Unit -1 POLITICAL SCIENCE troduction Political Science is concerned withthe theoretical explanation of political ality, namely the phenomenon of the State. It attempts to discuss the forms 9f political organisation and logical justification of the State. It studies the Jotionship between the State and the individual, Political Science found its first systematic exposition in the writings of reek philosophers. Plato (427-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC) were ie two early Greek political philosophers who made far reaching and lasting ntributions in the field of political science. In his famous book, the Republic, Jato justified moral significance of the State, its organic unity, its educational functions and above all its supremacy over the Individuals. Aristotle is said to bbe the intellectual child of Plato and in his famous book, THE POLITICS, he first developed a systematic study of Political Science as an independent academic discipline. In fact, Plato’s Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum were the schools which aimed at preparing the future administrators, constitutional experts and rulers of the Hellenic city States, Aristotle is regarded as father of Political Science because of his far reaching and permanent contribution in the field of political science. The Greeks were the first people who developed political science in its pure and systematic form. Subsequently it spread over all other countries and its study has assumed greater importance in modern times. Etymologically, the term political science or politics has been derived from the Greek word ‘Polis’, which means the city State or the State. Hence, Political Science deals with the problems of city or the State in which men live, Itis, therefore defined as study of the activities of the State. DEFINITIONS Traditional Definition + Aristotle: Politics is the guide for rulers and Statesman. It is both a normative and descriptive discipline. tw)x Political Sei + Garner: Political Science begins and ends with State, + Bluntschli: Political Science is the Science, which is g i i ied. pate, endeavours to understand and comprehend the Sac Mh ential nature, various forms, manifestation and developmen «+ RIN. Gilchrist: Political Science deals with State ang orem Definition ao Lasswell and Kaplom: Political Science is the uy “shaping and sharing power. weber: Politics isthe struggle for power oF the intluenge in power. or Political Science centres on the strugale to gain and rer: to exerise power or influence over others ort resist a NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE ' are different views on the nature of politics. Aristotle, Hobie ‘Montesquieu, Bluntschli, etc, hold that politics isa science. Bu, writers ig LS. Mill, Auguste Comte, Catlin hold that it is only an Art, Politics is a Science: These are the following arguments to support that it is a science: (a) Politics can be studied in a systematic manner. (b) Its possible to make prediction in politics, but in a limited area, (©) There are absolute and universal laws. For example, just like Newton's third law of motion, a federal country will always have Government at 3 levels: (1) Central (2) Provincial and (3) Local-Self Government (@) At present, it has attained modernity. Politics is not a Science: It is not considered science on the following grounds: (@) It deals with emotions and actions of men which are unpredictable. (b) It can not be tested in hat. (©) Objectivity (neutral) of observation is not possible because biases of the observers tend to creep in, (@) Itdoes not observe, the theory of cause and effect, which is the basis of all sciences.political Science 2 ‘aim of Political Science Following are the aims of Political Science: (1) To understand the origin of the State, @) Ithelps us to understand the function of the State. (3) Ithelps us in understanding the formation of associations eg. how is University organised, formation of Trade Unions. (4) Its aim is to create awareness of the rights and duties of people. (5) It guides in policy formation, (6) It is helpful in Institution building eg. Legislature, Executive, Judiciary, Press, (7) It helps in writing and amending Constitutions. ‘Scope of Political Science (1) Itis the study of human-behaviour, especially of politi ians and citizens. (2) Some writers restrict the scope of Political Science to the study of State alone e.g., Garner and Bluntschli. (3) Itis the study of Government and its organs e.g. Leacock and Deutsch. (4) It studies national and international relations. (5) Ithelps in understanding the definition of international institutions. (©) Itishelpful in understanding political socialisation, political processes and political parties. (7) It helps in understanding the concepts like Equality, Sovereignty, Liberty and Democracy. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLITICAL SCIENCE & LAW (1) The most important subject in Political Science is State. The State organises the society to certain rules and regulations called the Laws. (2) Laws are the policies that regulate the relationship between the State and its citizens. Political Science, as a subject, describe the role of citizens in Law-Making. (3) Political Science also describes the process of Law-making. (4) Political Science analyses the regulatory institutions of State.4 ; Political : (5) ‘The Political Scientist measures the success of Governme, by looking at the system of Law and justice. The best sep hig a State is based on legal system. Pot (6) Jurisprudence which is the Science of, Law was earlier as ‘of Political Science. Due tothe expansion of area of law or ya "8 of is scope, it was separated from its parent branch ig, py Mea Science. (7) The Study of Law is related to Political Science in the fo areas: ‘wing (a) Law of Contract deals only with State-made laws. (b) Administrative Law keeps a check on permanent execu, (bureaucracy) Me (©) Constitutional Law, is the Fundamental Law of Land whi, describes the organisations and functions of Government, Tp, Constitution, however is made by the Constituent Asem, which is a political body. “The data generated by Political Scientist helps in formulation of pubic policies and Laws. Laws get shaped and reshaped due to political processes and act Shaped—Legislation Re-shaped—Amendment ‘A Law is valid only if it is made/sanctioned by the State & the legitimacy of a State is prepared by Political Scientist. Polities whose main actors are the politicians have two important (8) @ (10) an roles to perform: (@) Law-givers in enacting the Constitution and in writing the Constitution, (b) To maintain the legal system by adhering to Universal principles of justice. IMPORTANCE OF STUDY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE ‘The study of Political Science is very useful and valuable. Its knowledge is essential and useful to both the ruler and ruled. The significance of the study of Political Science is discussed below: (@) To solve the political problem, the clear understanding of the origin and development of the State and its nature and role is required. (b) The knowledge of the past political thought and principles enable us to understand the present social, political & administrative problem.5 v as ea oly ' Amparting knowledge about the world: However, apart from brand 8 __Wlitarian considerations, the acquisition of knowledge of Political hj "Science enriches one’s mind and widens one’s intellectual horizon. Rohe! Tn order to know what is happening around us, at least an elementary tee in “knowledge of Political Science is necessary. In the modern Age, an ‘dual cannot lead an isolated life, Each country has to maintain i: "elation with other countries of the world, Ws, (d) Creation of Democratic values: The Study of Political Science has ‘nen, assumed great importance in modern times in all democratic countries. Xe, The success of democracy depends upon the political consciousness W of ti, of its people. The study of Political Science makes people conscious Gar Lang Of their rights and duties. It also makes them vigilant. Unless the tig Meg bin, citizens of a country are vigilant, alert, intelligent and patriotic; there Mtueny 4 Mt h is no possi of successful working of democracy in that country. “Sem, Itis rightly said that “eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.” NUlation (©) Creation of Good Citizenship: The study of Political Science is funy Valuable for creating good citizenship and securing unity of nation. ses, i It makes citizens conscious of national objectives and goals. Laski activi said that good citizenship implies “the contribution of one’s instructed es, judgement to public good”. It can be developed by the study of Political Science. Political Science teaches the lessons and virtues of good citizenshi a State & the (D) Political Science teaches us the lesson of co-operation, adjustment and toleration. A society cannot prosper without co-operation. Thus, the study of Political Science has special importance in all countries. “Its study helps us to understand the mechanism and constitutional system of “modern Government, The principles of Government, the domestic and foreign licies of the nation. The legislature, executive and judiciary of different Countries, etc. are studied in Political Science. The Principles of liberty, quality and fratemity are also made clear by the study of Politcal Science Keeping in mind its importance and utilitarian value, Aristotle regarded cal Science as “the Supreme Science” or “THE MASTERS OF ALL SCIENCE”, The day when the aphorism of Aristotle will be realized, is not smiote indeed. STATE The State occupies the most important place among the social institutions. as Laski says, it is “the keystone of social arch”. In the words of Finer, “the State is the supreme social framework. Without State there would be choas and confusion in the society”. It is not only a natural but also a necessaryi Political Scie, institution. It exists to control and regulate the behaviour ofthe human beng Ieprotects the weak against strong, maintains peace and order and serys ‘common good life of all individuals. Man cannot live without the State, The State is the result of a slow and steady growth extending over a long Period of time and has many stages in its development. The process of the evolution of the State has not been uniform. Inthe early period there were the oriental empire, Greek city State, Roman empire, the feudal State, the nation State, socialist State and welfare State. ORIGIN Itis the oldest universal human institution. The concept began with the Greeks. They used the word ‘Polis’ which is translated as “city State’ Machiavelli, the Italian Political thinker was the first person to use the term “State” in his book “The Prince”. The term ‘State’ is derived from the word “Status’. Itwas first used by the Tuetous. From 1640 onwards, THE MODERN STATE AROSE FROM 1640. DEFINITION * Aristotle: “The State is an Association of families and villages for the sake of attaining a perfect and self-sufficient existence (which he called as good life).” * Karl Marx: “The State is an executive committee of the exploiting classes”. + Burgers: State is “Particular portion of mankind viewed as an organised unit.” * Engels: “The State is a product of society at a certain stage of development. * Mac Iver: State is “an association which, acting through law, as promulgated by a Government endowed to this end with coercive Power, maintains within a community territorially demarcated, the universal external condition of social order.” * Garuer: “The State is a community of persons more or less numerous, Permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent of extemal control and possessing an organised Government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.” * Phillimore: The State is “a people permanently occupying a fixed territory bound together by common laws, habits and customs into one body politics, exercising through the medium of an organised Government, independent sovereignty and control over all personsScience 7 and things within its boundaries, capable of making war and peace and of entering into all international relations with the communities of the globe.” ELEMENTS OF STATE __ The State possesses four essential elements, namely population, territory, overnment and sovereignty. Population {@) State is primarily a human institution, it must have population. We cannot conceive of a State without human beings. {b) It should be enough to maintain a State organisation i.e., It should have enough people to constitute the governed and the governing class. Plato fixed the number of citizens for an ideal State as 5040. Rousseav fixed 10,000 people would be an ideal number. (©) There is no hard and fast rule regarding the size of population. Size of population varies from State to State. For example, China has more than 125 crores of people and India has more than 105 crores of population whereas some States like Andhra has Population of 5,000, Monaco has a population of 25,000. Irrespective of the size of their population, they are called States. (4) The quality of population is an important factor to determine national k: power. Aristotle feels that “a good citizen makes a good State and a bad citizen a bad State”. Honest, hard working and intelligent people are a boon to the State. If the people are half-starved, illiterate and ignorant, they cannot be regarded as an asset to the State. ‘(e) Population was a definite asset for a State in earlier days when physical power was the main source of the production process as well as for the defence of the country. Now it is accepted that the population should be in proportion to the resources available in the territory. If the population out turns the size of the territory and supply of economic resources, the State is in an unhappy situations of over- population with all its evil-effects. On the contrary, if the State has a small population, it may not be ir a position to exploit the available economic resources. Therefore, an equilibrium is to be maintained between the territory, resources and the population of a State. [erritory (a) Bluntschli says that “the State has its personal basis in the land. The people do not become a State until they have acquired territory.”™ al See, () People cant constitute State, unless they inhabit ina ed develop a community of interests and a sense of unity, 1t he 28y to organise them into a political unit and control them, «0 , is 8 Polit ; Soy State requires a fixed territory, with clearly demarcates boy, ia over which it exercises undisputed authority. Territory is is‘mae basis”. The territory of a State comprises of: "a @ Land, mountains, rivers and lakes (ii) Air space, lying above its territory. (©) The State has full rights of control and use ver its terstony ig interference with the rights of one State by other may lead tg eae (d) There is no accepted rule as to the size of State’s territory. Whether é State is small or big in territory, it becomes Powerful provided it scientific and technological advancement. For example, counties ie Britain, France, Japan, etc. have become very powerful though th are very small. India and China are not powerful inspite of thei, areas, big population and long history. There are States which have Just a few square miles of territory like Monaco (368 acres) and San Marino (38 Square Miles). There are also States with vast territories, like the USA with 3,022,387 square miles and India with an atea of 1,096,000 square miles. irrespective of their size, all these Countries are called States. Therefore, itis territory but not the size of the territory which is the yardstick of Statehood. in its frontiers, 3. Government Government i an important, rather an indispensable machinery by mans of which the State maintains its existence, caries on its functions and reales its policies and objectives. A community of person does not form a Sine unless itis organised by an established Government. Government is the sum total of legislature, executive, Judiciary and the intemal bodies, which are engaged to perform the function of the State There is no definite rule regarding the form of Government eg. Dictatorship or Democracy, Parliamentary or Presidenti “4, Sovereignty tis the supreme power of State within its territory. Iti an unique element Which is not found in other associations. This is considered to be the soul of the State, The word ‘sovereignty’ denotes supreme and final legal authority and beyond which no further legal power exists. lt makes a State independent and supreme,ical Science are two kinds of sovereignty: i) Internal sovereignty i) External sovereignty internal sovereignty is the supreme authority of the State over all iduals and associations within its geographical limits, By virtue of it, the ‘makes and enforces laws on persons and associations. Any violation of Jaws will lead to punishment, ‘ternal Sovereignty implies the freedom of the State ftom foreign I. No external authority can limit its power. India, before 1947, was State because though it had the other three elements, i.e., population, » and Government, the fourth and the most important one ice., idence was missing. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATE AND GOVERNMENT Often the terms the ‘State’ and ‘Government’ are used synonymously. the political scientists have made a clear distinction between State and ent. Some of these are listed below: _ 1. The State has four elements like population, territory, Government and Sovereignty. Government isa narrow concept and itis an element of the State. It is rightly said that the State is an organic concept in which the Government is a part. Willoughby writes, “By the term Government is designated the organisation of the State machinery through which its purposes are formulated and executed.” Government is an agent of the State. That is why in a democracy, itis considered as servant and the State as master. Government is compared with the brain of the living organism. What the brain is to the man, the Government is to the State, The State is more or less permanent and continues for time immemorial. But the Government is temporary. Itchanges frequent. A Government may come and go, but the State continues for ever. Death of ruler or the overthrow of a Government in general elections does not mean the change of the State. If the Janta Government replaces the Congress Government, it involves no fundamental change in the structure of the State of India. ‘The State is generally composed of all citizens but all of them are not members of the Government. The Government consists of only a few selected citizens. The organs of the Government are executive, legislative and judiciary. The few selected persons will run these three ‘organs of the Government, Thus, the State is a much broader organization than the Government.Politieg, 4, The State is an abstract sonnet pies Sorc i . the St We enya ‘rasfestation and it acts forthe State It con definite group of persons who can be ea bobs It isage By organization which can be seen and q . mi ‘5. All States are identical in character and nature, ether itor the characteristics of the State do not undergo, change Government are of different types and they may vary fp tees to the State. Aristotle has classified Government into Mona? Aristocracy and Democracy Marriot has classified Govern . Parliamentary or Presidential and Unitary or Federal, it no uniform pattern of Government. But the State is ange institution having one single form with its four essen characteristics. i ay + The citizens possess rights to go against the Government : sunlit the Sil, The Stas only acts through the Gov a the Government may commit mistakes but not the State ‘Thee citizens have only right to go against the Goverament. Mores Sate is constitutive ofits citizens. If the citizens go against the Sa it would be going against them ov selves. This is an impossig, Proposition. The States therefore, an indestructible Union, of Citizen, {avin the chief characteristics of permanence and continuity, Wheres, Government is only a part of the State, THEORIES OF STATE Political thinkers have attempted to explain the Origin of the State in Various ways. When, where and how the State came into existence have not been recorded anywhere in history. Therefore, the Political thinkers were Gompelled to adopt various hypothesis, many of which are now. discredited in the light of modem knowledge. Among the man te y theories which are concemed ‘withthe origin ofthe State the following are explained in this chapter. 1. Theory of Divine Origin 2. Theory of Force 3. Social Contract theory 4. Matriarchal and . Patriarchal Theory Divine Theory"Political Science " ruler as the creation of the divine entity or God. It was only Machiavelli who talked about separating religion from politics. B only Ma . were inextricably linked, om Politics. Before this religion and polities (2) Thinkers: Thom: significant exponent of put forward his views as Acquinas and St. Augustine were the first of the this theory, The first Stuart King of England, James-1 on the theory in the following way—“Kings are justly called Gods because they exercise divine powers on earth. Itis activism and blasphemy to dispute God; Kings are breathing image of God upon Earth.” According to Gettell, the State was created by God and governed by his deputy or vice-regent King, to save man from destruction. According to Professor Goach, nothing could limit the rules, wil or restrict his power. He Mas answerable only to God. His words were laws and defiance or resistance was sin, (3) Postulate (Actual theory) () The State and the King drew authority from the religious scriptures (Ramayana, Mahabharata, Quran, Bible) (ii) Monarchy is divinely ordained and the king is an incarnation of God e.g., Manusmriti. (ii) Monarchy is hereditary and itis the divine right ofa king that it should pass from father to son, (iv) The king is answerable only to God because he has been bestowed power by God. (¥) Resistance to the lawful authority of a King is a'sin, (vi) God appoints good Kings for noble people and bad kings for vicious (cunning) people. (vii) Subjects (governed class) did not have any rights to condemn the King or criticize the King, (4) Evaluation: (a) Positive Evaluation * Giving supreme authority to the State is beneficial at times because even the best of democracies in certain situations like emergency have to become authoritative. + Religion has better acceptance because there are certain principles in every religion which are universal and it acts as a unifying or binding factor.12 Politica, Scie, Me (b) Negative Aspects + This theory is unjustified because it allows for arbitra of power. by, If King is absolute, how does then one explain the ex, the bad king who might become a despot. ee + Absolute and hereditary monarchy g0€S against the my principles of democracy. It provides undue importance to faith and reverence rater reason and logic. : + Thistheory recognises only one type of Government ie, Unig, Monarchy. It does not explain the existence of any other for, Government. ty, ‘Theory of Force (1) Background: It is not very relevant but historically a very impor theory. According to this theory, State originates due to subordination ¢, subjugation of the weak by the strong. The lust for power in man Llead to th, dominance of one group by another. Individual (man) —> Family -> Clan —» Tribe -» State/Kingdom An individual who was the head of the family began dominating the othe family heads to became the Clan Chieftan. A number of such clans come together and formed tribes, headed by a tribal chief, who was the most powerf among the clan chieftans. The process culminated in a number of tribes coming together to form a Kingdom lead by the King who happened to be the mos, powerful tribal chief. ‘The Force theory believes that the State has come into being through physical coercion or compulsion or war. In Hindu Mythology, “Aitarey Brahmana” mentions the Sur-Asur sangram, where the Devtas were on the verge of being defeated. Late, they collectively elected Indra as their king and were able to win the Sangran This proved that Collective force has to be channelised under the guidence of an effective leader. Kautilya in his book “Arthashastra” speaks of Danda end Bala. This theory also lends credence to Darwin’s theory— “Survival of the fittest”, (2) Thinkers: Leacock says, it means that the Government is the outcome of human aggression, that the beginning of the State is to be sought in the capture and enslavement of man by man in the conquest and subjugation ofcal Science 13 tribes, and in the self-seeking domination acquired by superior physical rs . The Progressive growth from Tribe to Kingdom and from Kingdom to is but a continuation ofthe same process. Jenks: “All political communities of the modern type owe their existence 10 successful warfare.” _ Waltair says that “the first King was a fortunate warrier.” ‘ cee Says that “force is an essential element of the organisation of he State. Oppenheim talks about 6 stages of war through which States emerged. ‘The imperialists, Nazists and Fascists maintained that “Might is Right” true for any State building. GB) Postulate (i) Force is an essential feature for formation of States. (fi) States were bom out of force only and force is essential for the existence, maintaining and further expanding of State. (Gli). Power is the reason for the existence of State. (4) Evaluation _(@) Positive ) Force is an important element in the creation of State. (ii) Force helps in commanding sovereignty. eg. Emergency Provisions in India to control the intemal aggression, (iii) ‘State can successfully deal with intemal and extemal problems with use of force. (b) Negative (@_Only force cannot hold people together because force is unstable and deductive. This is contributed by T.H. Green. (i) Spencer and Ludwig tried to criticize the Darwinian Theory because only the mighty will survive and the weak perish. iii) According to Gilchrist, individual liberty is important. This guards against the excessive use of force by the State, iv) In Europe, the conflict between the Church and the State led to Pope Gregory VIl to makea Statement—"“State was the outcome of root—Force, whereas church is divinely created”. This made the crities devise a middle path i.e. force with some ethical or moral backing is required.14 Politicay ‘ Exponents of force theory look upon force as the lee and js, Of the State. The Government must be strong enous! dite ity from the aggressions and to maintain internal peace and order. Force, 5. Conclusion ni toes not a | 4does not stand for or justify the authority of the Government, : Theory of Social Contract ; The Social Contract theory isnot only the most ancient but 8 tt, famous ofthe theories regarding the origin of the State. The substance Of theory is that State is the result of an_agreement entered nto by en Yh, cxiginally had no Governmental organisation. In the fist perio, thre yas The people lived ina State of Nature. After somejn. jed to set up a State, That they did By means of contract. The social contract theory described the original condition of men as, “State of nature.” To escape from the condition of the State of nature may made a social contract. To some writers, the contract was pre-social and y, others it was pre-poltical Writers on this theory are in agreement on the point that the State nature preceded the establishment of Govemment and that there was ng ‘organised life in the State of nature. Each lived according-to-hi and fancies. No man made laws were there to control man. The law, known to nen liv conditions. ‘When men felt the need to escape from this type of life, they did so by common agreement or contract. Asa result of this, acvil society was created. Thus, creation of civil society preceded the emergence ofthe State, Inthe 16th and 17th centuries, the supporters of the socal contact theory ‘multiplied and there was more or less universal acceptance of the doctrine. Hooker was the fist scientific writer who gave a logical exposition of the theory of social contract. The theory found real support in the writings of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau who are known as Contractualists, CONTRACTUALISTS Hobbes Locke Rousseau 1588-1679 1632-1704 1712-1770litical Science 15 ie Hobbes’ Theory i) Human nature; ; caren ass Hobbes had a very negative picture of mankind. He h, nasty, — and-short- Man is full of f to struggle with each other. Though h essential Sie a. ranted peace, his fear for his life leads him.to. become ) State of natura: i fs ena ae twas a pr¢-social condition, There was no concept and ieee nd ownership. There was no distinction between justice nustice. “Might was Right” & the concept of Power was Emerging, It was realized that natural laws had to be effectively utilized to bring about peace and justice, : Gil) Contract: To. come out of the chaotic li i S ¢ oUutof the chaotic life, man signed a hypothetical Contract to form a cit lety. There were ree characteristics of it: (@) There was only one kind of contract ie. social contract which creates both the society and the ruler. xt (©) Except the Right to life, the two others were surrendered, (©) Sovercign.was not the party o the contract, so, he was not bound by terms and conditions. (iv) Sovereign: The person or assembly of people to whom people surrendered their rights, became the sovereign, He had one limitation thathe could not force an individual to end his life. People could not revolt against the ruler, (v) Evaluation: (a) Positive (i) As Power is the basis of Hobbesian State, he had major influence on Realism in International politics. (ii) He isan individualist, because the security of the individuals was the chief concern of the sovereign. (iii). This theory gave rise to the concept of sovereignty, (iv) He was the first thinker to say that “State was neither a divine creation nor based on force, but emerged from the consent of the people. zi (b) Negative (i) He draws a very negative picture of mankind whereas even Aristotle described as “social and kind”, Gi) His Assumption that anti-social individuals in the State of nature would suddenly.turn-obedient-and docile, was not practical.16 ie a i ii id individuals who were neither seq: Ny . ver that he gave to the Sovereign fig oe nesta Site because the ier ya ofthe contract without any responsibility, "be," (v) He explained only legal sovereignty ang sovereignty. (vi) Where is the State of nature to be found? Eve, primitive of societies have some kind of ay" st, which seems political. " n m Poji 2. John Locke's Theory () Human Nature: According o Locks, man vas innately co-operative, He was moral and rational. Man was puidey ori in everything he dd, He possessed all the thee rights; Ry! i Liberty and Property. Man was selfish only in sense that fone! personal-happiness: Oy i) State of Nature: The State was preolitcal but not pasa. was State of peace, mutual co-operation and assstanes boa ® people ad thre natural rights and according to Locke, nat were present from the very birth. The State of nature then od and offered inconvenient li are deg The reasons for conic that hg ie (@) Absence of Common Law. There is no codification of iy, (b) Absence of an upright judge. (©) Lack of enforcing authority. ii) Contract: He describes two types of contract. (@) The individuals themselves forming the society and the Sux known as social contract. (6) Government contract made between people and the rulers wks this forms the Government. This contract had the ruler as a party to the contract, so the tem sa conditions were also applicable to him. The ruler cannot infringe the conte: He had to abide by the contrac, For entering into the contract, th pl restrained all the thee rights but only surrendered to right to interpet then (iv) Sovereignty: The Government was limited and constitutional. Tre Sovereign was a Trust created by the People who had the right to revolt. The Goverument had limited authority and he was the si4 Political Science 7 between the disputes, The chief goal of the Government was good of the people. Limitations were there on the sovereign i.e. it. cannot g0 ‘against the natural laws and itcould not acquire an individual's property. (v) Evaluations Pa a (a) Positive (i) There emerged the concept of liberal democracy. y It was political sovereignty. (The Supreme power-vests. with, 4 the people). There was constitutional limitation and people Thad the right.to revolt. (ii) He had immense faith in the potential of the people and most important quality that he highlighted is rationality, 1 cooperativeness and morality. 7 (iv) He made a distinction between State and Government. State i erful as Government is an agent of the State. (©) His ideals of liberal democracy and social values have inspired most of the ideologies and events in the western world. (b) Negative (i) This theory justified the existence of the capitalist system (money-econémy)—A person had the right to accumulate as much property as he wished so long as enough common. goods were left for the others. ii) Locke could not point out where the authority resided, whether in people or the Government? (ii) His theory of property also justifies the class-divisions in the (iv) Locke had faith in majority rule which can eventually become dominant to suppress the minority-rule, JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU’S THEORY Human Nature It is essentially good and man has two important instincts—self love and thy. He describes man as “Noble Savage”, because although man is™ 18 Politcay (ii) State of Nature im ee He was in favour of small State with limited popula twas 3 ne and political society. Man starts thinking. nas Ta ae lth x it operation . The the original condition was of peace, co-operat rf na i le. Man had empathy 4 Jaws were enough to provide happiness to peop rpaty fellow beings. The degeneration was brought about by the civilisation, ~"* See (iii) Contract feoreero sane Itis a social contract each with all and all with each, lita op individuals become a collective unity. People transfered all oftheir righ the society which was mixed to breate the General Will. (iv) Sovereignty reign was all-powerful but democratically elected by the people. The FS-no a definite sold authority but is abstract and is called te General Will. The power ofthe Government is limited because it could be taken away or modified by the people. This is called Popular Sovereignty (real power vests with the ‘people). General Will General Will, according to Rousseau, is sovereign. It is inalienable, indivisible, infallible and absolute, It can neither be wrong nor unjust. So Rousseau's Sovereign is more powerful ant ghee ten feo of Hobbes. Rousseau pleads for direct democracy. Rousseau does not define “general will” clearly, The term ‘general will’ Seems to convey two ideas—the number of people holding it and the common spetest it Serves tis the will which must come fiom all and apply to Foowever, what makes it generals less the number f notes than te eonogon, interest uniting them,” Thus, the general willis the will of all citizens but it is ual good but the general good; rit s the voice of all forthe {00d of al. Every individual has a will ohis own. Its called individual will Society toa of t0up of individuals. Ifthe wil of ll the individual are brought together, we get the will of the community. Rousseau calls it General Will. It is the voice of all for the 800d of all. It aims at the ‘general or common good ane cciesens the best inthe individu wills. General will always isthe expression of inner will a dedicate of conscience and is always ight, altruistic and universal. General wil, which is expressed by all knowe everything and works forthe welfare of all. It represents the best in the wills of all the individuals. tis not different from him, itis apart and Parcel of his own bestil Science 19 1us, by obeying the General Will he is obeying nobody except his best res of General Will ) The General Willis not the Will of all, nor itis the Will of the majority. Itis the Will ofthe people for the good of all. ) Its sovereign. Every individual is obliged to follow it. If one refuses to obey it, he shall be compelled to do so. ) The general Will can alone be the judge of what constitutes public or Private interest. }) The general Will is inalienable and indivisible. 5) It is permanent, 5) The general Will is infallible. It is always right and tends to do the public good. Evaluation (A) Positive (i) Revolution against arbitrary Government is possible. (ii) Rousseau was the pioneer of the principles of Democracy. He was an advocate of direct democracy. ii) Will is the basis of the State and not force. (iv) He separated Legislature from the Government, }) Negative @ Sometimes, the General Will may tend to become absolutist or unlimited. This would lead the society towards anarey. (ii) Liberty, according to Rousseau was inversely proportional to the size of the State e.g. China 1 Liberty * Size of State (iii) His ideals were in abstract because it is difficult to locate General Will. (iv) Itwas unhistorical because there are few instances where society is moved from good to bad and then from bad again to good eg. Germany. (v) He was not able to distinguish between State and society.~ 20 Politica es Matriarchal Theory me Melennan, Morgan and Jenks ae the notable exponents of my, theory. The matiarchal system was prior to the patriarchal sysem a There was no permanent institution of marriage. A woman had mora! i, husband and because of the uncertainty of male parentage iggy reckoned through woman that is from mother to daughters, hn In the place of family consisting of a man his wife and children wasa age and loosely connected group called horde or pack organisa mavimonial purpose. The maachl family developed as indicated py 1. First there wasa tribe and it was the oldest and primary social n 2. In course of time a tribe breaks into clans. 3. Clans in their tum give place to households. 4, Atlast comes the modern family. "D Criticism The matriarchal theory is more sociological than politcal. It seeks i explain the origin of family and not that of the State. There is no adequat, Proof in support of the matriarchal system as the universal and necessary beginning of society. Patriarchal theory The Patriarchal theory explains that the State originated from the patriarchal family or the family in which the pater or father was the head. State is an enlargement of the family. Originally the family consisted of a ‘man, his wife and children. The father was the head of the family and his control and authority was complete in all respects overall its members. When his children married, there was expansion in the original family and it led to the establishment of new families. But the authority ofthe father and head of the original family remained as before, and it was duly acknowledged by all his descendants. This constituted the patriarchal family. The chief exponent of the patriarchal theory is Sir Henry Maine. The following important points may be noted in Maine's Patriarchal theory. 1. In the Patriarchal family the element of paternity was the chief fact 2. Descent was traced only through males and from the same ancestor. None of the descendants of a female was included in the primitive notion of family relationship. Kinship was accordingly, purely negative,1 tical Science 2 3. Permanent marriage was the rule, whether monogamy or polygamy. 4, ‘The Head of the family was the basis of all authority and his power ‘was unqualified over his children and their houses and other relations of all descendants. Howsoever numerous. _ 5. He controlled not only the business affairs of the group which he headed but also its religion and its conduct. ‘The family was the primal unit of political society, “the seed bed of all growths of Governments, “as Woodrow Wilson calls it. The single ily had developed into several families; yet all of them were fully conscious cir ultimate kinship. Bound together by ties of common ancestors, they ‘ated in a wider common fellowship group, the gens, owing allegiance yme elected elder - perhaps the oldest living ascendent or the most capable. larly, the gens broadened into the tribe. The pastoral pursuits gave way ‘culture and settled life on a definite land became a matter of necessity; tribes united to form the State. In support of his Statement, Sir Henry Maine cited the patriarchs of the testament “families” and “brotherhood” of Athens, the patriapotestos in i¢ and the Hindu Joint family system in India, ticism Modem theories show that the patriarchal family was not universal, the iarchal theory was subjected to severe attacks, Patriarchal and Matriarchal theories are in political theories. Stephen Leacock says nonetheless, both the theories sufficiently establish family is the original link in the evolution of the State, Both these theories do not satisfact ‘orily explain the origin of the State. triarchal and Patriarchal theories could hav essence sociological rather2 Polite. Theories of Function of State 5 forsanic] [Batiste] 6. Organic Theory 1, Background a It interprets the State in biological terms. The union of individuals, form a State has been compared to the union of parts to the human body, Th relation of the individuals to the State is also comparable to the relation of organs to an organism. 2. Important thinkers (@) Plato linked the state to a man of great stature. The ruling class in the society stood for wisdom i.e. brain. The warrior stood for courage ive, limbs. The working class stood for appetite i.e. digestive ang circulative system, (b) Bluntschli went to the extent of calling the State as “male”. (©) Cicero compared head of State to soul and spirit of an organism. (@ Herbert Spencer was the biggest contributor to organic theory. Being a biologist, he gave a scientific treatment. Important points of Spencer's theory are as follows: @ The attributes of an organism and society are similar and exhibit the same process of development. The animal and social bodies, spencer affirmed begin as germs—similar and simple in structure, (i) State evolves from simpler to complex form as division of role ‘or work occurs. This is similar to the grants in complexity of cellular organisms which move from unicellular to multi-cellular. 3. Thus emerged new branches of Law, with three important functions: (@_Production/Manufacturing Units (State) Circulatory, Respiratory, Digestive System. This is called “Substaining System”. ii) Regulating System (Government) -> Brain and Nervous System. (iii) Distributing system: Circulatory and Excretion. Distributing System in State is transport and infrastructure system.Political Science 23 4. Just like the 01 individuals. “die ®, State also goes through the same stage of Evolution like an individual. The State like an individual is born, grows into adult, evolves and ‘matures, ages and ultimately dies, 6. The State after death is eventually replaced (re-birth). 7. The health of State depends upon physical and moral well being of its individuals. rganism is composed of cells; State is composed of Theory (i), State is like a biological organism. i) Relationship between State and individual isthe same or analogous to that between organism and cell (iii) The individual is related to the State in the same way as the organ is attached to the organism, _ (iv) The State is born, grows, matures and faces death. This is. comparable to the different stages in life of a man -» infancy, childhood, adolescence, youth, maturity, old age and death. (¥) Health ofa State is reflection of the health of the citizens. (Vi) Just the body’s immunity leads to immunity of health, the State is also immune to attacks and agaression, Evaluation _ (A) Positive (@) The organic analogy highlights interdependence and unity between State and individuals, (b) Every individual must perform honestly his assigned function a in order to claim rights. This results in proper functioning of E State. (©) This theory goes on to prove that dependence and not isolation, leads to welfare State. (B) Negative (@) This kind of a comparison is superficial because the objects to be compared are not identical. (b) The individual's body is made up of non-thinking cells where as the State is made up of thinking individuals, who are capable of exercising reason and will.Political s. ly 4 1 the State is immortal excepy jn existence as a result of natura) cat ") (c) The individual dies but defeat ina war or end © ‘Conclusion i sple character, should be used wi ic theory, being of flexible ¢ b it en rshould not be passed too far. TO ae it a all voir nd bau seul. Based cn he elainshie Pe individuals and State; there can be two situations: < Government is more iny i) When the State or the ruler or the Gov 2 sais ‘aividual (idealism or idealistic theory of State), i ii fatory role but most part of ii) Where the State has limited regu! ory * ty per vals fei under his own contro individualism). (ii) When the individual is completely ‘overtaken by the Stal (totalitarianism). (iv) When society is more overpowering than 1 called Anarchy. he State, this situatiog 1 Idealist Theory of State [Also known as metaphysical or Philosophy theory] (® Background (@) In Ancient times: State controlled all aspects of man’s life. (b) In Medieval times: Sphere of State activity limited. (©) InModern times: State control over individual is limited only certain protective and welfare aspects. (i) Thinkers Plato, Kant, Hegel, Bosanquet and TH Gneen. Hegel—State is march of God on earth. If we attain a State, we attain God’s imprints. Ultimately, all individuals shall unite in State. Bosanquet—State is needed for the protection and promotion of individual rights, State is guardian of morality and supreme ethical institution, TH Green—State is there for removal of obstacles as it brings about best ofan individual. Laws can enjoin or forbid certain acts. He talked about moral freedom. The thinkers can be divided into 2 schools: (1) Extreme Idealist—State is infallible, omnipotent and divine. Individuals have no role outside the State. e.g. Kant, Hegel.Science c Moderate Idealist—State is based on general will. There are certain jimits on the role of the State, State is a means to an end i.e. best life. people have rights and liberty and State is a protector of rights of people. 8 Bosanquet and T.H, Green, rest ty They take an exalted/magniied view of State >) siate isan ethical and plorified institution ‘The ends of individual and the State are the same. The aim is the realisation of best life, 4) The State must provide the opportunities to the i (ood life by removing the obstacles. ( Te State is an all-powerful and self-sufficient unit. (6 Sia is @ representative of citizens’ aspirations. (7) The State is placed ata higher pedestal. Therefore, itis protected from being utilised for doing anything wrong. 1) iduals to obtain al law. (a) State isnot bound by any internat (a) There isan organic unity between the individual and the State (10) War is justified because it increases the power of State. Evaluation (A) Positive (1) The belief that State is a necessary and natural institution has been emphasized. (2) By accepting general will, the State tries to acquire welfaist role. (3) This theory emphasizes collective responsibility of the people. (4) The Government control on key areas of economic and social life hold good even in modem States. (5) By emphasising organic unity between the individual and the State, the theory denies any contradiction between the goals of the individual and the State. (B) Negative (1) There is undue emphasis on how a State ought to be (idealism) rather than how the State is (realism).Re Politica (2) Its an abstract or metaphysical e0CEDt $0 thre. standard parameter for judging. (3) There is undue emphasis on morality of State, (4) This kind of State may result in absolutism oF ‘authortay Conclusion The idealistic theory is sound in justifying that whatever the State may not do, it should not interfere with the free or disinterested Perfor of moral acts, 8. INDIVIDUALISTIC THEORY OF STATE Background : 1. The laissez faire theory arose as a natural reaction to the Mischiey, interference which characterized the relation of the State to the individual prior to the 18th century. There was also undue restriction on the freedom of trade. * With the coming of industrial revolution in the 18th century, ney inventions revolutionized the economic life ofthe people. Goods wer, being Sroduced on a large scale and new markets were being ny, where these goods could be sold. 4. In these circumstances, men of industry, enterprise and originality claimed the right tobe left alone as far as possible so that they coug utilize their powers to the maximum advantage, + ‘Letthings Alone’ because the world is ‘self regulating’ was the slogan of 18th century individualism, 6. It is the direct product of enlightenment, In shor, this thinking was the outcome of French revolution (18th century), {tremained the predominant theory in 19th and 20th century, mainly in Europe. Also called laissez faire theory; the individual is at centre of socal life, wha ‘must be left alone to develop fully, Thinkers Ricardo, Adam Smith, Malthus, Herbert Spencer, James Mill, Locke, Bentham. JS. sovereign. ‘Over himself”, over his own body and mind, the individual is Spencer: Limits sphere of State action to protection of individual against external and intemal enemies and enforcement of contracts lawfully madecal Science a (a) ltgives an exalted view of the ing: : of all social and potitca es M¥4Ual. Individual sa the centre 2 bea, ” exist 10 provide protection tothe indiepin) il” because it has to aroviding basic amenities to ciggana it has a welfare role of (0) The State i limited protective functions namely: (i) Protection against each other Protection against foreign aggression, (ii) Protection of property from theft (iv) Protection of terms of contract, ‘and damage, sovereign.” (e) The State has limit welfaristrole, According to Herbert; be, “maximum possible individual action.” ipencer, the goal of State should freedom and minimum State (0) Inthe field of Economics, a free play of forces of demand and supply, free competition, free market and private ownership must be allowed, (g) JS. Mill's HARM Principle states that State will interfere in the actions of individual ifthe liberty of another individual is at stake, TYPES OF INCIVIDUALISM (A) Traditional or Extreme iduals and considered State as + Herbert Spencer, J.S. Mill, (B) Moderate + ‘They assigned essential and some optional roles of State. portant. + Groups or associations, societies a + State has certain essential functions, apart from defence, maintaining law and order. + Thinker: Kant, Green and Bradely.2B (A) Positive ; (©) To help the individual atan best or good life, the g - have only limited role because this allows maximum eon his potential and personality. ; “ (ii) This theory is in agreement with organic theory of State, (iii) Free competition and free market lead to economic Aerts of society. (iv) State is a co-ordinating body which puts necessary TStriction, ‘on people. (¥) This theory emphasizes self-reliance and contracts neeg ley Governmental interference. (B) Negative (Criticism) (©) This theory, by removing excessive State interference leads 4 the competition called “survival of the fittest”. This race Makes the survivial ofthe weaker sections of the society dificult, rath, impossible, ultimately leading to their eliminates. (i) The State is not a necessary evil because some reasonable regulation is required. It could be preposterous to assume thay State is only interested in curbing the economic and social right, of an individual. Infact in Political History, the State originated to provide people the three natural rights and to bring about peaceful co-existence, (Gl) Full faith in free-market forces (supply demand, fee ownership, fee market) are a boon for those who are economically strong, but handicap for economically weak. This often results in the Worst form of capitalism. (iv) The policy of leaving the individual alone because man is the best judge of his own interest is true ony to limited extent, ‘Tis view ignores the diference between intelligence, education, rationality and economic capability between people. There are29 KAUTILYA’S SAPTANG THEORY jund as born in 375 BC in Magadha. He is considered to be father of litical Thought. He was well versed with the science of State eraft macy. TO avenge the insult inflicted upon him by Dhana Nanda of nasty, he became an ally and loyal servant of Chandragupta who ted to the Nanda family but was on exile. Using Kautilya’s cunning s, a civil war was triggered in Pataliputra, capital of Magadha Kingdom, Theory of Kinship, }) Theory of State Administration and Law. }) Problems of War and Diplomacy. cording to the book, the State had seven elements (only two were elements) in contrast to 4 elements found in modem States, ry . Origin of State: He did not waste much time in s speculating the origin te, He took the origin as “Fait accompli” (out of necessity). But his s went on to prove that the King had a divine origi tate was a made institution, ar 2, Nature of Sovereign or Ruler: The King had a divine origin, so ience to king was compulsory. Disregard would invite divine punishment. King had the following duties: (@) To ensure safety and security of the subject. (0) To punish people. (©) He was empowered to collect taxes. Duties of subject were as follows: (2) To obey the king. (6) To pay taxes,0 3. Functions of State esAi unit (a) The State was based on organic elements. : ei (b) Kauitlya compares the State t ae (©) The State is also compared t0 8c Salers nea (@ Inthis manner, Kautilya i lave io SS ae i ism, the injury of 0 fr at a stn ‘a State, if any element becomes dysfunctional, it ca problem to State. ity between seven Angasyp Contributions See (1) The Swami iss by Mant or Mant Parishad tis een, present (PM or head of State, Government assisted by coun ministers), : (2) Education of swans important because this helps in curbing despg, tendeney, (3) Kautilya talked about three pillars of Statescraft (0) Espionage sytem Gi) Good planning (i) Good diplomacy (4) He talks about well-conceved taxation sytem. There were main three features oft (0) Progressive Taxation (ie, Taxes in proportion to earning of people. (i) Ample notice for collection of taxes, (ii) Adkitional taxes in terms of crisis (contingency system) (8) He talked about mixed economy, (©) One of his contributions was codifiation of law. Conclusion autilya talks about a system where the King exercised politcal authority on advice of his mantri. The King ruled over his teritory fom a fortified capital. The stability and security of his rule was established through well ‘tained Army and treasury. The allies rendered him assistance in safeguarding his Kingdom,juical Science 31 Mi ing | Role/Function ies Sovereign Rileror King hiqe: Noble by birth, native, had % | uniformity, | 4 qualities: é ee ve {Ein mature— Protective | 4p), and pomaett® | Abkigamika Guna function, Intellect and intuition— Prajyana Guna Enthusiasm—Utash Guna Selfrestraint and spirit— Atma Sampad ni Smeitor | S&2nd | Dharmopashudha— Soares, | tema | Moral p rarer, sinsratin abronaia hove a senapati, mechanical matters, purohita) CChatitropashudha, free of vices, of noble origin, high integrity and infallible memory People and | Definite Hardworking, energetic territory population and _ | and loyal people, territory hardworking agriculturalist, Karmashila Karshah Good quality, accommodate and support its people, powerful over neighbours—shakya samanta Fortification Planned system Protection of people and of security and defence for protection of State territory, launch attacks, capital at the centre, symbol of arsenal; 4 kinds—Audak—i Parvat—on mountain, Dhaarivana—wasteland, Vana—surrounded by forestu 2 Politica, Prakriy ‘Anga/Organ Kosha System of taxation, to conduct routine | Methods, many ta aff, protection | Colleton in eye, against calamities BalaDanda/ | The army Strong and Hereditary, Split ing, Sena powerful State] dept on chi, 40 quash internal | bala . rebellion, help king conquer other territories ¥ Mitra Theallies | Alliance and Traditional, permane,, foreign relations | and disciplined, based on Man- | artificial—Kritrima g, dala Theory. | natural Sahaj Mitra | ISLAMIC THEORY OF STATE Background Prophet Muhammad preached principles ofa new socal order called Islay ‘he principles ae contained in Quran i. Allahs ast message to Muhamng and Ha’adith was the sayings of Allah, This new social order was based on concepts: (Unity of God ie, only one God Allah/Monotheism, @) Unity of human origin ie. Tauhid stands for equality, solidarity ¢ freedom, Origin of Islamic State Afier the battle of Badr (624 AD) between Islam, from religion became the State, Reli leaders i.e. has divine origin. The Islamic § Nature of State > The Islamic State tended to introduce unity & homogeneity in social, religious and civil spheres. —> The principle of unity of God & unity of human origin have been the bedrock of Islamic State.‘political Science os > The State in Islam governed through Islamic Shari. “+ It was a theocratic State, + The basis of administration was Adl & i i i Taiaie eee Insaaf i.e. (Justice & Society) than Zul ion & injastios) im and Udwan (oppression ‘Aim of Islamic State It must guarantee the following: — (1) A classless society, (2) Gender equality, (3) Democracy not in terms of sel and consultation with people, (4) Equal rights to all religions. lection of ruler but in terms of discussion Causes of Conflict (1) The right of succession led to conflict between (a) followers of Muhammad who believed succession should pass to the 4 Khalifas choosen by Muhammad itself. This group is called Sunnis, (b) ‘The followers of Muhammad’s son-in-law who wanted the son- in-law to become the successor, This group is called the Shias. Nature of Sovereign > The King had divine rights but not divine origin. — The source of his power was Allah and holy Quran had sovereignty over the ruler and the State. + No monopoly of offices or power, no Kings, oligarchy, no priesthood and all had as much right to be the head of the State as the noblest of the king. Role of Individual (1) People had to be loyal to Allah and not to the throne. (2) Due importance was given to individuals. (3) Equality of mankind was emphasised: r (a) Arab is not superior to non-Arab. (b) It is based on Tauhid—equality, freedom & fraternity. (©) Abolition of slavery.34 Political, le (@) Even slaves had rights enforced by law. ~ (©) Good deeds brought about equality. (f) Limited discrimination was permitted or ground of nde, only relating to property & divorce. Individual life was based on 5 pillars of Islam: (a) To believe that Mohd. was the final messenger of Allah ang Qe, was the ultimate word of Allah. (b) Namaaz—where an individual is supposed to pray 5 times 9 facing Mecca. (c) Ramzaan—Where the individual is supposed to fast for the Whole month. (@) Zakat—Donation of alms given to the beggar or about the chariy, work that an individual should do. (©) Kalma—Which are oral prayers recited during the namaz. (© Haj—Which is holy pilgrimage to Mecea once in your lifetime, Main Features (1) The ruleris to be obeyed by others only if he himself obeys the lord, (2) Obedience to the political head is conditional on his rule being jus. & beneficial. (3) Doctrine of consent is the basis of the State. (4) The ruler holds its position by virtue of good Government and is liable to be dislodged if his rule is unacceptable to his subjects. (5) Shariat proclaimed that there was no virtue except in good deeds & no nobility except in pity. All men are born free & declared equal in the eyes of law. (6) The prophet told its followers that there was no act more commendable in the eyes of God than liberating a slave. (7) The sharia upholds the idea of God, of power and of moral will. (8) The early Islamic State was based on principle of democracy. Example of Islamic State 1. Delhi Sultandte 2, Mughal Dynasty 3. PAN-Islamism