensated by placing two short circuited bands on the outer limbs of the shunt
magnet. These bands embrace the flux contain in two outer limbs of of the shunt magnet. An emf
induces circulating current though them. This causes phase displacement between the enclose
flux and main flux. As a result of this, a small driving torque is exerted on the disc solely by
pressure coil which compensate the friction torque.

Creeping error:
The slow but continuous rotation of energy meter , which only pressure coil is excited but no
current flow though the current coil is called creeping. This error may be due to excessive
friction compensation, excessive voltage supply and stray magnetic field etc.
In order to prevent creeping on no load, two holes are drilled in the disc on the opposite side of
the spindle at the same radius , this causes sufficient distortion of the field to prevent continuous
rotation.
Temperature Error:
By changing the temperature, the parameter of the coils change slightly which introduce a small
error in meter. However, this error negligible small and there is no need to prevent any means to
eliminate the error.
 Frequency Error:
Since the energy meter are used normally at fixed frequency, therefore , they are designed and
adjusted to have minimum error declared supply frequency Which is normally 50 Hz in India.
Objective Questions
Q Creeping is avoided by __________ a)
reversing the polarity of the voltage
b) drilling two diametrically opposite holes
c) holding the disc
d) increasing the friction
Q Energy meter creeps __________ a)
due to change in supply
b) due to reversal in polarity of voltage
c) due to asymmetry in magnetic circuit
d) due to turns ratio of transformer

5 Miscellaneous Measuring Instruments:

5.1 Megger
Insulation resistance IR quality of an electrical system degrades with time, environment
condition, i.e., temperature, humidity, moisture and dust particles. It also gets impacted
negatively due to the presence of electrical and mechanical stress, so it‘s become very necessary
to check the IR (Insulation resistance) of equipment at a constant regular interval to avoid any
measure fatal or electrical shock.
The device enable us to measure electrical leakage in wire, results are very reliable as we shall be
passing electric current through device while we are testing. The equipment basically uses for
verifying the electrical insulation level of any device such as motors, cables, generators,
windings, etc. This is a very popular test being carried out since very long back. Not necessary it
shows us exact area of electrical puncture but shows the amount of leakage current and level of
moisture within electrical equipment/winding/system.
Construction of Megger
 Deflecting and Control coil : Connected parallel to the generator, mounted at right angle
to each other and maintain polarities in such a way to produced torque in opposite
direction.
1. Permanent Magnets : Produce magnetic field to deflect pointer with North-South pole
magnet.
2. Pointer : One end of the pointer connected with coil another end deflects on scale from
infinity to zero.
3. Scale : A scale is provided in front-top of the megger from range ‗zero‘ to ‗infinity‘,
enable us to read the value.
4. D.C generator or Battery connection : Testing voltage is produced by hand operated DC
generator for manual operated Megger. Battery / electronic voltage charger is provided
for automatic type Megger for same purpose.
5. Pressure Coil Resistance and Current Coil Resistance : Protect instrument from any
damage because of low external electrical resistance under test.

Working Principle of Megger

• Voltage for testing produced by hand operated megger by rotation of crank in case of
hand operated type, a battery is used for electronic tester.
• 500 Volt DC is sufficient for performing test on equipment range up to 440 Volts.
• 1000 V to 5000 V is used for testing for high voltage electrical systems.
• Deflecting coil or current coil connected in series and allows flowing the electric current
taken by the circuit being tested.
• The control coil also known as pressure coil is connected across the circuit.
• Current limiting resistor (CCR and PCR) connected in series with control and deflecting
coil to protect damage in case of very low resistance in external circuit.
• In hand operated megger electromagnetic induction effect is used to produce the test
voltage i.e. armature arranges to move in permanent magnetic field or vice versa.
• Where as in electronic type megger battery are used to produce the testing voltage.
• As the voltage increases in external circuit the deflection of pointer increases and
deflection of pointer decreases with a increases of current.
• Hence, resultant torque is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to
current.
• When electrical circuit being tested is open, torque due to voltage coil will be maximum
and pointer shows ‗infinity‘ means no shorting throughout the circuit and has maximum
resistance within the circuit under test.
• If there is short circuit pointer shows ‗zero‘, which means ‗NO‘ resistance within circuit
being tested.

Earth Tester
Definition: The instrument used for measuring the resistance of the earth is known
as earth tester. All the equipment of the power system is connected to the earth through
the earth electrode. The earth protects the equipment and personnel from the fault current.
 The resistance of the earth is very low. The fault current through the earth electrode
passes to the earth. Thus, protects the system from damage.
Construction of Earth Tester
The earth tester uses the hand driven generator. The rotational current reverser and the
rectifier are the two main parts of the earth tester. The current reverser and the rectifier are
mounted on the shaft of the DC generator. The earth tester works only on the DC because of the
rectifier.
The tester has two commutators place along with the current reverser and rectifier. The each
commutator consist four fixed brushes. The commutator is a device used for converting the
direction of flows of current. It is connected in series with the armature of the generator. And the
brushes are used for transferring the power from the stationary parts to the moving parts of the
devices.
The earth tester consists two pressures and the current coils. The each coil has two terminals.
The pair of the pressure coil and the current coil are placed across the permanent magnet. The
one pair of current and pressure coil is short-circuited, and it is connected to the auxiliary
electrodes.
The earth tester consists the potential coil which is directly connected to the DC generator. The
potential coil is placed between the permanent magnet. The coil is connected to the pointer, and
the pointer is fixed on the calibrated scale. The pointer indicates the magnitude of the earth
resistance. The deflection of the pointer depends on the ratio of the voltage of pressure coil
to the current of the current coil.

5.2 Instrument transformers. These instruments transformers are of two types - (i) Current
Transformers (CT) and (ii) Potential Transformers (PT).
Current transformers are generally used to measure currents of high magnitude. These
transformers step down the current to be measured, so that it can be measured with a normal
range ammeter. A Current transformer has only one or very few number of primary turns. The
primary winding may be just a conductor or a bus bar placed in a hollow core (as shown in the
figure). The secondary winding has large number turns accurately wound for a specific turns
ratio. Thus the current transformer steps up (increases) the voltage while stepping down
(lowering) the current.
Now, the secondary current is measured with the help of an AC ammeter. The turns ratio of a
transformer is NP / NS = IS / IP

Potential transformers are also known as voltage transformers and they are basically step
down transformers with extremely accurate turns ratio. Potential transformers step down the
voltage of high magnitude to a lower voltage which can be measured with standard measuring
instrument. These transformers have large number of primary turns and smaller number of
secondary turns.
A potential transformer is typically expressed in primary to secondary voltage ratio. For
example, a 600:120 PT would mean the voltage across secondary is 120 volts when primary
voltage is 600 volts.
 6 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

Oscilloscope is electronic equipment, which displays a voltage waveform. Among the

oscilloscopes, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is the basic one and it displays a time varying
signal or waveform.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the block diagram of CRO and measurements of some
parameters by using CRO.
Block Diagram of CRO
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) consists a set of blocks. Those are vertical amplifier, delay
line, trigger circuit, time base generator, horizontal amplifier, Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) & power
supply. The block diagram of CRO is shown in below figure.

The function of each block of CRO is mentioned below.

• Vertical Amplifier − It amplifies the input signal, which is to be displayed on the screen
of CRT.
• Delay Line − It provides some amount of delay to the signal, which is obtained at the
output of vertical amplifier. This delayed signal is then applied to vertical deflection
plates of CRT.
• Trigger Circuit − It produces a triggering signal in order to synchronize both horizontal
and vertical deflections of electron beam.
• Time base Generator − It produces a saw tooth signal, which is useful for horizontal
deflection of electron beam.
• Horizontal Amplifier − It amplifies the saw tooth signal and then connects it to the
horizontal deflection plates of CRT.
 • Power supply − It produces both high and low voltages. The negative high voltage and
positive low voltage are applied to CRT and other circuits respectively.
• Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) − It is the major important block of CRO and mainly
consists of four parts. Those are electron gun, vertical deflection plates, horizontal
deflection plates and fluorescent screen.
The electron beam, which is produced by an electron gun gets deflected in both vertical and
horizontal directions by a pair of vertical deflection plates and a pair of horizontal deflection
plates respectively. Finally, the deflected beam will appear as a spot on the fluorescent screen. In
this way, CRO will display the applied input signal on the screen of CRT. So, we can analyse the
signals in time domain by using CRO
Measurements by using CRO
We can do the following measurements by using CRO.
• Measurement of Amplitude
• Measurement of Time Period
• Measurement of Frequency
Now, let us discuss about these measurements one by one.
Measurement of Amplitude
CRO displays the voltage signal as a function of time on its screen. The amplitude of that
voltage signal is constant, but we can vary the number of divisions that cover the voltage signal
in vertical direction by varying volt/division knob on the CRO panel. Therefore, we will get the
amplitude of the signal,
Measurement of Time Period
CRO displays the voltage signal as a function of time on its screen. The Time period of that
periodic voltage signal is constant, but we can vary the number of divisions that cover one
complete cycle of voltage signal in horizontal direction by varying time/division knob on the
CRO panel.
Measurement of Frequency
The frequency, f of a periodic signal is the reciprocal of time period, T. Mathematically, it can
be represented as
f=1/T
So, we can find the frequency, f of a periodic signal by following these two steps.
• Step1 − Find the Time period of periodic signal
• Step2 − Take reciprocal of Time period of periodic signal, which is obtained in Step1
 7 LCR Meter

Definition: LCR meters can be understood as a multi meter, this is because it can
measure resistance, inductance, and capacitance as per the requirement. Thus, it is termed as
LCR meter. L in its name signifies inductance, C stands for capacitance and R denotes
resistance. The significant component of LCR meter is the Wheatstone bridge and RC ratio
arm circuits. The component whose value is to be measured is connected in one of the arms of
the bridge. There are different provisions for the different type of measurements.

Working of LCR Meter

The bridge is adjusted in null position in order to balance it completely. Besides, the sensitivity
of the meter should also be adjusted along with balancing of the bridge. The output from the
bridge is fed to emitter follower circuit. The output from emitter follower circuit is given as an
input to detector amplifier. The rectifier is used in the circuit to convert the AC signal into DC
signal. When the bridge is provided with AC excitation then output end of the bridge the AC
signal needs transformation into DC signal.
Front Panel of LCR meter

1. ON/OFF Switch: The ON/OFF switch can be used to turn on or off LCR meter. When the
switch is positioned to ON state, the main supply is connected with LCR meter. After this,
 it is crucial to leave the meter for 15 minutes so that it can warm up. The indicator on the
front panel will start glowing to indicate that the LCR meter is ON.
2. Test Terminals: The two points on the front panel are test terminals. The component
which is to be measured is connected to these test terminals.
3. Function Selector: The function selector is used for setting the meter in the mode in order
to measure the particular type of the component. If resistance is to be measured, then the
function selector is to be set at R mode, if inductance is to be measured it is to be adjusted
to L mode and similarly in case of capacitance it is to be adjusted at C mode.
4. Range Selector: The range selector provides an extent of measuring range so that
component of high magnitude or low magnitude values can be measured easily. The range
selector should be adjusted properly in order to have correct measurement. For example: if
a resistor of 10 mega ohms is under measurement and the range selector is in the range of
ohms, then it will not show reliable and accurate results.

8 Two Wattmeter Method

The Two Wattmeter Method is explained, taking an example of a balanced load. In this, we
have to prove that the power measured by the Two Wattmeter i.e. the sum of the two wattmeter
readings is equal to root 3 times of the phase voltage and line voltage (√3V LIL Cosϕ) which is the
actual power consumed in a 3 phase balanced load.

Determination of Power Factor from Wattmeter Readings

As we know that,

Now,
 Dividing equation (3) by equation (2) we get,

Q 1 The input power to a 3-phase a.c. motor is measured as 5kW. If the voltage and
current to the motor are 400V and 8.6A respectively, determine the power factor of the
system? Power P=5000W, line voltage VL = 400 V, line current, IL = 8.6A and power, P
=√3 VLIL cos φ Hence
Power factor = cos φ = P √3 VLIL = 5000 √3 (400) (8.6) = 0.839
2. Two wattmeters are connected to measure the input power to a balanced 3-phase
load by the two-wattmeter method. If the instrument readings are 8kW and 4kW,
determine (a) the total power input and (b) the load power factor.
(a)Total input power, P=P1 +P2 =8+4=12kW
(b) tan φ =√3(P1 − P2)/(P1 + P2) =√3 (8 – 4) / (8 + 4) =√3 (4/12) =√3(1/3) = 1/ √3

Hence φ= tan−1 1 √3 =30◦

Power factor= cos φ= cos 30◦ =0.866

9 Transducers
The transducer changes the physical quantity into an electrical signal. It is an electronic device
which has two main functions, i.e., sensing and transduction. It senses the physical quantity and
then converts it into mechanical works or electrical signals.
The transducer is of many types, and they can be classified by the following criteria.

1. By transduction used.
2. as a primary and secondary transducer
3. as a passive and active transducer
4. as analogue and digital transducer
5. as the transducer and inverse transducer

The transducer receives the measured and gives a proportional amount of output signal. The
output signal is sent to the conditioning device where the signal is attenuated, filtered, and
modulated.
Primary Transducer – The transducer consists the mechanical as well as the electrical devices.
The mechanical devices of the transducer change the physical input quantities into a mechanical
signal. This mechanical device is known as the primary transducers.
Secondary Transducer – The secondary transducer converts the mechanical signal into an
electrical signal. The magnitude of the output signal depends on the input mechanical signal.
Example of Primary and Secondary Transducer
Consider the Bourdon‘s Tube shown in the figure below. The tube act as a primary transducer. It
detects the pressure and converts it into a displacement from its free end. The displacement of
the free ends moves the core of the linear variable displacement transformer. The movement of
the core induces the output voltage which is directly proportional to the displacement of the tube
free end.

Passive Transducer – The transducer which requires the power from an external supply source
is known as the passive transducer. They are also known as the external power transducer. The
capacitive, resistive and inductive transducers are the example of the passive transducer. Active
Transducer – The transducer which does not require the external power source is known as the
active transducer. Such type of transducer develops theirs owns voltage or current, hence known
as a self-generating transducer. The output signal is obtained from the physical input quantity.
Transducer – The device which converts the non-electrical quantity into an electric quantity is
known as the transducer.
Inverse Transducer – The transducer which converts the electric quantity into a physical
quantity, such type of transducers is known as the inverse transducer. The transducer has
high electrical input and low non-electrical output.

10 Temperature Transducer
Definition: The temperature transducer converts the thermal energy into a physical quantity likes
the displacement, pressure and electrical signal
Types of Temperature Transducer
The temperature transducer is mainly classified into two types.
Contact Temperature Sensor Device
In such type of transducers, the sensing element is directly connecting to the thermal source. And
the heat is transferred by the phenomenon of conduction. The conduction is the process through
which the heat is transferred from one substance to another without the movement of the
substance.
Non-contact Type Temperature Sensor Device
The sensing element is directly not contacting the thermal source. They use convection
phenomenon for the transfer of heat. The convection is the process in which the heat is transfer
by the movement of the substance. The non-contact type transducer is sub-categorised into the
following categories.
Thermistor – The thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies with the temperature.
The resistance is measured by passing the small measured direct current, and this current causes
the voltage drop across the resistance.

Resistance Thermometer – The resistance of metal varies with the temperature. And this
property of the metal is used for measuring the temperature. The resistance thermometer uses the
platinum as the sensing element and hence measures the surrounding temperature.
Thermocouples – The thermocouple converts the temperature into the electrical energy at the
point of the contact. It works on the principle that the metals have different temperature
coefficient and when these two metals join together then the voltage induces, and this voltage is
directly proportional to the temperature.

PREPARED BY:

ENGR. ROMEO O. MAROTO