IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 32, NO.

6, JUNE 2017 4157

Experimental Extraction of Parasitic Capacitances

for High-Frequency Transformers
Chen Liu, Lei Qi, Xiang Cui, Senior Member, IEEE, and Xiaoguang Wei

Abstract—Parasitic capacitances of the high-frequency (HF) to achieve galvanic isolation and voltage level transformation
transformer used in dc–dc converter impact harmonic analysis [1]–[5]. On the condition that requirements of switching losses
of the transformer and interactions with the converter. Resonant for the semiconductors and insulations for the transformer are
frequencies of open- and short-circuit impedances characteristics
(ICs) have been widely used to extract parasitic capacitances of HF satisfied, enhancing operating frequency is helpful to reduce
transformers, but it was reported that some resonant frequencies volume of the transformer. For dc–dc converters with bridge
were unobtainable as they were too high where the ICs fluctuated topologies, operating frequencies of the transformers may
heavily, and parasitic capacitances remained unevaluated. In this be dozens of kilohertz [3], some even up to decades of kilohertz
paper, resonance features of ICs and voltage transfer character- [4], [8], and [9]. Considering that excitations of the transform-
istics (TCs) are investigated, and a new frequency of voltage TC
is used for extracting parasitic capacitances. By analyzing inner ers in these converters are usually square waves, when conduct
links of known impedance resonant frequencies, why and which harmonic analysis on the transformers, the concerned frequency
resonant frequencies are likely to be unobtainable is revealed. Fur- range may be up to several megahertz. At these high frequen-
thermore, a new frequency corresponding to zero of TC, account- cies, impacts of parasitic capacitances on harmonic analysis of
ing for parallel resonance between leakage inductance and mutual the HF transformer and interactions with the converter should
capacitance of the two windings, is used to extract parasitic ca-
pacitances. With this new frequency mutual capacitance of the not be ignored. Parasitic capacitances seen from the excita-
windings is evaluated, and missing equation due to unobtainable tion side are responsible for natural resonant frequencies of the
impedance resonant frequency is added. Besides, merits and limi- transformer, and parasitic capacitances between windings con-
tations of extracting parasitic capacitances based on ICs and TCs tribute to the electromagnetic interference [5]–[7]. Furthermore,
are analyzed. These techniques are verified with several HF trans- current waveform on the excitation side may be distorted by par-
former prototypes in the laboratory.
asitic capacitances of the transformer, and overall efficiency of
Index Terms—Capacitance measurement, high-frequency trans- the converter may be decreased [8]. Besides, for resonant dc–dc
former, resonance, transfer functions. converters, parasitic capacitances of the transformer are desired
to be utilized as resonant elements of the converter in order to re-
I. INTRODUCTION
duce the overall system size [8]–[10]. Therefore, it is necessary
ITH the rapid development of large-scale renewable
W energy power generation, power sources that generate
megawatt-scaled direct current (dc), including photovoltaics,
to investigate parasitic capacitances of the HF transformer.
Many efforts have been made to model capacitive effects of
the HF transformer. When investigate transient behaviors of the
wind generators (without the last converter stage), etc., have transformer, refined models considering distributed parameters
proliferated in recent years, and the demands for dc–dc connec- of every single turn may be developed [11], [12], as wavefront
tions in power system have significantly increased. The dc–dc duration of the waveform applied to the winding may be shorter
converters with intermediate high-frequency (HF) transformers than the charging time and the potential at each turn of the trans-
are essential for these dc sources to integrate into the dc bus, former does not form a linear distribution [13]. When investi-
and the HF transformer is key equipment for the dc–dc converter gate harmonic analysis of the transformer where the frequency
is not very high and the propagation delay may be ignored
Manuscript received April 29, 2016; revised June 27, 2016; accepted July (usually below several megahertz which are concerned in this
29, 2016. Date of publication August 2, 2016; date of current version February paper), magnetic and capacitive effects of the transformer may
11, 2017. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation be equivalent to lumped parameters and the models focused on
of China under Grant 51277065, by the National Energy Board under Project
NY20140301A-1, and by “111” Project of China B08013. Recommended for winding level have been established [5]–[10], [14]–[21]. The
publication by Associate Editor J. Biela. three-capacitance model with π-shaped was widely used for
C. Liu is with Beijing Key Laboratory of High Voltage & EMC, modeling transformer in system analysis and circuit simulation,
North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China (e-mail:
liuchen12315@ncepu.edu.cn). where the transformer was regarded as a two-port network con-
L. Qi and X. Cui are with State Key Laboratory for Alternate Electrical Power sidering the two independent winding current [6]–[9], [21]. The
System with Renewable Energy Sources, North China Electric Power Univer- six-capacitance model was used to investigate whole electro-
sity, Beijing 102206, China (e-mail: qilei@ncepu.edu.cn; x.cui@ncepu.edu.cn).
X. Wei is with the Global Energy Interconnection Research Institute, Beijing static behavior of the transformer, where the transformer was
100192, China (e-mail: weixiaoguang@sgri.sgcc.com.cn). regarded as a three-port network considering the third current
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online running between the two windings via parasitic capacitances
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPEL.2016.2597498 [10], [14]–[20]. In high-power and high-voltage (HV) applica-

0885-8993 © 2016 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

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4158 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 32, NO. 6, JUNE 2017

tions, another four capacitances between winding terminals and

the ground were considered in order to account for winding-to-
ground capacitances of the transformer [5]. Compared with re-
fined models which may contain a mass of circuit components,
these lumped parameter models are convenient for harmonic
analysis of HF transformers due to their simple topologies and
few parameters.
There have been extensive researches on the determination of
parasitic capacitances in lumped parameter models of the trans-
former. For a transformer in design phase, analytical/numerical
methods were proposed based on electromagnetic field com-
putation with internal information of the transformer, i.e., size, Fig. 1. Circuit model of the HF transformer with three capacitances.
geometry, medium parameters, etc., which were useful to capac-
itance extraction and optimization [10], [16]–[19]. However, for
an existing transformer with accurate internal information un- to zero of voltage TC and accounts for parallel resonance be-
available to the users, analytical/numerical methods may not tween leakage inductance and mutual capacitance of the two
be used. In this case, experimental methods based on external windings. Mutual capacitance of the transformer is evaluated
measurements may be adopted to extract parasitic capacitances, with this new frequency, and the missing equation due to un-
without having to know internal information of the transformer obtainable impedance frequency is added. Even if the new fre-
[6], [14], [15], [20]. Two-port network method was proposed quency is out of measurement range, it indicates that the mutual
to extract parameters of 3-capacitance model by conducting capacitance is very small and parasitic capacitances may still be
open and short circuit tests within the range of normal op- evaluated.
erating frequencies, and frequency-dependence of parameters This paper is organized as follows. In Section II, a circuit
was analyzed through a group of measurements [6]. However, model of the HF transformer is established, and admittance ma-
the equations for extracting capacitances are complicated, and trix of the model is deduced to provide mathematical founda-
the deduced capacitances may be insensitive if test frequencies tions of investigations on resonance features of ICs and TCs. In
are far lower than resonant frequencies as in this case capacitive Section III, traditional IC-method is recalled for sake of clarity,
components are far less than inductive components. Resonance and inner links of known impedance resonant frequencies are
method based on ICs (IC-method) was proposed in [14] and added to reveal unobtainable frequencies. In Section IV, the TC-
[15], where resonant frequencies of ICs were deduced based method is proposed with the new transfer resonant frequency,
on three-capacitance model, and parasitic capacitances were and the merits and drawbacks of IC-method and TC-method are
extracted through concise equations related to these resonant compared. In Section V, parasitic capacitances of several HF
frequencies. The determined capacitances are with high sensi- transformer prototypes in the laboratory with 400 Hz/1.5 kVA,
tivities at resonant frequencies and the method may be extended 4.5 kHz/5 kVA, and 20 kHz/30 kVA, respectively, are ex-
to six-capacitance model. However, in [5], [9], and [21], it was tracted as verifications. In Section VI, the main findings are
reported that some impedance resonant frequencies of HF trans- summarized.
formers were unobtainable as they were too high where the ICs
fluctuated heavily, which would cause equations related to those
II. CIRCUIT MODEL OF THE HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER
frequencies to be missing, and parasitic capacitances remained
unevaluated. A refined IC-method was proposed to deal with this A two-winding transformer is a quadrupole with each wind-
problem, where at each step a more accurate circuit was charac- ing having two terminals. In system analysis, the transformer
terized based on available measurement data [20]. This method is usually regarded as a whole, and only voltage and current
provides an efficient way to model two-winding transformers of the primary and secondary winding, i.e., U1 , U2 and I1 , I2 ,
in electronic simulation when certain capacitances of classical are concerned. In this case, the transformer may be regarded
six-capacitance model are unevaluated, and the method is appli- as a two-port network since I1 flowing through port 1-1 and
cable to multiwinding transformers. However, the occurrence I2 flowing through port 2-2 are independent, as shown in
of unobtainable impedance resonant frequencies is not satis- Fig. 1. Magnetically, the transformer may be represented by an
factorily explained, and equations related to those unobtainable 1:n ideal transformer with a magnetizing branch, i.e., Lm and
frequencies are still missing. Rm , in parallel with the primary side (port 1-1 ), and a leakage
In this paper, resonance features of ICs are investigated by branch, i.e., Ls and Rs , in series with the secondary side (port
adding inner links of known impedance resonant frequencies, 2-2 ), where Lm and Rm are magnetizing inductance and core
and why and which resonant frequencies used in traditional loss equivalent resistance referred to the primary side, Ls and
IC-method are likely to be unobtainable is revealed. Further- Rs are total leakage inductance and winding resistance referred
more, resonant frequencies of TCs and their relationships with to the secondary side, and n is turn ratio of the transformer.
known impedance resonant frequencies are investigated, and a Electrostatically, three capacitances, i.e., Cp , Cs , and Cps , may
resonance method for extracting parasitic capacitances based on be used to depict capacitive effects of the two-port network,
voltage TC (TC-method) is proposed with a new transfer reso- where Cp and Cs represent self-capacitance of the primary and
nant frequency. Specifically, the new frequency is corresponding secondary winding, and Cps represents mutual capacitance of

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LIU et al.: EXPERIMENTAL EXTRACTION OF PARASITIC CAPACITANCES FOR HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS 4159

the two windings. Combining the magnetic part and capacitive represented as follows:
part, the circuit model with three capacitances is established.
This model is a common lumped parameter model for the 1
f1 =   
two-winding transformer, which has been widely used for trans-
2π Lm Cp + n2 Cs + (n − 1)2 Cps
former modeling in resonant converter, dynamic circuit model-
ing and numerical simulation [6]–[9]. Furthermore, although 1
more complicated models with six or ten capacitances have f2 = 
2π Ls (Cs + Cps )
been developed in order to investigate whole electrostatic be-
haviors of the transformer under different winding conditions 1
f3 = 
(such as one winding terminal is linked to another terminal or 2π Ls (Cp + Cps ) /n2
grounded), these models may still be equivalent to the three-
1
capacitance model as long as external wiring which links the f4 =  (5)
C p C s +C p C p s +C s C p s
windings together or to different conductive parts (screen, core, 2π Ls C +n 2 C +(n −1) 2 C
p s ps
clamping, shielding, etc.) stays unchanged [5], [14]. Therefore,
in this paper we are mainly focused on capacitance experimental where f1 , f2 and f4 are the first parallel, serial and the second
extraction of the three-capacitance model. parallel resonant frequency of open-circuit impedance (Z1o c ),
Admittance matrix of the model shown in Fig. 1, which is respectively, and f3 is parallel resonant frequency of short-
sufficient to depict external behaviors of the transformer, is de- circuit impedance (Z1sc ). The expressions of f1 to f4 shown
duced in order to provide rigorous mathematical foundations for in (5) may also be deduced from the admittance matrix, as
external measurements. In the magnetic part, admittance of the impedance functions with the secondary winding open and short
leakage branch and the magnetizing branch may be represented circuit, i.e., Z1o c and Z1sc , may be represented as Z11 and 1/Y11 ,
as yl and ym , respectively respectively, where Z is inverse matrix of Y. For open- and short-
1 1 1 circuit impedance seen from the secondary side, i.e., Z2o c and
yl = , ym = + (1) Z2sc , corresponding resonant frequencies may also be obtained
Rs + jωLs Rm jωLm
from (5) by permutating indexes p and s of the capacitances
and admittance matrix of the magnetic part may be represented and replacing n with 1/n. Expression of f1 and f4 show that
as Y M the two parallel resonances of Z1o c and Z2o c occur at the same
 2  frequency, and expression of f2 and f3 show that the serial
n yl + ym −nyl
YM = . (2) resonance of Z1o c occurs at the same frequency as the parallel
−nyl yl
resonance of Z2sc .
Besides, admittance matrix of the capacitive part may be These impedance resonant frequencies may be measured with
represented as Y C an impedance analyzer. Simultaneously, magnetizing and leak-
  age inductance, i.e., Lm and Ls , may be extracted from the
Cp + Cps −Cps
Y C = jω . (3) measurement results of impedance characteristics [22], or de-
−Cps Cs + Cps
termined by open- and short-circuit tests at low frequencies
Considering the capacitive part is parallel to the magnetic [23]. Accordingly, parasitic capacitances, i.e., Cp , Cs , and Cps ,
part in the model, admittance matrix of the whole model may may be deduced with equations shown in (5). In practice, usually
be deduced as Y f1 , f2 and f3 are used to extract parasitic capacitances, whereas,
f4 is used as a checkpoint to validate the deduced capacitances,
Y = YM +YC as f4 contains high-order terms of capacitances. This method is
 2 
n yl +ym +jω (Cp +Cps ) −nyl −jω (Cps ) the traditional IC-method which has been widely used to extract
= . (4)
−nyl −jω (Cps ) yl +jω (Cs +Cps ) parasitic capacitances of HF transformers.

With admittance matrix of the two-winding transformer, reso-

nance features of ICs and TCs are analyzed. Accordingly, equa- B. Inner Links of Known Impedance Resonant Frequencies
tions related to parasitic capacitances are established by mea- Existing IC-method provided an efficient way to determine
suring resonant frequencies of the transformer, and Cp , Cs , Cps parasitic capacitances through external measurements. How-
may be deduced from a group of equations with a set of external ever, for a 20 kHz 0.7/64 kV transformer, a 200 kHz 0.3/3.3 kV
measurements. transformer, and a 20 kHz 0.4/12 kV transformer whose open-
and short-circuit ICs were measured in [5], [9], and [21] respec-
III. IC-METHOD FOR EXTRACTING PARASITIC CAPACITANCES tively, it was found that some impedance resonant frequencies
were unobtainable as they were too high where the ICs fluc-
A. Recall of IC-Method
tuated heavily. In this case, if parasitic capacitances of those
Relationships between parasitic capacitances of the trans- transformers are desired to be extracted with IC-method, equa-
former and resonant frequencies of open- and short-circuit ICs tions related to those unobtainable frequencies are missing and
have been established in [14] and [15]. Based on the model with no capacitance is deduced. Therefore, in order to reveal that why
three capacitances shown in Fig. 1, the relationships may be and which resonant frequencies are likely to be unobtainable,

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4160 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 32, NO. 6, JUNE 2017

it is necessary to investigate inner links of these impedance Based on above analysis, the cause of unobtainable
resonant frequencies. impedance resonant frequencies reported in [5], [9], and [21]
Actually, based on (5) ratios of f1 , f2 , f3 and f4 may be may be revealed. Specifically, in [5] turn ratio of the trans-
deduced as follows: former was 91.4, and f2 measured from the LV side was 74 kHz,
which meant that f3 and f4 seen from the LV side were higher
f2 Lm (Cp + n2 Cs + (n − 1)2 Cps ) than nf2 = 6.8 MHz, while the measurement range was within
=
f1 Ls (Cs + Cps ) 1 MHz. In [9], turn ratio of the transformer was 11, and f2 mea-
sured from the LV side was about 1.4 MHz, which meant that f3
Cp Cp s 2C p s
n2 Lm 2 + n2 − and f4 seen from the LV side were higher than nf2 = 15.4 MHz,
= 1+ n n
Ls Cs + Cps while measurement results fluctuated heavily at about 10 MHz.
In [21], turn ratio of the transformer was 30, and f2 measured
n2 Lm from the LV side was about 800 kHz, which meant that f3 and
n increases (6) f4 seen from the LV side were higher than nf2 = 24 MHz, while
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ Ls
measurement results fluctuated heavily at about 10 MHz. There-
f3 Cs + Cps fore, f3 , f4 seen from the LV side (as well as f2 , f4 seen from
= n >n (7) the HV side) of those three HF transformers were unobtainable.
f2 Cp + Cps

 
 IV. TC-METHOD FOR EXTRACTING PARASITIC CAPACITANCES
 (Cp + Cps ) Cp + n2 Cs + (n − 1)2 Cps
f4 
= A. Resonant Frequencies of TCs
f3 n2 (Cp Cs + Cp Cps + Cs Cps )
Based on admittance matrix of the HF transformer, voltage
(Cp + (1 − n) Cps )2 transfer function with the secondary winding open-circuit (Hu )
= 1+ 2 > 1. (8)
n (Cp Cs + Cp Cps + Cs Cps ) and current transfer function with the secondary winding short-
circuit (Hi ) may be deduced as
Supposing that n ≥ 1, which means that f1 to f4 are all mea-
sured from the low-voltage (LV) side. Magnetic couplings be- U2 Y21 nyl + jωCps
Hu = I =0 = − = (10)
tween the two windings will be very strong due to the magnetic U1 2 Y22 yl + jω (Cs + Cps )

core, and thus, magnetizing inductance will be far larger than I2 Y21 −nyl − jωCps
leakage inductance referred to the same side, i.e. n2 Lm >> Ls . Hi = U =0 = = 2
I1 2 Y11 n yl + ym + jω (Cp + Cps )
Therefore, from  (6) it may be found that usually f2 > f1 , and
f2 /f1 is close to n2 Lm /Ls as n increases. Furthermore, con- nyl + jωCps
= − (11)
sidering that the ratio of Cs and Cp is closely related to turn ratio n2 y l + jω (Cp + Cps )
n, f3 is very close to f2 when n = 1. However, as n increases, where admittance of the magnetizing branch may be neglected
Cs tends to be larger than Cp , and f3 /f2 will increase faster than compared with that of the leakage branch referred to the same
n. Besides, from (8), it may be found that f4 is always higher side, i.e., ym <<n2 yl . From (10) and (11), it may be found that
than f3 . Therefore, for f1 , f2 , f3 and f4 , we have at low frequencies capacitive components are very small and we
have |Hu |→n, |Hi | → 1/n. As frequency increases, impacts of
f2 n2 Lm f3 parasitic capacitances on Hu and Hi may not be neglected as
f1 < f2 < f3 < f4 , and n increases , > n.
f1 −−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ Ls f2 resonances may occur between L and C parameters. Ignoring
(9) winding resistances of the transformer, frequencies correspond-
Relation (9), which will be verified with several transformer ing to poles of Hu and Hi , i.e., fu and fi , may be deduced
prototypes with n = 3.5, 4 and 91.4, respectively, as presented as
in Section V, shows the inner links of known impedance reso-
1
nant frequencies. From (9) it may be found that f1 and f2 are fu =  = f2
usually easier to be measured due to their lower frequencies, 2π Ls (Cs + Cps )
while f3 and f4 may be very high when the transformer has a 1
large turn ratio, as f3 is higher than n times of f2 , and f4 is fi =  = f3 . (12)
2π Ls (Cp + Cps ) /n2
even higher than f3 . Considering that f1 to f4 are all derived
from the lumped parameter model, if f3 and f4 are too high Especially, Hu and Hi have the same zero, and corresponding
to exceed available frequency range of the model, ICs of the frequency is fzero
transformer may fluctuate heavily due to the impacts of dis- 1
tributed parameters, and these resonant frequencies may not be fzero =  . (13)
2π Ls Cps /n
accurately measured [13]. Considering that f3 seen from one
side of the transformer is equal to f2 seen from the other side, The relationships between resonant frequencies of ICs and
if measured from the HV side, f2 and f4 may be very high TCs are shown in Fig. 2. It may be found that fu is equal to
and are hard to be measured when the transformer has a large f2 , and fi is equal to f3 . Besides, the first parallel resonant fre-
turn ratio. quency of open-circuit impedance, i.e., f1 , may also be deduced

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LIU et al.: EXPERIMENTAL EXTRACTION OF PARASITIC CAPACITANCES FOR HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS 4161

(shown in dashed box in Fig. 3) is close to zero, which means

that the leakage branch appears as “open circuit“ and almost
no voltage or current is transferred to the secondary side. As a
result, voltage and current transfer function, i.e., Hu and Hi , are
close to zero at fzero .
With fzero a new equation related to mutual capacitance of the
windings, i.e., (13), is obtained, which indicates that measuring
fzero may be useful to extract parasitic capacitances of the HF
transformer.

B. Capacitance Extraction Based on TCs

Comparing f2 (fu ),f3 (fi ) and fzero , we have
 
fzero Cs + Cps Cs √
= n = n + 1 > n (15)
f2 Cps Cps
 
fzero Cp + Cps 1 Cp
= = +1 . (16)
f3 nCps n Cps

Fig. 2. Relationships between resonant frequencies of ICs |Z| (upper) and TCs Supposing that f1 , f2 (fu ) and f3 (fi ) are all measured from
|H| (bottom).
the LV side (n ≥ 1). From (15), it is found that fzero will be
higher than f2 , and fzero /f2 is larger than square root of n.
From (16), it is found that the ratio of fzero and f3 is uncertain
as it is determined by the ratio of Cp + Cps and nCps . Specifi-
cally, when n = 1, fzero is higher than f3 . However, if turn ratio
n and mutual capacitance Cps are large enough which makes
(n−1)Cps > Cp , fzero will be lower than f3 . Actually, no mat-
ter higher or lower than f3 , fzero is always a useful frequency
which deserves to be measured, because with fzero mutual ca-
Fig. 3. Equivalent model with all parasitic capacitances referred to the sec-
ondary side. pacitance between the two windings (Cps ) may be evaluated
with (13). Adding another two resonant frequencies which are
lower than fzero and easier to be measured, i.e., f1 and f2 (fu ),
from voltage TC (Hu ) if the input voltage and current (U1 and
all parasitic capacitances may be deduced as follows:
I1 ) are simultaneously measured. Because, when phase differ-
ence of U1 and I1 changes from 90° to 0° at the first time as n
Cps =
frequency increases, it indicates that the first parallel resonance Ls (2πfzero )2
occurs, and f1 will be obtained. 2 2
Cp Ls fzero nfzero
Especially, with (13) it may be found that a new resonant fre- = − + 2n − 1
quency, i.e., fzero , is deduced from zero of TCs compared with Cps nLm f12 f22
impedance resonant frequencies. This new frequency may be il- Cs f2
lustrated by an equivalent model with all parasitic capacitances = zero − 1. (17)
Cps nf22
referred to the secondary side, as shown in Fig. 3, where C1 , C2
and C3 may be represented by Cp , Cs and Cps as follows [6]: From (17), it may be found that after determining inductance
  parameters of the transformer, Cps may be directly evaluated
1 1 1 with fzero , and Cp , Cs may also be deduced with fzero /f1 and
C1 = 2 Cp + − 1 Cps
n n n fzero /f2 . For some HF transformers where Cps is very small,
  maybe no resonance is occurred between Ls and Cps in the
1
C2 = Cs + 1 − Cps concerned frequency range, and fzero will not be effectively
n
measured. In this case, Cp /Cps and Cs /Cps are usually very
1 large as fzero is relatively high, which indicates that Cps may
C3 = Cps . (14)
n be neglected compared with Cp and Cs . Therefore, Cp and Cs
may still be estimated by neglecting Cps with equations related
It may be found that C3 = Cps /n is actually the mutual ca- to f1 and f2 (fu ) shown in (5).
pacitance of the two windings (Cps ) referred to the secondary Considering that the three frequencies used in (17), i.e.,
side, and fzero accounts for parallel resonance between leak- f1 , f2 (fu ), fzero , may all be deduced through measuring TCs
age inductance Ls and mutual capacitance Cps referred to the of the HF transformer, this method for extracting parasitic ca-
same side. Therefore, at fzero admittance of the leakage branch pacitances is taken as the TC-method. Resonance features of

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4162 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 32, NO. 6, JUNE 2017

TABLE I
COMPARISONS OF IC-METHOD AND TC-METHOD

Methods IC-Method (with f 1 , f 2 , f 3 ) TC-Method (with f 1 , f u , f z e r o )

Merits 1) Works fine for a transformer with 1) With a new frequency f z e r o ,

small turn ratio. mutual capacitance C p s may be
evaluated, and missing equation due to
unobtainable f 3 (or f 2 ) is added.
2) ICs and f 1 , f 2 , f 3 may be 2) Only open-circuit measurements
automatically acquired by an are needed.
impedance analyzer.
Drawbacks 1) f 3 (or f 2 ) may be unobtainable 1) For a transformer with small turn
for transformer with large turn ratio. ratio, f z e r o may be higher than f 3 (or
f 2 ) and is harder to be measured.
2) Both open and short circuit 2) Input current, voltage and output
measurements are needed. voltage of the transformer have to be
simultaneously detected.

TCs and corresponding analysis on the TC-method are also 1) apply sinusoidal excitation to the LV winding of the trans-
verified with several HF transformer prototypes in Section V. former, and detect input current (I1 ), input voltage (U1 )
and output voltage (U2 ) at different frequencies with the
C. Comparisons of IC-Method and TC-Method HV winding open-circuit, when phase difference of U1
and I1 changes from 90° to 0° at the first time as frequency
IC-method has been widely used to extract parasitic capaci- increases, it indicates that the first parallel resonance oc-
tances. This method works fine for transformer with small turn curs, and f1 will be obtained;
ratio, and ICs and corresponding resonant frequencies may be 2) calculate voltage transfer function Hu , and find frequen-
automatically acquired by using an impedance analyzer. How- cies corresponding to pole and zero of Hu , i.e., fu (f2 )
ever, when the transformer has a large turn ratio, f3 seen from and fzero ;
the LV side (or f2 seen from the HV side) may be unobtainable 3) deduce Cp , Cs and Cps with f1 , fu (f2 ) and fzero based
as it is too high where the ICs fluctuate heavily, and no capaci- on (17).
tance is deduced due to the missing equation. Furthermore, both A measurement system is established in order to imple-
open- and short-circuit measurements are needed in order to ment above procedures, as shown in Fig. 4. In this system, a
obtain open and short ICs. Tektronix AFG3101 signal generator is used to provide the si-
In comparison, TC-method provides a new frequency (fzero ) nusoidal excitation to the LV winding of the transformer, with
to evaluate parasitic capacitances of the HF transformer. Mutual the HV winding open-circuit. A Yokogawa DLM2054 oscillo-
capacitance of the windings (Cps ) may be evaluated with fzero , scope is used to record the voltage and current of the transformer.
and missing equation due to unobtainable impedance frequency Specifically, voltage and current of the LV winding (U1 and I1 )
may be added. Even if fzero is unobtainable in the measurement are measured by a voltage probe and a current probe, which are
range, it indicates that Cps is very small and Cp , Cs may still connected to channels 1 and 2 of the oscilloscope, respectively.
be estimated with f1 and fu . Besides, only open-circuit mea- Voltage of the HV winding (U2 ) is measured by another voltage
surement is needed in the method, as f1 , fu , fzero may all be probe, which is connected to channel 3 of the oscilloscope. It
deduced from voltage TC with HV winding open-circuit. is to be noted that output voltage of the signal generator should
Merits and drawbacks of the traditional IC-method and the be carefully chosen. In low frequencies, the value of the output
proposed TC-method are shown in Table I. It is found that voltage should be small in order to avoid magnetic core satura-
the proposed TC-method provides new information on mutual tion; while in high frequencies, the value may be raised in order
capacitance of the windings through the new frequency fzero , to insure a sufficient signal noise ratio. Therefore, in order to en-
which is useful to extract parasitic capacitances of the HF trans- sure accuracy of measured voltage TC, multiple metering with
former, especially when impedance resonant frequency used in different output voltages of signal generator is recommended.
IC-method is unobtainable due to large turn ratio of the trans- Obviously, fu and fzero used in TC-method may also be di-
former. Features of the two methods are further verified through rectlyobtained by measuring TCs with a network analyzer. How-
extracting parasitic capacitances of several HF transformer pro- ever, the network analyzer is sophisticated equipment, which is
totypes presented in Section V. usually used in the laboratory but may not be widely applied
in engineering practice. Furthermore, for certain network ana-
V. EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION lyzers, the start frequency is relatively high (for example, for
For IC-method based on f1 , f2 , f3 of ICs, an impedance an- Agilent E5061 equipped in our laboratory the start frequency
alyzer may be used to measure these resonant frequencies. For is 300 kHz), if fu or fzero is lower than start frequency, it will
TC-method based on f1 , fu , fzero of TCs, resonant frequencies not be effectively measured. Therefore, the measurement sys-
may be deduced through open-circuit measurement by testing tem used in this paper provides an alternative to measure fu and
voltage TC of the transformer as follows: fzero based on a signal generator and an oscilloscope, which is

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LIU et al.: EXPERIMENTAL EXTRACTION OF PARASITIC CAPACITANCES FOR HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS 4163

Fig. 4. System for measuring resonant frequencies of voltage TC. (a) Schematic diagram of the measuring system. (b) Photo of the measuring system.

Fig. 5. Transformer prototypes used in this paper. (a) Prototype 1 with 4.5 kHz, 5kVA. (b) Prototype 2 with 400 Hz, 1.5 kVA. (c) Prototype 3 with 20 kHz,
30 kVA.

TABLE II age inductances referred to the HV side (Ls ) of these proto-

MAIN PARAMETERS OF THE HF TRANSFORMER PROTOTYPES
types have been determined with open- and short-circuit tests at
low frequencies. Multiple metering with different excitations is
Parameters Prototype 1 Prototype 2 Prototype 3
conducted to ensure that the magnetic core works in the linear
Operating frequency 4.5 kHz 400 Hz 20 kHz region, so that the measured Lm for each prototype will not
Power rating 5 kVA 1.5 kVA 30 kVA change with excitation level. Furthermore, internal inductances
Turn ratio
Core
1:4
Nanocrystalline
1:3.5
Silicon-steel
1:91.4
Nanocrystalline
which account for frequency dependence of Ls are calculated
Toroidal core UI-core CC-core for each prototype based on Bessel functions [7]. The results
Low voltage winding 0.3 kV, 35 turns 160 V, 106 turns 0.7 kV, 12 turns indicate that Ls does not change significantly with frequency,
High voltage winding
L m (referred to the LV side)
1.2 kV, 140 turns
94.5 mH
560 V, 372 turns
30.0 mH
64 kV, 1096 turns
4.59 mH
and it is feasible to use Ls measured at low frequencies as an
L s (referred to the HV side) 96.0 μH 612.5 μH 43800 μHa approximation of the frequency dependent Ls for these three
prototypes. Besides, the open- and short-circuit ICs of these
a
Ls of prototype 3 referred to the LV side is 5.24 μH, which is still much less than prototypes are measured with an Agilent 4294A impedance an-
L m = 4.59 mH.
alyzer, and voltage TCs of these prototypes are measured with
the system shown in Fig. 4.
helpful to extracting parasitic capacitances in engineering prac-
tice when the network analyzer is unavailable. Furthermore,
parallel resonant frequency of open-circuit impedance f1 may A. Tests for Prototype 1
also be deduced with the measurement system, by which all For transformer prototype 1, the measured ICs with the HV
resonant frequencies used in TC-method are obtained. winding open and short circuit are shown in Fig. 6(a) and (b).
Several HF transformer prototypes are used to verify corre- Simultaneously, the measured voltage TC with the HV winding
sponding analysis on resonance features of ICs and TCs, as well open-circuit is shown in Fig. 7. Resonant frequencies of the
as parasitic capacitances experimental extraction presented in impedance and transfer characteristics are shown in Table III. It
this paper. Photos of these prototypes are shown in Fig. 5. Main may be found that inner links of impedance resonant frequencies
parameters of these prototypes are shown in Table II, where presented in (9) and their relationships with resonant frequencies
magnetizing inductances referred to the LV side (Lm ) and leak- of TCs presented in (12) and (15) are all verified.

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4164 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 32, NO. 6, JUNE 2017

TABLE IV
PARASITIC CAPACITANCES DETERMINED BY THE TWO METHODS
FOR PROTOTYPE 1

Method Cp Cs Cp s

IC-Method 6.37 pF 215.43 pF 28.52 pF

TC-Method 5.31 pF 215.59 pF 28.36 pF
RE% 16.6% 0.07% 0.56%

Accordingly, parasitic capacitances of prototype 1 are ex-

tracted through IC-method with f1 , f2 , f3 and TC-method with
f1 , fu , fzero , respectively, and the results are shown in Table IV.
It may be found that Cs and Cps deduced from the two methods
are in good agreement, with relative errors (RE %) of 0.07% and
0.56%, respectively, while Cp deduced from the two methods
have a discrepancy of 16.6%. The discrepancy might come from
measuring error of impedance and transfer characteristics, as Cp
is much less than Cs and Cps , which is easier to be influenced
by measurement accuracy of resonant frequencies. Besides, as
a checkpoint of the deduced capacitances, f4 is calculated with
capacitances deduced from IC-method and TC-method, and the
result is 11.3 and 11.5 MHz, respectively, which are both close
to the measured result, i.e., about 12 MHz. The results indicate
that the two methods both work fine for determining parasitic
capacitances of prototype 1.
From the measurement results of resonant frequencies and the
Fig. 6. ICs of prototype 1. (a) HV winding is open-circuit. (b) HV winding is deduced parasitic capacitances, it is found that for IC-method,
short-circuit.
as turn ratio of prototype 1 is relative small (n = 4),f3 is not
much higher than f2 (f3 /f2 = 4.4) and is effectively measured.
Besides, for TC-method, mutual capacitance Cps is evaluated
through the new frequency fzero , and all parasitic capacitances
are successfully determined.

B. Tests for Prototype 2

For transformer prototype 2, the measured ICs with the HV
winding open and short circuit are shown in Fig. 8(a) and (b).
Simultaneously, the measured voltage TC with the HV winding
open circuit is shown in Fig. 9. Resonant frequencies of the
impedance and transfer characteristics are shown in Table V, and
it may be found that resonance features shown in (9), (12), and
(15) presented in this paper are all verified. Besides, f1 , f2 , f3
and f4 of ICs are all measured, while fzero of voltage TC is
Fig. 7. Voltage TC of prototype 1 with HV winding open-circuit.
hard to be measured as the curve fluctuates heavily, which may
indicate that the mutual capacitance Cps is very small. It is noted
that fc = 2 MHz shown in Fig. 9 is not a zero of voltage TC as
TABLE III |Hu (fc )| = 0.55 >> 0, which indicates that fzero will be larger
MEASUREMENT RESULTS OF RESONANT FREQUENCIES FOR PROTOTYPE 1 than fc , i.e. we have fzero > 2 MHz.
As f1 , f2 and f3 are all measured, parasitic capacitances
ICs Voltage TC are extracted through IC-method and the results are shown in
the first row ofTable VI. Besides, parasitic capacitances are
f1 f2 f3 f4 f1 fu f zero
8.5 kHz 1.04 MHz 11 MHz ࣈ12 MHz 8.5 kHz 1.04 MHz 6.1 MHz
also evaluated with TC-method. Considering that fzero >fc =

2 MHz, Cps , Cps /Cp and Cps /Cs may be approximately eval-
e.q. (9) f 2 /f 1 = 122.4 → n 2 L m /L s =125.5 e.q. (12) f u = f 2
√ uated based on (17) by replacing fzero with fc , and the results
e.q. (9) f 3 /f 2 = 10.6> n = 4, f 4 > f 3 e.q. (15) f zero /f u = 5.9> n = 2
are as follows:
Cps Cps
Cps < 36.2 pF, < 0.093, < 0.12.
Cp Cs

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LIU et al.: EXPERIMENTAL EXTRACTION OF PARASITIC CAPACITANCES FOR HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS 4165

TABLE VI
PARASITIC CAPACITANCES DETERMINED BY THE TWO METHODS
FOR PROTOTYPE 2

Method Cp Cs Cp s

IC-Method 281.6 pF 319.4 pF 18.2 pF

TC-Method 299.8 pFb 337.6 pFb < 36.2 pF
RE% 6.5% 5.7% —

b
Cp and Cs shown in TC-Method are both calculated
with Cp s = 0.

It may be found that Cps is almost ten times less than Cp

and Cs and may be neglected. Accordingly, Cp and Cs are cal-
culated with Cps = 0 based on f1 and fu , and the results are
shown in the second row of Table VI. It may be found that Cp
and Cs deduced by the two methods are in good agreement,
and relative errors are 6.5% and 5.7%, respectively. Besides,
as a checkpoint of the deduced capacitances, f4 is calculated
with capacitances deduced from IC-method and TC-method,
and the result is 1.33 and 1.35 MHz, respectively, which are
both close to the measured result, i.e. 1.4 MHz. The results indi-
cate that although fzero is higher than f3 due to (n−1)Cps <Cp
as illustrated in (16) and cannot be accurately measured, para-
sitic capacitances of the HF transformer may still be evaluated
through TC-method, as in this case Cps is so small that may be
Fig. 8. ICs of prototype 2. (a) HV winding is open-circuit. (b) HV winding is neglected.
short-circuit.
C. Tests for Prototype 3
Prototype 3 is an oil-immersed HF transformer with large
number of turns (1096 turns for the HV winding) for its high
power and high voltage. Considering that it has been reported
that winding-to-ground capacitances may cause shift of resonant
frequencies due to large number of turns and grounded metallic
core and enclosure [5], the LV and HV winding of prototype
3 are both grounded when conduct measurements in order to
ensure stable electrostatic state. The measured ICs with the HV
winding open and short circuit are shown in Fig. 10(a) and (b),
and the measured voltage TC with the HV winding open-circuit
is shown in Fig. 11. Resonant frequencies of the impedance and
transfer characteristics are shown in Table VII, and it may be
found that (9), (12), and (15) presented in this paper are all ver-
Fig. 9. Voltage TC of prototype 2 with HV winding open-circuit.
ified. Besides, f1 , fu and fzero of voltage TC are all measured.
However, f3 and f4 of ICs are unobtainable as they are too high
where the short-circuit IC fluctuates heavily. Therefore, with
IC-method parasitic capacitances of the prototype are hard to be
TABLE V evaluated.
MEASUREMENT RESULTS OF RESONANT FREQUENCIES FOR PROTOTYPE 2 Instead, TC-method is used to determine parasitic capaci-
tances of prototype 3. From Fig. 11, the new frequency fzero
ICs Voltage TC is measured as 740 kHz, and the missing equation due to f3
f1 f2 f3 f4 f1 fu f zero
is added with (13). Accordingly, all parasitic capacitances are
14 kHz 350 kHz 1.3 MHz 1.4 MHz 14 kHz 350 kHz > 2 MHz successfully extracted as shown inTable VIII. With these ex-
 tracted capacitances f3 and f4 are deduced as 5.4 and 6.4 MHz,
e.q. (9) f 2 /f 1 =25.0 → n 2 L m /L s = 28.0 e.q. (12) f u = f 2
e.q. (9) f 3 /f 2 = 3.7 > n = 3.5,f 4 > f 3
√
e.q. (15) f zero /f u >5.7> n = 1.9
respectively, which are both much larger than fzero , and are also
larger than n times of f2 (nf2 = 4.8 MHz). The results indicate
that when impedance resonant frequencies are unobtainable due

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4166 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 32, NO. 6, JUNE 2017

TABLE VIII
PARASITIC CAPACITANCES EXTRACTED BY TC-METHOD FOR PROTOTYPE 3

Parasitic capacitances

Cp Cs Cp s
68.6 pF 112.8 pF 99.6 pF

to large turn ratio of the transformer, TC-method may be used

to replace IC-method as fzero provides a new equation related
to Cps , by which the missing equation is added and all parasitic
capacitances are effectively deduced.

VI. CONCLUSION
Resonance features of ICs and TCs of HF transformers are
investigated, and a TC-method for extracting parasitic capaci-
tances is proposed with a new transfer resonant frequency. The
merits and drawbacks of TC-method are analyzed compared
with existing IC-method, and several HF transformer prototypes
are tested for verifications. The results show that:
1) Some impedance resonant frequencies used in the IC-
method may be unobtainable when the transformer has
a large turn ratio, and parasitic capacitances remained
unevaluated. By investigating missing links of known
Fig. 10. ICs of prototype 3. (a) HV winding is open-circuit. (b) HV winding impedance resonant frequencies, why and which resonant
is short-circuit. frequencies are likely to be unobtainable is effectively
revealed.
2) A TC-method for extracting parasitic capacitances
is proposed with a new frequency corresponding to
zero of voltage TC. This new frequency accounts
for parallel resonance between leakage inductance and
mutual capacitance of the two windings, by which the
mutual capacitance is evaluated and missing equation due
to unobtainable impedance frequency is added. Even if the
new frequency is unobtainable, it indicates that the mutual
capacitance is very small and parasitic capacitances may
still be estimated.
3) The proposed TC-method has advantage over existing IC-
method when some impedance resonant frequencies are
unobtainable. Furthermore, only open-circuit measure-
ments are needed to conduct, with conventional instru-
Fig. 11. Voltage TC of prototype 3 with HV winding open-circuit. ments, i.e., a signal generator and an oscilloscope, which
makes TC-method a promising way for capacitance ex-
traction of HF transformers in engineering practice.

TABLE VII
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