Module 1: INTRODUCTION, CLASSIFICATIONS AND TYPES OF 5.

Hydrographic Surveys – these are surveys of streams, lakes, reservoirs, harbors, oceans,
SURVEYING and other bodies of water.
6. Industrial Surveys – also known as optical tooling. These are surveying techniques in ship
Lesson 1: Classifications and Types of Surveys
building, construction and assembly of aircraft, layout and installation of heavy and complex
A. General Classifications and Types of Surveys machinery.
 Plane Surveying - this considers the earth as a flat surface where the 7. Mine Surveys – these are surveys which are performed to determine the position of all
distances and areas involved are of limited extent that the exact shape underground excavations and surface mine structure, to fix surface boundaries of mining
of the earth is disregarded. In this survey the following are considered: claims, determine geological formations, to calculate excavated volumes.
For horizontal distances – level line is considered as mathematically straight 8. Photogrammetric Surveys- these surveys make use of photographs taken with specially
For direction – all angles are considered as plane angles.
This survey is usually employed in engineering, scientific, commercial, architectural, designed cameras either from airplanes or ground stations.
geographic, navigational, and exploratory works. 9. Route Surveys – surveys which involve the determination of alignment, grades, earthwork
 Geodetic Surveying – the surveys are of wide extent that takes into quantities, location of natural and artificial objects in connection with the planning, design,
account the spheroidal shape of the earth. and construction of highways, railroads, pipelines, canals, transmission lines, and other linear
projects.
This survey employs principles of geodesy, high precision, and related calculations
using advanced mathematics. 10. Topographic Surveys – are those surveys made for determining the shape of the ground,
and the location and elevation of natural and artificial features upon it.
Types of Surveys ( by L a Putt )
B. Principles of Surveying
1. Cadastral Surveys - closed survey which are undertaken in urban and rural locations for
The basic principle of surveying have changed over the years and the tools used
determining and defining lines and boundaries, corners, and areas.
evolved tremendously. Most of the civil engineering works depend on surveys. Engineers and
2. City Surveys – surveys in and near a city for planning expansions or improvements,
surveyors should have thorough knowledge in algebra, trigonometry, geometry, and basic
locating property lines, fixing references monument, determining the physical features and
calculus. With the advancement in technology, the use of survey instruments with precision
configuration of the land, and preparing maps.
and accuracy
3. Construction Surveys – surveys which are undertaken at a construction site to provide data
should be employed.
regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground configuration, and the location and
Two fundamental principles of plane surveying:
elevation of structure which are of concern to engineers, architects, and builders.
1. Locating a point from two other known points.
4. Forestry Surveys – a type of survey executed in connection with forest management and
The relative positions of points can easily be known from other two known fixed points.
mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest lands.
2. “Working from the whole to the part.”
In this procedure, the primary control points are established. That is, the surveyor should first
establish a sufficient number of points with precision in and around the area to be surveyed.
Then the secondary as well as the tertiary control points at closer intervals are established for
the prevention of the accumulation of errors.
Module 2: MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES AND ERRORS IN – use of grads where 1 revolution = 3600 = 400 grads
MEASUREMENT C. Significant Figures and Rounding Off numbers
D. Review of Trigonometric Principles
Lesson 1: Different Types of Measurement
Lesson 2: Errors in Measurement
A. Types of Measurement Measurements in surveying are subject to some imperfections due to instrument used
and different errors inherent in the process of getting the measurement. Errors in
 Direct - a comparison of the measured quantity with the standard measurement cannot be totally eliminated. No exact or true measurement is ever
measuring unit or units employed for measuring quantity of that kind. possible and the true value of a measured quantity is never known. Errors are
Examples are the use of the measuring instruments such as tape for line identified and applied as corrections to be more accurate in determining quantities
such as linear measurements, areas, volumes, angles, etc.
or distance, use of transit for horizontal and vertical angles.
 Indirect – employed when a measuring instrument is not available or A. Errors and Mistakes in Surveying
possible to measure directly a quantity to be measured. Example of The difference between the true and measured value of a quantity is called the error
these are the use of relationships between a known quantity with the in measurement. Errors cannot be avoided in carrying out survey works. These
quantity to be measured; such as the use of geometry and trigonometry. maybe due to type of instruments used or to imperfections in the senses of a person
B. Systems and Units of Measurement: taking the measurement.
B.1 Metric System - International System of Units (SI) – adopted in the Philippines in 1983
Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurements. These may be caused by the carelessness,
Linear – meter, m
inattention, poor judgement, and improper execution of the surveyor or team.
Area – square meter, m2
Mistakes and blunders are not classified as errors. Blunders are large mistakes.
Volume – cubic meters, m3
B. Types and Sources of Errors
Angles – Circular or radian measure; Sexagesimal – degrees, minutes, and
seconds There are two types of errors in measurements.
B.2 English System – use of the pound or poundal for mass/weight, B.1 Systematic Errors - this type of error is one which will always have the same sign
and magnitude as long as field conditions remain constant and unchanged. This also
inch, foot, yard, mile for length
called cumulative error. These errors occur due to instrumental factors, natural
Angles – Circular or radian measure; Sexagesimal – degrees, minutes, and causes, and human
seconds; limitations of the observer. These errors can be computed and their effects eliminated
by applying corrections, employing proper techniques in the use of instruments. The
B.3 Centesimal Units for angular measurement
error will always have the same sign and magnitude as long as field conditions The most probable value (mvp) of a group of repeated measurements made under
remain unchanged. similar conditions is the arithmetic mean or the average. Also the mvp of the required
B.2 Accidental Errors – these errors are purely accidental and are caused by factors measurement is computed when the correction/s is/are applied.
beyond the control of the surveyor and are present in all surveying measurements.
They remain after mistakes and systematic errors have been eliminated. Example is
the failure of a tapeman to exert the correct amount of pull on the tape ends during
measurement.
1.
C. Sources of Errors.
There are three sources of errors namely:
C.1 Instrumental Errors – are due to imperfections in the instrument used which may
be due to faults from construction/manufacture or from improper adjustments of the
parts of the instruments before it will be used.
C.2 Natural errors are caused by variations in the phenomena of nature such as
changes in magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction, gravity,
and curvature of the earth
C.3 Personal errors arise from limitations of the senses of sight, touch and hearing of
human observer which are likely to be erroneous or inaccurate.
D. Accuracy and Precision
In surveying and other engineering field it is required that both accuracy and
precision should be observed in measurement of quantities for reliable results.
Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true value of
the quantity measured.
Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any physical
measurement is made.

E. Determination of most probable value of a group of repeated measurements

Lesson 3: Measurement of Horizontal Distances requires the measurement of shorter distances which are accumulated to total a full
tape length.
One of the basic operations of plane surveying is the accurate determination of the
distance between two points on any surface. The most common methods employed in B.2. Slope Taping
linear measurement are pacing, taping, tachymetric, graphical, mathematical, This is measuring directly along the slopes when the ground is of uniform inclination
mechanical, photogrammetric, and electronic distance measurement.
Distance measurement is generally regarded as the most fundamental of all surveying and fairly smooth, rather than break the tape every few meters. The procedure is the
observations. Many angles may be read, the length of at least one line must be same as on the level ground only
observed to supplement the angles in locating points. In plane surveying, the distance
between two points means the horizontal distance. that measurement is along the slope. This is then converted to horizontal distance by
using algebraic and trigonometric principles. Either the slope angle (angle of
A. Pacing
inclination) or the difference in elevation between two ends of the tape are given.
Pacing is one of the most valuable and basic things learned in surveying, since it has
Longer tapes are suitable for measuring along slopes such as 50 to 150-m tapes.
practical applications for everybody and requires no equipment. Distances obtained
by pacing are sufficiently accurate for many purposes in Surveying, Engineering,
Geology,
Forestry, Military field sketching. It is also used to detect careless mistakes that may
occur in making distance measurements by more accurate methods. Pacing consists
of counting the number of steps, or paces, in a required distance.

B. Taping.
Taping is the direct measurement of distances with the use of a graduated tape. The C. Corrections in Taping
usualprocedure in taping of distances involve the process of aligning the tape, Taping operations are of the following uses
stretching it, plumbing selected tape 1. to determine an unknown length
marks, marking and recording tape lengths. 2. to layout a required or specified distance or length
B.1 Breaking tape. C.1 Rules to apply corrections to taping
The tape is being held in horizontally above the ground and to plumb at one or both Measuring a line or distance
ends when taping on sloping or uneven terrain surfaces. The process of breaking
1. Tape “too long”
When a line or distance is measured with a tape “too long”,
the corrections are applied by ADDING.
2. Tape “too short”
When a line or distance is measured with a tape “too short”,
the corrections are applied by SUBTRACTING.
Laying out a line or distance
3. Tape “too long”
When a line or distance is laid out with a tape “too long”,
the corrections are applied by SUBTRACTING.
4. Tape “too short”
When a line or distance is laid out with a tape “too short”,
the corrections are applied by ADDING

C.2 Corrections Due to Incorrect Tape Length

The tapes from manufacturers rarely corresponds exactly with its specified nominal
length. Due to imperfections in their manufacture, stretching or wear the tape may be
slightly shorter or longer. The correction per tape length is dependent on the true or
actual length of tape (TL) and the nominal length of the tape (NL). The discrepancy
is assumed to be distributed uniformly throughout the tape and is directly
proportional to the fractional segment f the tape used.