Thermography Applications in Technology Research

Pavel Litos, Milan Honner, Josef Kunes,

University of West Bohemia

ABSTRACT
This paper deals with thermography applications in technology research, including the measurement of the
heat treatment of large crankshafts, test and measurement of thermal barrier coatings, analysis of the hole-
drilling residual stress measuring technique, the thermal spraying of protective coatings, measurement and
evaluation of hot-air soldering of joints on electronic circuit boards, and the thermal measurement of car
exhaust pipes. Some measurement difficulties are discussed. The equalization box and software to evaluate
emissivity using ThermaCAM® Researcher through OLE Automation are presented.

Keywords: quantitative thermography, industrial application, emissivity

INTRODUCTION
Temperature is a measure of the energy of atoms’ and molecules’ thermal motion. It is one of the
fundamental thermodynamic quantities. Almost every physical process is influenced by temperature; heat1
transfer is connected with all work. That’s why it’s one of the most often measured quantities in technology
research. The range of techniques for temperature measurement is extensive. Non-contact temperature
measurement is a preferred technique for small, moving, or inaccessible objects. Infrared thermography is a
non-contact technique for two-dimensional mapping of surface temperature distribution. High temperatures
unmeasurable by contact techniques can be measured, because the object of interest is observed remotely.
Another advantage is that short response time (µs) can be achieved, as the measuring device does not have
to reach thermal equilibrium with the measured object.

The range of infrared thermography applications is extensive for the abovementioned reasons. However, non-
contact techniques generally involve difficulties (Fig. 1) resulting from the physical principle of radiation
process. Amount of energy radiated (radiant excitance) is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann radiation law for real
bodies2

M (T , ε ) = ε ⋅ σ ⋅ T 4 , (1)

where σ is Stefan-Boltzmann constant, T thermodynamic temperature, and ε emissivity. Radiant exitance

depends not only on temperature, but also on the emissivity value. Furthermore, an object with emissivity ε <
1 (all real object) reflects (transmits) part of the radiation from the surroundings (Kirchhoff radiation law), and
radiation passing through the atmosphere is attenuated. Measured radiant power φ can be then written:

φ (Tobject , Tambient
effective
, Tatmosphere , ε ,τ ) = ε ⋅τ ⋅ φ (T )object + (1 − ε ) ⋅τ ⋅ φ (T )ambient + (1 − τ ) ⋅ φ (T )atmosphere , (2)

where ε is the object emissivity and τ is transmission through the atmosphere. Emissivity is a property
determining energy transfer. It defines the fraction of radiation emitted by an object as compared with emitted
by a perfect radiator (blackbody). Emissivity value lies in ε ∈ (0, 1) and depends on object material, surface
condition (surfacing method, geometry), object temperature, wavelength, and direction of radiation.

1
First law of thermodynamics: ∆E = Q - A, where E is system energy, Q heat, and A work of the system. In real cases Q ≠ 0. Correctly, heat is not a kind of
energy, but only a measure of energy transmission in a specific form.
2
Stefan-Boltzmann law is derived (integration over the entire spectrum of wavelengths) from Planck’s radiation law.
InfraMation 2004 Proceedings ITC 104 A 2004-07-27
Figure 1. Error sources in the non-contact temperature measurements

THERMOGRAPHY APPLICATIONS
All of the thermography measurements mentioned below were taken with an infrared (IR) camera, the
ThermaCAM SC 2000 from FLIR Systems. The IR camera was equipped with a close-up lens 34/80, a 45° wide-
angle lens, and an IC2-DIG16 frame grabber.

ANALYSIS OF HOT-AIR SOLDERING ON A SENSOR CIRCUIT BOARD

The technological setup of hot-air soldering of joints on the sensor circuit board and the schematic
arrangement of the thermography measurement are shown in Figure 2. Hot air flows from the nozzle and
melts the soldering paste on the three square joints.

The purpose of the analysis is to optimize the technological process by comparing its alternatives. The
objective is then to identify temperatures on soldered joints and on parts of the sensor circuit board insulated
by different types of shutters.

Figure 2. The soldering workplace with sensor detail and arrangement of the measurement

Only the board temperature with high uniform emissivity could be evaluated, because the soldering paste
emissivity changes during the soldering process. On the other hand, observation of the emissivity change was
very useful to investigate the course of the melting process. The contrast between the paste and the joint
surface in the infrared images, compared to the visual ones, makes the changes in the soldering process
highly visible. Three characteristic times of the process can be recognized on thermogram sequences for
each joint (Fig. 3): the beginning, considerable change, and the end of the paste melting. These three times
were evaluated for the three joints, and board temperatures near the joints were used to specify the best
technological alternative from the set being measured [1].

InfraMation 2004 Proceedings ITC 104 A 2004-07-27

Figure 3. Soldering paste melting process over the course of time in IR projection

ANALYSIS OF THE HOLE-DRILLING RESIDUAL STRESS MEASURING TECHNIQUE

Residual stresses originate in materials as a consequence of their manufacturing and treatment technology.
The principle of the semi-destructive, strain-gauge hole-drilling method is based on the strain gauge
measurement of strain connected with the residual stress relaxation consequent on the drilling of a small hole
in the material’s surface. An important factor of the hole-drilling measurement process (and machining
processes generally) is heat/temperature generation during drilling [2]. The increased temperature can cause
thermal error in the relieved strain measurement.

Temperature analysis of the drilling process was performed using the IR camera. The emissivity problem was
solved by surface modification with a thin layer of high-emissivity paint. A detailed description of the drilling
temperature measurement, measured objects emissivity determination, data evaluation procedure, and
results can be found in [3, 4]. Numerical simulation of material heating during drilling and its influence on
measured values using thermographic experimental data can be found in [5, 6, 7].

Figure 4. Photo and thermogram of the mill, strain gauge rosette, and sample

Figure 4 shows a visual image and a thermogram of the drilling mill vicinity with a strain gauge rosette. The
temperature scale is valid only for the rosette region with 0.98 emissivity value. Temperature of the mill and
steel sample appears lower than in reality due to lower emissivity. The average area temperatures were
considered, instead of individual pixel values, to minimize errors caused by emissivity variations (especially
for the low emissivity mill surface).

InfraMation 2004 Proceedings ITC 104 A 2004-07-27

MEASUREMENT OF LARGE FORGINGS HEAT TREATMENT

Technology of heat treatment exploits thermal processes for structural changes in a material to achieve
required mechanical properties. Development and optimisation of the technology is closely connected with
analysis of thermal processes and their control during the entire technological process.

The goal of the optimization is to shorten heating and treating times by preservation of the required material
properties. Experimental data from thermocouple probes and the infrared system are used for fitting of the
numerical model. The model is then used for process optimization [8, 9]. Thermography can provide analysis
of the surface temperature field of the treating object, which can be used with computer simulation of
technological processes [10]. The object for thermography measurement can also be a furnace [11],
quenching liquid, and other treating tools as well. Temperature distribution of a large crankshaft prior to the
water quenching is shown in Figure 5 as an example. The complete heat treatment process, including
thermography measurement of the crankshaft surface and quenching liquid, is the subject of an education film
[12].

Figure 5. Photo and thermogram of the crankshaft (15000 kg) prior to the water quenching. Effect of
emissivity directional dependence is perceptible.

CAR EXHAUST PIPE AND FISHTAIL MEASUREMENT

The exhaust pipe to the catalytic converter and fishtail were measured by the IR camera [13]. Several
structural designs were analysed in various loading regimes. Results were used as the boundary conditions
for numerical computations of pipe strength and for optimal structural design retrieval.

Low and inhomogeneous emissivity of the surface (Fig. 6) was the basic difficulty in the thermography
application. Therefore, surfaces were modified for achieving identical, homogeneous values of emissivity.
Emissivities of heat-resistant paints were measured. The paint Motyp 04031 was chosen for its
homogeneous, high (0.90) emissivity with insignificant temperature dependence.

InfraMation 2004 Proceedings ITC 104 A 2004-07-27

Figure 6. Thermogram/photo showing catalytic converter and thermogram showing emissivity
variation of the surface without modification

THERMAL BARRIER COATINGS EVALUATION

Thermal barrier coatings (TBC) provide thermal protection against high temperatures and thermal shocks
[14]. ZrO2 – Y2O3 and Al2O3 – TiO2 TBCs deposited on steel samples were thermally loaded by O2 – C2H2 jet
[15, 16]. Static (Fig. 7) and dynamic thermal loading and cooling were measured. Thermocouples were used
for temperature measurement inside the samples. Surface temperatures were measured by the IR camera.
Because of the flame line, emissive spectrum influence of jet combustion gases on the temperature
measurement in the spectral band of the IR camera is small (+30 K error). Moreover, during the dynamic
loading, temperatures were evaluated at times when the measurement was not affected by the flame. Al2O3
coatings showed worse thermal-insulating efficiency.

Figure 7. Photo/thermogram showing static loading of the TBC sample. Flame is not visible in the thermogram by
reason of line emissive spectrum (gas phase).

THERMAL SPRAYING OF PROTECTIVE COATINGS MEASUREMENT

HVOF (high velocity oxygen fuel) is a technology of thermal spraying. Coatings created by HVOF technology
are characterized by high adhesion, density, low content of oxides, and voids. HVOF spraying of wear-
resistant Cr3C2-NiCr coatings and their properties were investigated dependent on different coating thickness
and spraying parameters. Residual stresses, SEM (scanning electron microscope), and mechanical
properties were evaluated [17, 18]. The temperature of deposited coatings was measured by the IR camera;
the substrate temperature by thermocouples. Knowledge of substrate heating is important for the temperature
impact check of HVOF technology on the substrate. Knowledge of temperature gradients is important for its
significant role in residual stress formation.

InfraMation 2004 Proceedings ITC 104 A 2004-07-27

The IR camera was placed above the sprayer and followed its movement along the substrates (Fig. 8). The
coatings emissivity was evaluated after the experiment by measurement in the equalization box. No changes
in the emissivity depending on coating thickness were detected.

Figure 8. Photo and thermogram of HVOF spraying

EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT

Emissivity measurement is necessary for true temperature evaluation from the measured radiation. Two
simple methods can be used for emissivity determination [3]:
• The method of known uniform temperature: A sample is heated to a certain temperature. The
emissivity value corresponding to a certain surface temperature level is evaluated by the IR camera
from the IR radiation intensity detected.
• The method of known high and uniform radiation environment temperature: This method is used to
determine the emissivity indirectly by the reflectivity measurement. The advantage of this method lies
in its applicability for the emissivity measurement of samples at room temperature.

In many cases3 application of a thermocouple or a reference emissivity is sufficient [19].

EQUALIZATION BOX FOR EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT

An equalization box was created for easy and quick emissivity evaluation. It enables measurement of the
temperature dependence and the spatial distribution of the emissivity up to 923 K (650°C). It is composed of
(Fig. 9):
• Titanium hot plate PZ 28-3 TPD (Detlef Gestigkeit) with programmable controller PR5 3T (Detlef
Gestigkeit) for precise temperature regulation.
• Advantech ADAM-4018 data acquisition module for thermocouple measurement of sample and
environment temperatures. Module can measure up to 8 TC channels.
• Advantech ADAM-4520 communication module for connection with the computer via RS-232.
• Holder for IR camera enabling vertical movement of the camera.
• IR camera ThermaCAM SC 2000.
• Computer with ThermaCAM Researcher application installed, RS-232 port and PC Card Interface or
ICPCI Frame Grabber installed.
• Software for communication with ADAM modules through RS-232 and with IR camera through
ThermaCAM Researcher.

3
Temperature sensor cannot cause temperature changes of the sample; temperature of the sample is (at least 50 K) higher than ambient temperature.
InfraMation 2004 Proceedings ITC 104 A 2004-07-27
Figure 9. Scheme of the emissivity measurement process

Walls of the box are mounted to the hot plate and insulated by Sibral. The inner sloping side is polished.
ADAM modules are attached to the external wall and protected from conduction and radiation from the wall.
The measuring experiment starts with the placement of one or more samples into the box at one time.
Temperatures for the emissivity evaluation are set on the heating controller. When the communication with
the ADAM modules is activated, software reads temperatures from the thermocouples. Once the object has
reached desired temperature (temperature stability is signalled), it is possible to measure the temperature
field for the emissivity evaluation at the known uniform temperature. Recorded thermograms can be
converted to the emissivity map. Each thermogram contains actual object parameters from the time of the
measurement. Information about surface temperature is inserted to the filename of the thermogram.

MEASUREMENT SOFTWARE

The software was developed in Delphi 6 environment. It can read data from the ADAM modules and control
ThermaCAM Researcher and IR camera Thermovision SC 2000 through OLE Automatization [20]. The Delphi
component OLE Container is used for embedding and linking ThermaCAM Researcher Session objects.
Examples of statements for communication with ThermaCAM Researcher are in Table 1. The software
window is shown in Figure 10.

An emissivity map can be created from the whole image or selected box area. The software changes
emissivity values from 1 to 0.01 by scheduled steps and stores temperature field for each emissivity value.
Then the temperature field with the temperature closest to the true temperature is found for each pixel
(emissivity is interpolated eventually). Finally, an emissivity map image is generated and stored to the bitmap
file. Example of the emissivity map image is shown in Figure 11. The process of emissivity map generation is
so complicated because of unknown temperature computation in the ThermaCAM Researcher.

InfraMation 2004 Proceedings ITC 104 A 2004-07-27

 Statement Statement meaning
OleContainer.CreateObject('IRWinres.session', false) creates an embedded OLE object
given its class name
OleContainer.Run runs the OLE object's server
application, but doesn't open or
activate the OLE object itself
if OleContainer.State <> osEmpty then OleContainer.DestroyObject destroys the container’s OLE
object
OleContainer.OleObject.Connect connects the application to the
camera
OleContainer.OleObject.Emissivity := 1 sets the image scale emissivity
factor to 1
OleContainer.OleObject.InternalCorrection calibrates the pixel-to-pixel
differences in the camera with the
internal shutter as reference
OleContainer.DoVerb(ovShow) displays the OLE object
OleContainer.OleObject.BBRange sets or gets the measurement
range
OleContainer.OleObject.LoadImage(ExpandFileName(OpenImage. loads a particular image file from
FileName)) disk and displays it

Table 1. Examples of the OLE Automation statements

Figure 10. The emissivity measurement software window

InfraMation 2004 Proceedings ITC 104 A 2004-07-27

Figure 11. Emissivity map of the sensor circuit board

SUMMARY
Infrared thermography is an indispensable technique for many temperature measurement applications and
the preferred method for some others. In spite of its versatile spectrum applicability, IR involves problems that
make the quantitative measurement difficult: attenuation of the radiation between the object and the IR
camera; uncertainty of the object emissivity; and background radiation reflected from the object and
transmitted through, if the object is transparent. A few methods for emissivity measurement are suggested.

REFERENCES
[1] Honner, M. and Pa. Litos. 2003. “Thermographic analysis of hot-air soldering on the electronic circuit
board.” Proceedings of THERMO 2003 - Thermal Engineering and Thermogrammetry 13:288-93. Budapest,
Hungary.
[2] Svantner, M., Pa. Litos, and M. Honner. 2004, submitted. “Hole drilling residual stress measurement
method – the drilling thermal influence.” Journal of Material Engineering and Technology.
[3] Honner, M., Pa. Litos, and M. Svantner. 2004. “Thermography analyses of the hole-drilling residual stress
measuring technique.” Infrared Physics & Technology 45:131-42.
[4] Svantner, M., Pa. Litos, M. Honner, and A. Kriz. 2003. “Hole-drilling residual stress method parameters
determination.” Proceedings of EAN 2003: 99-100. Brno, Czech Republic.
[5] Litos, Pa., M. Svantner, and M. Honner. 2004, submitted. “Simulation of thermal strain effect at the hole
drilling residual stress measuring technique.” Journal of Strain Analysis.
[6] Litos, Pa., M. Svantner, and M. Honner. 2003. “Simulation of the material heating during hole-drilling
residual stress measurement.” Proceedings of COSMOS 2003 20: 2-61 – 2-68. Prague, Czech Republic:
TechSoft Engineering. (in Czech).
[7] Svantner, M., Pa. Litos, and M. Honner. 2003. “Some problems of residual stress measurement by hole
drilling method.” Proceedings of NTC, 2nd edition: 59-66. Plzen, Czech Republic: University of West
Bohemia.
[8] Honner, M., Pa. Litos, and Z. Vesely. 2003. “Flanged shaft heating optimisation.” Research report of NTC
04-03/03. Plzen, Czech Republic: University of West Bohemia. (in Czech).
[9] Honner, M. and Pa. Litos. 2003. “Flanged shaft cooling optimisation.” Research report of NTC 04-03/06.
Plzen, Czech Republic: University of West Bohemia. (in Czech).
[10] Honner, M. Preparing publication. “Quantitative thermography in the physical technology research.”
Plzen, Czech Republic: University of West Bohemia. (in Czech).
[11] Honner, M. 2002. “Thermography measurement of the continuous pusher-type furnace.” Research report
of NTC 04-02/02. Plzen, Czech Republic: University of West Bohemia. (in Czech).
[12] Honner, M. 2002 “Quenching of the crankshaft.” Education film. Plzen, Czech Republic: University of
West Bohemia. (in Czech).

InfraMation 2004 Proceedings ITC 104 A 2004-07-27

[13] Honner, M. and P. Litos. 2002. “Thermography measurement of the exhaust pipe – catalytic converter
and fishtail.” Research report of NTC 04-02/03. Plzen, Czech Republic: University of West Bohemia. (in
Czech).
[14] Kunes, J., Z. Vesely, and M. Honner. 2003. “Thermal barriers.” Monograph. Prague, Czech Republic:
Academia.
[15] Vesely, Z. 2002. “Thermomechanical processes in the heterogeneous layered structure of thermal barrier
coating during thermal shock.” Ph.D. thesis. Plzen, Czech Republic: University of West Bohemia.
[16] Vesely, Z., M. Honner, and J. Kunes. 2003. “Analyses of thermal barriers dynamic behaviour.”
Proceedings of THERMAL STRESSES 2003. Blacksburg, USA.
[17] Svantner, M., J. Kunes, A. Kriz, and R. Enzl. 2004. “Hole-drilling residual stress measurement of layers
created by flame spraying.” Proceedings of 42. International Conference Experimental Stress Analysis 2004:
261-64. Czech Republic: EAN2004. (in Czech).
[18] Svantner, M. Preparing publication. “Residual stresses determination in multilayer structures.” Plzen,
Czech Republic: University of West Bohemia. (in Czech).
[19] FLIR Systems. 1999. ThermaCAM® SC 2000 Operator’s Manual: 49-58.
[20] FLIR Systems. 2001. “OLE Automation Commands.” ThermaCAM Researcher 2001 Help.
[21] Maldague, X. P. V., and P. O. Moore (editors). 2001. “Infrared and Thermal Testing.” Nondestructive
Testing Handbook 3. USA: American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.
[22] Childs, P. R. N., J. R. Greenwood, and C. A. Long. 2000. “Review of temperature measurement.” Review
of scientific instruments 71, no. 8.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Czech Republic under projects
FRVS:1344/2004/G1 and LN00B

InfraMation 2004 Proceedings ITC 104 A 2004-07-27