263

Alien Invasive Species in Tanzania

John K. Bukombe1, Ally K. Nkwabi1,2, Lazaro J. Mangewa3, Emmanuel
A. Sweke4, Pius Y. Kavana1,2, Steven D. Liseki1, and Hamza H. Kija1
1
 Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI), Arusha, Tanzania
2
 Mahale-Gombe Wildlife Research Centre, Kigoma, Tanzania
3
 Department of Wildlife Management, College of Forestry, Wildlife and Tourism, Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA),
Morogoro, Tanzania
4
 Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute (TAFIRI), Kigoma, Tanzania

9.1 ­Introduction

Alien invasive species (AIS) are species that were introduced to areas outside their natu-
ral distribution and whose growth and spread cause harm to human health, the economy,
and the environment. Invasive alien species (IAS) are alien or introduced species that,
once established in natural or semi-natural ecosystems, become an agent of change and
threaten native biological diversity (Shine et  al.  2000). Alien species become invasive
only if they have adverse impacts on the environment, the economy, or human health.
Koike et al. (2004) defined alien species as species, subspecies, or lower taxa introduced
outside their past or present distribution, while invasive alien species are those whose
establishment and/or spread threaten ecosystems, habitats, or species with economic or
environmental harm.
Invasive species (IS) have become among the most prominent threats to livelihood
development in the world (International Union for Conservation of Nature [IUCN] 2003;
Gurevitch and Padilla  2004; Shackleton et  al.  2007; Invasive Species Specialist Group
(ISSG)-IUCN 2016). IAS over compete with native species, with ultimately extinctions of
the later (Foxcroft et  al.  2006; Foxcroft  2009). The impact occurs across different taxa,
including birds, fish, and mammals (Miller et al. 1989; Nkwabi et al. 2018). The loss of
biodiversity implies a reduction of the capacity of invaded ecosystems in providing
ecosystem goods and services, especially in rural areas (Shackleton et al. 2007). Invasive
species in African countries increased for different socioeconomic values such as fast
production of timber, ornamental, or food. Examples are the black wattle (Acacia mearnsii),
which was introduced in South Africa for its commercial timber and tannin, and

Invasive Alien Species: Observations and Issues from Around the World, Volume 1: Issues and
Invasions in Africa, First Edition. Edited by T. Pullaiah and Michael R. Ielmini.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
264 9  Alien Invasive Species in Tanzania

prickly pear (Oputia ficus-indica), which was introduced as an ornamental plant

(Shackleton et al. 2007). As with other countries in Africa, natural ecosystems in Tanzania
are not free from the threat of IAS (Nkwabi et al. 2018).
The human population in Tanzania was estimated at 52.6 million people, in 2017, with
an annual growth rate of 1.2 million. The projection is to increase by sevenfold in 2015
(70.1 million people) from the population estimated in 1960 (10.1 million people). Such
growth in the human population has led to increased trade, travel, and transportation to
and from different destinations worldwide. Thus create an avenue for the spreading of AIS
within the country. The spread of IAS in Tanzania happens in both urban and rural areas,
and has escaped to areas beyond the urban–rural interface into natural protected areas
(Bukombe et al. 2018), and thereby created or will potentially lead to ecological problems
(Crowl et al. 2008). The human-based drivers (namely trade, travel, transportation, agricul-
ture, and low awareness) and climate change have largely spread IAS in the country. Of
great importance behind the spread is the lack of a well-defined integrated landscape-plan-
ning mechanism in Tanzania that coordinates the many existing IAS networks across the
country.
Plant or animal invasions and land-use changes usually affect each other (Hobbs 2000),
whereby they can dramatically alter land uses, henceforth affecting social and ecological
resilience. Along with the lack of an integrated mechanism for managing IAS, the expan-
sion and interactions among land-use systems can increase the possibility of species inva-
sions. Examples are in most roads and settlements (ranger posts and hotels) of protected
areas such as the Serengeti ecosystem, where the dominating IAS are from agricultural
lands (Witt et al. 2017; Bukombe et al. 2018). The presence of alien plants along roads is due
to the frequent road grading, which involves soils from outside the borders of protected
areas (Bukombe et al., 2018).
Elsewhere in the world (Alejandro et al. 2010), overgrazing, which always occurs as a
continuous selective foraging process of the suitable food plants increased non-forage
species richness (known as the increasers) and cover, especially in overstocked lands.
Although such species are native in the area, they reduce the integrity of the sites invaded,
just like the IAS do. In Tanzania, the good example of the effect of overgrazing can be well
linked to the increasing spread of Gutenbergia cordifolia, Solanum incanum, and others
within the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) and the southern part of the Serengeti
National Park (Gadiye 2016; Ngondya et al. 2019, Bukombe 2020).

9.2 ­Legal Framework and Laws on Invasive Alien Species

in Tanzania

The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) 2015–2020 (URT 2015) com-
prise a road map to achieving Aichi biodiversity targets of the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD). It entails a high commitment of the country towards the reduction of
direct pressures on biodiversity and promoting sustainable use. Strategic target No. 9
focuses on IAS, requires ensuring AIS and pathways are identified and prioritized, priority
species are controlled or eradicated, and measures are in place to prevent their introduction
 9.3  ­Status of Alien Specie 265

and establishment. It stipulates priority actions for intervention, and each of these priority
actions has been assigned to specific institutions (ministries responsible for environment,
water, fisheries, agriculture, justice, wildlife, forestry, and livestock, and local government
and nongovernmental organizations [NGOs]) for implementation. The recently published
National Invasive Species Strategy and Action Plan (NISSAP) shows further legal govern-
ment commitment (URT 2019). The country has also signed various international treaties
that emphasize biodiversity conservation, including the CBD and the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES). There are
also some sectoral policies, such as the Tanzania Wildlife Policy of 2007, which calls for
the need to protect biological diversity within the country and imparts a responsibility
to control IAS to reduce their negative impacts. The policy requires a balance between
biological and economic imperatives where they are in tension, as happens in some
instances where the species concerned is both ecologically harmful and economically use-
ful (Perrings et al. 2002). Part II3c of the Forest Act No. 14 of 2002 insists on ensuring
ecosystem stability through conservation of forest biodiversity, water catchments, and
soil fertility. The Plant Protection Act of 1997 insists on preventing the introduction and
spread of harmful organisms to ensure sustainable plant and environmental protection, to
control the importation and use of plant protection substances, to regulate the export and
import of plants and plant products, and to ensure the fulfillment of international com-
mitments and to entrust all plant protection regulatory functions to the government.
The National Disaster Management Policy (2004) calls for preventing dangers of any dis-
aster whether natural or anthropogenic. However, IAS increasingly spreads and impacts
the native fauna and flora. It appears that the existing legislation inadequately calls for
attention towards the management of invasive species. It calls for the need for legislation
to specify actions and institutional responsibilities on the control. The need to link legis-
lation and the generation of funding opportunities for the control and management of
invasive species is critical in Tanzania. Their enforcement is inevitable for effective control
and management of IAS.

9.3 ­Status of Alien Species

Alien plant species in Tanzania include introduced species for beneficial purposes, such
as agriculture and ornaments, and have been widely used in horticulture (fresh beans,
baby carrots, sugar snaps) and fruits (avocado, bananas, citrus, passion fruit, pineapples,
watermelon, mangoes). The non-beneficial alien species introductions were intentional or
non-intentional. Although the impacts for every species have not been assessed and estab-
lished, several of the IAS such as carrot weed (Parthenium hysterophorus), Siam weed
(Chromolaena odorata), and Tuta absoluta will or will contribute to loss of biodiversity,
impact on human health as well as the livelihood and local economy. Others such as
Eucalyptus citriodora and Eucalyptus panicula, impact ecosystems by reducing water
runoff and groundwater recharge, ultimately reducing the water supplies of already-
stressed farms or catchment areas. Species that cause loss of biodiversity lead to reduced
capacity to provide forage for wildlife, and livestock.
266 9  Alien Invasive Species in Tanzania

Table 9.1  Invasive species groups in Tanzania reported by the GISD through the ISSG-IUCN.

Group Alien species Native Unspecified bio status Total

Microorganism 1 1 2
Fungus 1 1
Insect 7 1 3 11
Mollusk 1 1 2
Alga 1 2 3
Coral 1 1
Fish 7 1 8
Reptile 1 2 3
Bird 2 2 4
Mammal 4 3 7
Aquatic plant 2 3 5
Palm 1 1
Tree 3 1 1 5
Tree/shrub 4 1 5
Shrub 4 2 6
Grass 3 5 2 10
Sedge 1 1
Herb 5 3 1 9
Vine, climber 2 2
Fern 2 2
Total 46 31 11 88

GISD: Global Invasive Species Database; ISSG: Invasive Species Specialist Group; IUCN: International
Union for Conservation of Nature.

Tanzania has IAS that are found in almost all taxonomic groups: viruses, fungi, algae,
mosses, ferns, higher plants, arthropods, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
The Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) shows a total of 88 invasive species are pre-
sent in Tanzania, of which 46 are alien, 31 are native species, and 11 are unspecified (ISSG-
IUCN 2016). These species belong to different biological groups, of which 46 are organisms
of different groups as summarized in Table 9.1.
A further search from various online sources and scientific publications from 1982 to
2016 (Bukombe et al. 2013 and unpublished data in 2018) revealed a relatively higher
number of invasive species (92 species). Of the 92 species, 62 species are potentially invasive
in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems (see Table 9.2). The lack of organized recording
and documenting of alien and invasive species in the country has possibly contributed to
the differences in data records. Furthermore, the low technical capacity regarding invasive
species and awareness in terms of identification and effects of alien species, and the lack of
a centralized database for invasive species, greatly contribute to such differences.
 9.4  ­Factors Involved in the Spread of Invasive Alien Species in Tanzani 267

Table 9.2  Invasive and potentially invasive species in Tanzania documented

by various sources other than the Global Invasive Species Database (GISD).

Habitat Invasive Potentially invasive Total

Freshwater 8 – 8
Freshwater/marine – – –
Marine 1 – 1
Terrestrial 81 62 143
Terrestrial/freshwater 2 2
Total 92 62 154

9.4 ­Factors Involved in the Spread of Invasive Alien

Species in Tanzania

Generally, two main drivers of invasion by alien species are recognized in the world: natu-
ral factors and human-induced (anthropogenic) factors.

9.4.1  Natural Factors

The drivers related to the natural environment include wind, temperature, rainfall, alti-
tude, pre-adaptation of alien species to abiotic conditions (Pauchard et al. 2009), as well as
low biotic resistance of native communities (Levine et  al.  2004). There is evidence that
plant invasions that are influenced by changes in rainfall and temperature vary along eleva-
tion gradients (Vuille et al. 2003). These changes happen by replacing the palatable and
nutritious plant species with IAS (Connor 2003). Due to changes in climate, the growth and
survival of IAS are favored against the growth of native species due to their being naturally
highly adaptive to changes compared to the native plants.
Although changes in rainfall and temperature are likely to increase the risk of inva-
sion (FAO 2003), the influence of climatic variations on the spread of IAS has not been
well documented across Tanzania. Despite the lack of studies that have investigated the
influence of such natural factors on the spread of invasive species, clear observable evi-
dence exists at the moment. Such evidence includes the increasing dominance of non-
palatable native plants such as G. cordifolia, Hypoestes forskaolii, Solanum incanum, and
other herbs in the NCA and other parts of the Serengeti ecosystem and the spread of
A. hyoscyamoides (Kongwa weed). The invasiveness of these native species could be
caused by changes in the natural environment in combination with some of the human-
induced factors. Bukombe et al. (2013) indicated fragmented patches of growth suitabil-
ity for P. hysterophorus, guided by variation of bioclimatic factors in the country
(Figure 9.1). Tanzania is largely covered by plateaus, with a tropical climate and moder-
ate temperature. However, the thin coastal stretch along the Indian Ocean is hot and
humid throughout the year, especially from November to April (URT  2012). The rain
patterns of the country vary across climatic zones, which are the north and the east,
268 9  Alien Invasive Species in Tanzania

24

23
Temperature

Season
Dry
Wet
22

21

1900 1925 1950 1975 2000

Year

150
Precipitation

100 Season
Dry
Wet

50

1900 1925 1950 1975 2000

Year

Figure 9.1  The trends of mean annual temperature (blue pattern) and precipitation (green
pattern) in Tanzania from 1900 to 2015. Source: Data from https://www.climatestotravel.com.

Lake Victoria, the northeastern zone, the southern zone, and the western zone (URT 2012).
In all these zones, there have been changes in both rainfall and temperature (https://
climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org). The trend toward increased temperatures has
been more pronounced since the 1980s and has continued in recent years (Figure 9.2).
The changes in mean annual temperatures have been projected to increase by 1.7° C in
the northeastern areas of Tanzania and by 2.5 °C in the western parts of the country
(URT  2012). These projections are therefore likely to cause changes in the spread of
invasive species.
 9.4  ­Factors Involved in the Spread of Invasive Alien Species in Tanzani 269

W E

Legend
Protected areas
Very low (<0.05)
Low (0.05 – 0.1)
Moderate (0.1 – 0.3)
High (0.3 – 0.6)
Very high (>0.6)

0 0.5 1 2 3 4
KM

Figure 9.2  Predicted suitable habitat for Parthenium hysterophorus overlaid with protected areas.
Source: Bukombe et al. (2013).

9.4.2  Human-Induced (Anthropogenic) Factors

There are also human-induced drivers such as agriculture, fisheries and aquaculture, con-
struction, trade, tourism, and transportation, which aid the spread either non-intentionally
or intentionally. These activities are strongly taking place in the rangelands of both
protected and unprotected landscapes. The introduction and spread of alien species in pro-
tected areas of Tanzania have been attributed to increasing human activities (Bukombe
et al. 2018). A study by Bukombe et al. (2018) observed that human-induced drivers such
as fire frequency, disturbances, and fragmentation along roads as well as the construction
of settlements are responsible for, and were expected to enhance, the spread of invasive
alien plants in the Serengeti National Park. The effects associated with these factors are
270 9  Alien Invasive Species in Tanzania

coupled with protracted awareness among park staff, tourists, and tourism operators.
Although not well established in any study in Tanzania, the attachment of seeds to the
attire and shoes of tourists and researchers and to vehicles is also another possible way of
introduction of alien species in many protected areas.
Shreds of evidence for both unintentional and intentional reasons such as aids exist
in agricultural and open areas. The intentional ones may include aids such as seeds and
grains, agricultural activities, decorations in the form of gardens or ornamental use, and
fencing that have been delivered in the country, while the unintentional one could be
through the importation of crop seeds. Building and construction activities involve
transportation of soils, which can result in transfer of seeds to unintended parts. Invasion
in the fisheries industry has largely occurred in the form of non-native aquaculture
­species such as the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). The spread of Nile tilapia is
­geographically expanding in the country, as the species is highly used in aquaculture,
which is attributed to the availability of its fingering compared to other tilapia species
(Genner et al. 2013).

9.5 ­Examples of Impacts from IAS in Tanzania

The realized impacts associated with invasive species in Tanzania include losing, or creating
the potential to lose, indigenous flora and fauna as a result of competition (Bukombe
et al.  2013,  2018). Economically, IAS decrease the value of land, grazing capacity, and
tourism revenue (Muzzo et  al.  2018). A number of invasive species have negatively
impacted the agricultural sector, increasing the cost of crop production by creating a need
for pesticides and insecticides in croplands and even causing food insecurity among some
communities. Overall, some of the biological and economic impacts of selected IAS in
Tanzania are summarized in Table  A9.1 in this chapter’s Appendix. Some species with
evidence of negative impacts in the country are detailed in this section.

9.5.1 Plants
9.5.1.1  Whitetop (Parthenium hysterophorus)
Whitetop (Figure 9.3) carrot is an invasive alien plant that is raising concern in Tanzania.
P. hysterophorus was for the first time reported in 2010 in the Arusha region (Clark and
Lotter 2011). In the early 2010s, the distribution of P. hysterophorus was patchy and only in
Arusha but was predicted to spread to other areas across the country (Bukombe et al. 2013).
Ecological impacts include loss of pasture for livestock and wildlife, and reduction of crop
production. Evidence for its health impacts come from testimonies of infected people.
Control efforts were initiated within the last three years. The efforts include awareness
campaigns and the use of physical methods (uprooting and burning). Control efforts are
mainly led by the Parthenium Group in collaboration with the Tanzania Wildlife Research
Institute (TAWIRI), the Tanzania Pesticides Research Institute (TPRI), Sokoine University
of Agriculture, and other institutions. Biological control efforts using Zygogramma
bicolorata are ongoing under the supervision of TPRI (Kanagwa et al. 2020).
 9.5 ­Examples of Impacts from IAS in Tanzani 271

Figure 9.3  Parthenium hysterophorus (white top) growing within and around a maize field in
Arusha municipality, Tanzania, 2019.

Figure 9.4  Chromolaena odorata along the Ndabaka Road (seyal woodland) in the Serengeti
National Park, 19 March 2019.

9.5.1.2  Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata)

Siam weed (Figure  9.4), is a perennial shrub native to Central and South America.
The  species’ first occurrence was reported in Serengeti District, Tanzania, in 2007
(Mbalila 2015). Although Siam weed is named among the world’s worst tropical weeds,
it is a relatively new invader in Tanzania. Severe negative impacts threatening livelihoods
and the environment are currently evident, especially in northeastern Tanzanian villages
272 9  Alien Invasive Species in Tanzania

Figure 9.5  Lantana camara near the Serengeti National Park, March 2019.

(Shackleton et  al.  2017). Observed impacts in Tanzania include reductions in native
biodiversity, the amount of available forage for livestock, and crop and water yields.

9.5.1.3  Tick berry (Lantana camara)

Lantana camara is a species within the verbena family (Verbenaceae) of plants, and it is
known to be native to the American tropics (Figure 9.5). It is named one of the world’s
most aggressive invasive plants, and it is said to be widespread in Tanzania (Eustace and
Lekule 2016). In Tanzania, the species has been grown indoors but can also thrive gardens
with sufficient shelter. L. camara invades natural and agricultural ecosystems, affecting the
tourism industry and crop production through its ability to form dense thickets, crowding
out more desirable species and altering fire regimes by altering fuel loads in natural sys-
tems. Although the impacts are evident, especially in rangelands, within villages, and even
in protected areas, there are no efforts to control this species in Tanzania.

9.5.1.4  Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)

Water hyacinth (Figure 9.6), is an aquatic plant that is native to the Amazon Basin. E. cras-
sipes has been a highly problematic invasive species outside its native range. Evidence shows
that E. crassipes was introduced in Lake Victoria in the 1990s from Rwanda via the Kagera
River (Opande et al. 2004). Recorded impacts of E. crassipes are both positive and negative,
such as disrupting fishing activities, transport, irrigation, and water treatment; creating
enhanced breeding grounds for malaria vectors; and affecting biodiversity, while it also has
become a source of raw materials for making furniture, paper, and artifacts (Opande
et al. 2004). Effective control efforts in the 1990s were through the use of Neochetina species,
a biological agent. The efforts were implemented under the Lake Victoria Environmental
Management Programme (LVEMP) in 1996–1997 in Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, and Tanzania.
Despite the existence of effective control, the species now has extended its niche to rivers such
as the Ugalla River (Gichuki et al. 2012). This species is currently threatening the lives of other
organisms and fish production (Gichuki et al. 2012).
 9.5 ­Examples of Impacts from IAS in Tanzani 273

Figure 9.6  Eichhornia crassipes recorded in the Ugalla River, western Tanzania, 2011.

Figure 9.7  Prosopis juliflora at Mtowa Mbu in Manyara region, February 2019.

9.5.1.5  Prosopis (Prosopis juliflora)

Prosopis is an evergreen, multistemmed shrub or small tree with an umbrella-like canopy
(Figure 9.7). It originated in Latin America but has been introduced to African countries,
including Tanzania. The species grows to a height of more than 10 m and have branches
that usually carry long thorns. Its introduction in Tanzania is said to be probably accidental
from Kenya in the 1980s, through trading by the people in Taveta and Moshi (Kilawe
et al. 2017). The species is increasingly spreading and has been recorded in more than 10
districts in the country (Kilawe et  al.  2017). Evidence exists on the negative impacts of
Prosopis, including forage reduction, loss of land for agriculture (thus leading to increased
conflicts between farmers and pastoralists), blockage of access to water resources and
fishing, and health problems in human and livestock (Kilawe et al. 2017).
274 9  Alien Invasive Species in Tanzania

Figure 9.8  Senna spectabilis at Mahale National Park.

9.5.1.6  Senna spectabilis

S. spectabilis is a small, rounded deciduous tree (Figure 9.8), 7–10 m (max. 15 m) tall, and
30 cm in trunk diameter, with a spreading crown of 3–5 m. It is found in tropical areas in
Africa, Asia, Australia, and Latin America (Irwin and Barneby 1982). More than 50 years
ago, the species invaded Tanzania, specifically the Mahale Mountains and Rubondo Island
National Park (Wakibara and Mnaya 2002).

9.5.2  Vertebrates
9.5.2.1  House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)
The house sparrow was accidentally introduced in many regions, including parts of
Australia, Africa, and the Americas, making it the world’s most widely distributed bird. In
Tanzania, house sparrows were introduced in the 1950s through merchant ships docking
in Dar es Salaam Port, from where they expanded northward toward Tanga, and then
southward in the early 1980s (Schrey et al. 2013; Martin et al. 2014). Their distribution is
currently increasing, along with negative environmental impacts such as offsetting the
food chain, hence weakening ecosystem services, functions, and community stability.
P. domesticus was first observed in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem in the year 1999 (Dr. Ally
Nkwabi, personal communication, 2018), thus posing a high threat to protected wildlife
 9.5 ­Examples of Impacts from IAS in Tanzani 275

species. In agricultural and urban areas of Tanzania, house sparrows compete with native
birds for limited nesting cavities and may affect local populations. They destroy eggs, and
harass and even kill native gray-headed sparrows (P. griseus), rufous sparrows (P. rufocic-
tus), chestnut sparrows (P. eminibey), Swahili sparrows (P. suahelicus), and other cavity-
nesting natives (Imboma 2014). After evicting their competitors, the house sparrows take
over nesting sites. They also prefer to nest in manmade structures, such as caves or walls of
buildings, street lights, and nest boxes, instead of natural nesting sites such as holes in
trees, due to their abundance and lack of fear toward humans.

9.5.2.2  Indian House Crow (Corvus splendens)

This is a common bird of the crow family that originates in Asia. The species is now found
in many parts of the world. The species has been described to have a slimmer body than
other crows, of the size between the jackdaw and the carrion crow (Figure 9.9). In Tanzania,
the species was deliberately introduced in Zanzibar during the colonial rule as an urban
garbage scavenger but has rapidly spread to Mtwara and other areas along the coast
(Mackworth-Praed and Grant  1960). Nowadays the species has spread into the whole
coastal area in the mainland of Tanzania (Shimba and Jonah  2017). A population has
become established in Morogoro since 1997 (Wium-Andersen and Reid 2005). Small num-
bers have also been reported in Korogwe, Mikumi, and Ifakara towns, together with
Dodoma town (Wium-Andersen and Reid 2005). Recently, there was a sighting of some
individuals in Nzega District (Tabora Region), indicating that the species has extended its
range to nearly the western part of Tanzania. Also, a small number of Indian house crows
were observed in Arusha town, Babati Endasaki, and Kateshi (Dr. Ally Nkwabi, personal
communication, 2018). Impacts caused by the crows are detrimental to indigenous bird
species through predation or competitive displacement by attacking and mobbing birds,

Figure 9.9  Indian house crow (Corvus splendens) at Chakwa Bay, Zanzibar in 2014. Source: http://
www.holmen-birding-safari.com.
276 9  Alien Invasive Species in Tanzania

and destroying eggs from poultry as well as nests (Chongomwa 2011). There are worries
that the species may become invasive in protected areas and cause severe impacts resulting
from its predation ability on birds, reptiles, and amphibians (West 2010; Fraser et al. 2015).
Other possibilities of further impact include increased human and animal health risks due
to their ability to carry human enteric disease vectors such as Salmonella spp., Shigella
serotypes, Proteus spp., Vibrioaceae spp., Pseudomonas spp., Escherichia coli, and
Campylobacter spp. (Al-Sallami  1991; Cooper  1996). Currently, no protected area in
Tanzania has been invaded by Indian house crows yet, although their range expansion sug-
gests that ­protected areas are at risk and control measures will be necessary.

9.5.2.3  Nile Perch (Lates niloticus)

Nile perch is the best-known invasive vertebrate fish species in Lake Victoria (Figure 9.10).
The species was deliberately introduced in 1960s to utilize the dominant low-value endemic
haplochromine species, which contributed about 83% of the total biomass of fishes in the
lake. Notwithstanding that the introduction of Nile perch increased fisheries productivity

Figure 9.10  Catch of Nile perch (Lates niloticus) from Lake Victoria observed at the Lamadi Market,
May 2019. Source: John Bukombe.
 9.5 ­Examples of Impacts from IAS in Tanzani 277

by about 10-fold, it has caused significant changes in the biodiversity of the native species
and physicochemical characteristics of the lake since the 1980s (Taabu-Munyaho
et  al.  2016). The increase in the population of L. niloticus has destroyed the native and
endemic components, leading to the extinction of several previously dominant native fish
species such as those in the haplochromids group (Ochumba et  al.  1994; Wanink and
Goudswaard 1994), and has consequently caused negative impacts on ecosystem functions.
For instance, there has been evidences for reduced primary production in Lake Victoria
due to increasing numbers of L. niloticus, which included occurrence of dense algal blooms.

9.5.2.4  Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

Nile tilapia is a species of tilapia (Figure 9.11) that is native to Africa, particularly south of
Egypt, east and central Africa, and as far west as Gambia. The species is also native to
Israel. Due to its commercial role, the species, which has been introduced outside its natu-
ral range including Lake Victoria in 1950s, is the third most commercially important fish
(Njiru et al. 2012). An increase in O. niloticus is attributed to overfishing of endemic tilapi-
ines, thus reducing competition, while swamp clearance could have increased its spawning
areas (Njiru et al. 2012). O. niloticus can also survive a wide range of pH levels, resists low
levels of dissolved oxygen, and feeds on a variety of food items (Muchiri et al. 2007; Njiru
et al. 2012). Nile tilapia was introduced to the freshwater springs in the Ngorongoro Crater
in the 1960s (Macdonald and Frame 1988). Before that, the crater had no native fish spe-
cies, and the introduced tilapia has thrived with no apparent deleterious ecological effects.

9.5.3  Invertebrates
9.5.3.1  Fall Armyworms (Spodoptera frugiperda)
S. frugiperda is in the order of Lepidoptera and is the larval life stage of a fall armyworm moth.
The armyworm is a polyphagous pest that is native to tropical and subtropical regions of the
Americas. Fall armyworm was first detected in Central and West Africa in 2016 (http://www.
fao.org/fall-armyworm/en), and one year later had arrived to Tanzania. The moth is reported
to have strong flying ability, reaching up to 100 km day−1, and has about 6–12 generations. It
can produce up to 2000 eggs over its lifespan. The caterpillars of this moth feed on leaves,
stems, and reproductive parts (Pogue 2002). In Tanzania, it prefers maize, millet, rice, and
sorghum but can feed on more than 80 additional species of cereals, including bean,

Figure 9.11  Female Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) from Lake Victoria. Source: Photo by Martin
J. Genner.
278 9  Alien Invasive Species in Tanzania

sunflower, coffee, cotton, and tobacco (Pogue  2002). Fall armyworm is considered to be a
major insect pest, causing an annual loss in maize estimated to be around US$339 million in
East Africa (Day et al. 2017) and US$3 billion in Africa (Cock et al. 2017).

9.5.3.2  Tomato Leaf Minor (Tuta absoluta)

Tomato Leaf Minor is an insect species known to be a pest for production of the tomato
crop. The species is native to South America. In Africa, it was first detected in Tunisia in
2008, then Sudan and Ethiopia in 2011 (Pfeiffer et al. 2013), and Kenya and Tanzania in
2014. In Tanzania, the pest is known as “Kanitangaze” (literally, “spread the news”).
Kanitangaze is a pest of tomato but can infest other crops in the Solanaceae family. Tomato
loss from an invasion can reach up to 100%; T. absoluta causes economic loss and affects the
livelihood strategies of farmers involved.

9.5.3.3  Cinara cupressi

This is a most serious conifer aphid in Tanzania that was accidentally introduced in 1987,
probably from Malawi. It attacks members of the conifer Cupressaceae, including Juniperus,
Cupressus, Thuja, Chamaecyparis, and Callitris, and as a result decreases timber produc-
tion in the country.

9.5.3.4  Heteropsylla cubana

H. cubana is a species of insect in the family Psyllidae. It occurs in South and Central
America as an insect plague on species of broadleaved trees, such as Albizia, Mimosa,
Leucaena leucocephala, and Samanea saman. It has also recently been found in Asia, on
the islands of the South Pacific, and in Africa. It severely damaged Leucaena in different
growing areas in the late 1980s, but the situation declined in the 2000s, probably due to the
effect of natural enemies such as Tamarixia leucaenae in Morogoro and Tanga, as well as
Psyllaephagus yaseeni in Tabora in the late 1990s.

9.5.3.5  Eucalyptus gall wasp (Leptocybe invasa)

Eucalyptus gall wasp, is indigenous to Australia. The species is a gall wasp, which causes
the formation of galls on several species of Eucalyptus as a result of lowering timber pro-
duction in the country. L. invasa was described in 2004 after galls were found in river red
gums (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) in the Mediterranean and the Middle East, and it has
since been found to be a widespread species where its host trees are planted. In Tanzania,
the species has been recorded in 2005 in eucalyptus plantations in Tabora, Shinyanga, and
Kibaha. However, the problem appears stable mainly in high-rainfall areas.

9.6 ­Conclusion and Recommendations
9.6.1 Conclusion
A diverse list of IAS exists in Tanzania. Despite the available legislation, the spread of IAS
is increasing. The negative impacts of invasive species are increasing as well, involving
nearly all the sectors. The effects are observed, especially in the wildlife, tourism, and
 9.6  ­Conclusion and Recommendation 279

livestock sectors. Several IAS contributed to the loss of biodiversity and the animal feed
resource base, which lead to poor performance in these sectors. The health sector is also
facing a paradigm that needs new approaches to analyzing the link between invasive spe-
cies and their health impacts on humans and other organisms (livestock and wildlife).
Disturbances by humans have increased habitat fragmentations, introduction, and spread
of IAS. Lack or low technical capacity has caused the paucity of data and limits the effec-
tiveness of control.

9.6.2  Recommendations
1) There is a need to harmonize sectoral policies to ensure collective responsibilities
among government and private sector institutions for effective control and manage-
ment of IAS.
2) There is a need to harmonize sectoral policies to ensure collective responsibilities
among government and private sector institutions for effective control and manage-
ment of IAS. It should be given priority in environmental policy formulation, practices,
and guidelines that incorporate wise land-use planning and introduction of IAS in both
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
3) Enhance technical capacity to truly capture both knowledge of and know-how of identifi-
cation and control. For instance, introduce detected genetic laboratories to enable labora-
tory species identification of introduced species.
4) Government to ensure mechanisms for IAS monitoring of risks of species introduced
into the country for different purposes. Environmental disasters of new species need to
be assessed at the introduction stage.
The behavior earlier described as “Long fuse big bang” (Foxcroft  2009; Crépin
et al. 2017) occurs when an invasive species undergoes a lag phase after initial estab-
lishment and may remain unobtrusive or noninvasive for a long time before suddenly
changing, becoming invasive, and spreading rapidly (Foxcroft 2009). This could be the
basis for conducting studies that date the different invasive species existing in the
country to understand the introduction history of these species in particular areas. This
can be done through searching for the living memory of communities via interviews.
Clearly, such living memory from people needs special attention to be able to ascertain
the main drivers of spread.
280 9  Alien Invasive Species in Tanzania

A
­ ppendix
Table A9.1  Examples of invasive alien plant species showing their observed impacts and different
purposes of introduction in Tanzania.

Species and Primary purpose of

SN common name Impact introduction References

A. Arthropods
1 Prostephanus Pest of stored maize Introduced in the Dunstan and
truncates (larger and cassava; heavy country in the 1970s by Magazine (1981)
grain borer) postharvest losses in importing and
maize and cassava; exporting infested grain
trade restrictions and cassava crops
2 Bactrocera Pest of many Introduced in the Mwatawala et al.
dorsalis (Oriental horticultural crops; country in the 1970s by (2006)
fruit fly) crop losses importing and
exporting infested
horticultural crops
3 Liriomyza trifolii Pest of many Importing and Hansson and
(serpentine leaf horticultural crops; exporting infested LaSalle (1996)
miner) crop losses and loss of horticultural crops in
overseas markets due 1976
to quarantine
requirements
4 Frankliniella Pest of many flower Importing and Giliomee (2011)
occidentalis crops, pulses, and exporting infested
(Western flower horticultural crops; flower and horticultural
thrips) intensified use of crops in 1989
pesticides; loss of crop
and capital
5 Cinara cupressi Cypress trees Accidentally introduced Watson et al.
(cypress aphid) decimated; degraded to Tanzania in 1987, (1999)
environment probably from Malawi

6 Diuraphis noxia Barley and wheat Accidentally introduced Ayertey et al.

(Russian aphid) production reduced; in 1995 by importing (1999)
less food and income and exporting infested
available barley and wheat
7 Phenacoccus Reduced cassava Import and export of Yonow et al. (2017)
manihoti (cassava production; less food infested cassava in 1986
mealybug) and income available

8 Mononychellus Reduced cassava Importing and Yaninek and

tanajoa (cassava production; less food exporting infested Herren (1988)
green mite) and income available cassava in 1972
 ­Appendi  281

Table A9.1  (Continued)

Species and Primary purpose of

SN common name Impact introduction References

9 Heteropsylla Reduced fodder; loss Introduced as Madoffe et al.

cubana (Leucaena of capital multipurpose tree in (2000)
psyllid) 1992

10 Aleurothrixus Reduced fruit Importing and Ogwang and Molo

floccosus (citrus production; loss of exporting infested (2003)
wooly whitefly) capital citrus fruits in 1992

11 Calacarus Reduction in tea leaf Accidentally introduced Sharma and

carinatus (purple production; loss of in 1976 by importing Ranganathan
tea mite) capital and exporting infested (1985)
tea leaves

12 Oligonychus Reduction in coffee Introduced in 1976 by Smith-Espinoza

coffeae (red spider produce; loss of importing and et al. (2007)
mite) capital exporting infested
coffee produce

13 Aceria guerreronis Reduction in coconut Introduced in 1976 by Navia et al. (2005)

(coconut mite) production; loss of importing and
capital exporting infested
coffee produce
14 Aculops Reduced tomato Introduced in 1976 by Navia et al. (2010)
lycopersici production; loss of importing and
(tomato russet capital exporting infested
mite) tomato

15 Procambarus Reduction of flora and Introduced for Mavuti and Harper

clarkii (Louisiana fauna; increased aquaculture in 1970 (2006) and
crayfish) turbidity; harvested by Alejandro et al.
man (2010)

16 Harmonia Outcompetes native Introduced as biological Nedvěd and Háva

axyridis (lady beetles; biodiversity control agent against (2016)
beetle) loss aphids

17 Aedes albopictus Transmits dengue Accidentally introduced Kularatne et al.

(Asian tiger virus; outcompetes to Tanzania in the (2009)
mosquito) native mosquitoes; 1950s
impact on human
health
18 Rhipicephalus Reduction of cattle Importing and Labruna et al.
(Boophilus) production; heavy exporting cattle infested (2009)
microplus (cattle losses to the cattle with ticks in the 1880s
tick) industry

(Continued )
282 9  Alien Invasive Species in Tanzania

Table A9.1  (Continued)

Species and Primary purpose of

SN common name Impact introduction References

19 Ceratitis capitata Reduced fruit Imported fruit and Mwatawala et al.

(Mediterranean production; fewer other crops infested (2006)
fruit fly) fruits and reduced with fruit fly larvae
income

B. Microorganisms
1 Agrobacterium Reduced production Importing and Kushikawa et al.
tumefaciens in roses; loss of capital exporting infested (2001)
(crown gall) flower and horticultural
crops in 1995
2 Mycosphaerella Reduced banana Importing and Jones (2003)
fijiensis production; less food exporting infested
(black sigatoka) and reduced income banana produce in 1939
3 Fusarium Reduced banana Importing and Rugalema et al.
oxysporum f. sp. production; less food exporting infested (1994)
cubense and reduced income banana produce in 1952
(Panama disease)
4 Begomovirus Reduced cassava Imported cassava in Ndunguru et al.
(cassava mosaic production; less food 1894 infested with (2005)
disease ACMV and reduced income cassava mosaic gemini
[UgV]) viruses
5 Maize streak Reduced maize Imported grain crops in Suleiman and Kurt
viruses (MSV) production; less food 1936 infested with (2015)
(gemini virus) and reduced income maize streak viruses
6 Phaeoramularia Reduced citrus Importing and Yesuf (2013)
angolensis production; less food exporting infested
(fruit and leaf and reduced income citrus fruits in 1990
spot)

7 Barley yellow Reduced barley and Introduced in 1983 by Savary et al. (2017)
dwarf virus wheat production; less importing and
(BYDV) food and reduced exporting infested
income cereal crops

8 Ustilago Reduced fodder Unknown Farrell et al. (2001)

kamerunensis production; loss of
(Napier grass capital
smut)

9 Colletotrichum Reduced coffee Introduced in 1940 by Hollies (1967)

coffeanum production; loss of importing and
(coffee berry capital exporting infested
disease) coffee produce
 ­Appendi  283

Table A9.1  (Continued)

Species and Primary purpose of

SN common name Impact introduction References

10 Rinderpest virus Decreased population Imported cattle in Dobson (1995)

of ruminants; loss of 1880s infested with
ruminant animals and rinderpest virus
capital
C. Vertebrates
1 Lates niloticus Reduced abundance Introduced in Lake Goudswaard et al.
(Nile perch) of native cichlids in Victoria for aquaculture (2008)
Lake Victoria; in the 1960s
economic boost to
fishers by increasing
fisheries production;
reduced catch of
smaller species
2 Passer domesticus Displaces local Accidentally introduced Anderson (2006)
(house sparrow) sparrows; noisy; in the 1900s and Liebl et al.
messes buildings with (2015)
nests
3 Corvus splendens Displaces native Deliberately introduced Cooper (1996) and
(house crow) species; kills fruit bats; in the 1890s to Zanzibar Al-Sallami (1991)
urban pest; damages to act as an urban
crops; hazard at garbage scavenger
airport
4 Rattus rattus Displaces native Accidentally introduced Senzota (1982)
(house rat) species; damages in the 1970s
cereal crops

D. Plants
1 Acacia mearnsii Invasive; To provide fuel wood; Richard (2016)
Mimosaceae outcompeting native for production of bark
(black wattle) species that was being sold to
Giraffe Tannin industry
in Lushoto
2 Leucaena Introduced on an Lyons and Miller
leucocephala experimental basis in (1999)
(lead tree) Morogoro, where it
succeeded as an
agroforestry tree
3 Opuntia Invasive in some Introduced in the 1950s BioNET-
monocantha protected areas; as a fruit, fodder, and INTERNATIONAL
(brooping prickly) outcompeting native fencing species (2017)
species
4 Mesopsis eminii Timber species Introduced in Binggeli and
(umbrella tree) monoculture Hamilton (1993)
plantations as a
fast-growing timber
tree

(Continued )
284 9  Alien Invasive Species in Tanzania

Table A9.1  (Continued)

Species and Primary purpose of

SN common name Impact introduction References

5 Prosopsis juliflora Alters the forest Invasive in Usambara Obiri (2011)

(mesquite) ecosystem forest
6 Acacia Alters the coastal Invasive in most coastal Streets (1962) and
melanoxylon ecosystem; competes ecosystems of Tanzania Kessy (1986)
(Australian with heavy grass and
blackwood) weeds
7 Senna spectabilis Recognized as invasive Initially planted to Wakibara and
(whitebark in Tanzania, create shade, but later Mnaya (2002)
senna) specifically in farmers grew it as living
protected areas of fences to prevent crop
Rubondo Island and damage by animals
Mahale Mountains
National Park

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