AP® Human Geography Study Guide

UNIT ONE: THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY

GEOGRAPHY AND MAPS
You are who you are because of where you are—and human geography explains the why
behind the where. It is a science that analyzes spatial patterns and relationships, both
historical and modern. Geography’s most important tool
in showcasing these patterns is a map. Cartography is the
science of mapmaking, and the two main types of maps
are reference and thematic. Reference maps show the
location of human and physical objects, while thematic
maps show the spatial arrangement of features or data.
Examples of spatial patterns shown on maps include
absolute and relative location and distance, direction,
elevation, dispersal, and clustering. These patterns can
be portrayed on various maps such as physical, political,
choropleth, symbol, dot, topographic, and isoline.
Each map is unique in the information it shows, and no
map is perfect. Because a map is a 2-D representation of
a spherical object, all map projections distort some spatial
property. The four types of map distortion are Shape, Area, Distance, and Direction (SADD).
map projections have been created over time.
Some of the most used map projections are the Mercator, Robinson, and Winkel Tripel.

To think geographically is to consider how human activities are

connected to social, political, economic, environmental, and
demographic characteristics. Geographers employ a spatial perspective
to explain the patterns and relationships created by human activities.

THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY
Human geography examines all the social science disciplines. At the
heart of its study is a foundation of all the social studies—population
and migration, culture, politics, economic development, and urban
and rural land uses.

GEOSPATIAL DATA AND TECHNOLOGIES

Geospatial data is information pertaining to a location of Earth. This data can be gathered,

quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative data is represented

by numbers, whereas qualitative is not. Examples of quantitative
data are income, census information, and birthrates. Examples
of qualitative data include interviews, travel narratives, and
visual observations. Geospatial technologies used to acquire
data include GPS (global position system), GIS (geographic
information system), remote sensing, and online mapping.
These technologies require modern technology, such as satellites,
computer software, and aircraft.
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AP® Unit One

THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY
Geospatial data is used for personal, business, and governmental purposes. Personal
use could be as simple as using a GPS receiver on a cell phone for directions, whereas
businesses and governments many use data to make important decisions, such as the
optimal location for a new restaurant, school, or professional sports stadium. Geospatial
data can be analyzed to reveal patterns about the spatial arrangement of phenomena.
Geographic concepts used to illustrate these patterns include distance decay, distribution,
and networks.

HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

The environment has played a crucial role in the development of
human societies. The study of human culture and its relationship
to the environment is cultural ecology. The two theories
of cultural ecology are environmental determinism and
possibilism. Environmental determinism is the belief that human
behavior is caused by the environment, whereas possibilism is

behavior, not cause it. As humans continue to modify, adapt, and

depend on the environment, issues over sustainability, natural
resource use, and land use emerge.

SENSE OF PLACE AND REGIONALIZATION

Each location on Earth has human and physical characteristics that make up its place.
These characteristics can arouse a multitude of emotions—such as loyalty, pride, and
shame, among others—all of which, create a sense of place. Often, toponyms, or names

any strong emotional ties experiences placelessness.

Regions
unifying characteristics, spatial patterns, or
human activity. There are three main types of
regions—formal, functional, and perceptual/
vernacular. A formal region is characterized
by one or more common features, like the
Gulf Coast, which shares a similar climate.
Functional regions are organized around
a central point, like the broadcast area of a
news or radio station. Perceptual/vernacular
regions are based on how humans perceive it
to exist, like the South—not everyone regards
“the South” as the same geographic area—it

boundaries of regions are constantly changing,

overlapping, and are often disputed.

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THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY

FROM LOCAL TO GLOBAL

From buying clothes at a mall to purchasing
an international plane ticket from your
phone, human activities are intertwined with
geography. Modern communication and
technology have accelerated the rate at which
humans are connected—a process known
as globalization. As people migrate and
transnational corporations
and products, people are becoming more
and more connected. Aided by technological
advancements, humans can now travel larger
distances over shorter time periods, a concept
known as time-space compression.
But not all human activities are global in
nature—some are more connected to smaller
areas. There are four scales of analysis in
geography—global, regional, national, and
local. Geospatial data at these four scales
can show variations in data interpretation.
Local refers to immediate surroundings,
such as neighborhood, city, county, and
state. National refers to a country. Regional
refers to a collection of other units, such as
a collection of U.S. states—like the Midwest

countries—like Latin America and the Middle

East. Global refers to the context of most or
all of Earth.

NOTES

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AP® Human Geography Study Guide
UNIT TWO: POPULATION AND MIGRATION
PATTERNS AND PROCESSES
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
Human populations are not evenly distributed across Earth. The
portion of Earth occupied by permanent human settlements is
called the ecumene. Historically, being close to water—both

people live. Humans will tend to avoid living in places that are
too high, wet, dry, or cold. The carrying capacity, or ability to
support human life, is too small in these areas.
Today, the largest clusters of population can be found in: South
Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, Europe, West Africa, and
Eastern North America. These regions account for over 70%
of Earth’s total population. To describe relationships between
resource use and population distribution, geographers
use arithmetic density—the number of people in an area.
Geographers will also use physiological density—the
number of people per unit of arable land. Arable land is land suited for agriculture. Lastly,
geographers will use agricultural density—the number of farmers per unit of arable land.

Humans sort themselves out across Earth in unique ways. The

distribution and movement of people has created a mosaic of human
activities that dot Earth’s landscape.

POPULATION AND MIGRATION

How people live—and where people live—greatly impacts the various
economic, social, political, environmental, and demographic patterns
and processes of geography.

DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
Demography is the statistical study of human populations.
Demographers analyze data about human populations—data
about gender, age, health, birth and death rates, among others.
Populations can change for three reasons: births, deaths, and
migration. Geographers use the natural increase rate (NIR)
to explain population growth; NIR is calculated by subtracting
deaths from births.
Important demographic measurements include the CBR and CDR
(crude birth and death rate), which is the number of people
who are born or die per 1,000 people. IMR (infant mortality
rate) is the number of deaths per 1,000 live births. Sex ratio is
the ratio of males to females in a given population. Geographers
use doubling times, J-curves, and S-curves to calculate, predict,
and plot population growth trends and data.

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AP® Unit Two

POPULATION AND MIGRATION PATTERNS AND PROCESSES

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL 1 2 3 4 5

Changes in birth and death rates are illustrated on the Birth Rate

Births/ Deaths per 1000

explain the causes and consequences of various demographic
conditions. As a country progresses from one stage to the next, Death Rate

various social changes occur. For example, as women gain

access to eduction, employment, and contraceptives, they will
have fewer children. This is typical of the developed world and Total Population

can be shown in Stages 4 and 5 of the DTM. Time

POPULATION PYRAMIDS
An important tool in demography is a population pyramid. These show the age and sex

reveal data for a country, while another may show data for a city. Demographers can use
population pyramids to analyze the past and predict future concerns. Population pyramids
can be used to identify a country’s placement on the DTM. No country is in Stage 1, as its

Large base due to high birth rates. Women lack access Base narrows due to a decrease in fertility and births
to contraceptives and education and employment as more women have access to contraceptives and
opportunities. education and jobs.
Male Ethiopia—2016 Female Male Mexico—2016 Female
100+ 100+
95–99 95–99
90–94 90–94
85–89 85–89
80–84 80–84
75–79 75–79
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0–4 0–4
9 7.2 5.4 3.6 1.8 0 0 1.8 3.6 5.4 7.2 9 6 4.8 3.6 2.4 1.2 0 0 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 6

Population (in millions) Age Group Population (in millions) Population (in millions) Age Group Population (in millions)

Top widens due to people living longer. Fertility rates Top portion becomes widest as population grays. Deaths
are low as women are an active part of economic and outnumber births as most people are beyond their
political decisions. reproductive years.
Male Iceland—2016 Female Male Japan—2016 Female
100+ 100+
95–99 95–99
90–94 90–94
85–89 85–89
80–84 80–84
75–79 75–79
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0–4 0–4

15 12 9 6 3 0 0 3 6 9 12 15 6 4.8 3.6 2.4 1.2 0 0 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 6

Population (in millions) Age Group Population (in millions) Population (in millions) Age Group Population (in millions)

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POPULATION AND MIGRATION PATTERNS AND PROCESSES

DEMOGRAPHIC CONSEQUENCES

the developing world has higher rates of natural increase than the developed world.
Dependency ratio
dependency ratios due to its large number of people too young to work, whereas the
developed world may have high dependency ratios due to the large number of people
who are too old to work. Countries may employ natalist policies designed to increase or
decrease birth rates. Pro-natalist policies
encourage more births, while anti-natalist
policies discourage births. One of the most
important theories used to predict and
explain population growth is by Thomas
Malthus. In the late 1700s, he predicted
population would grow exponentially if left
unchecked and would lead to massive food
shortages. Today, Neo-Malthusians apply
his theory to resources like energy, water,
and arable land.

MIGRATION
Migration is a permanent move to a new location. People migrate because of push and
pull factors—a push factor causes someone to move—or emigrate, whereas a pull factor
attracts someone to a new location—or immigrate. An intervening obstacle is something
that prevents migration. Push and pull factors and intervening obstacles can be economic,
social, political, or environmental. There are several types of migration—but most are
voluntary. Types of voluntary migration include transhumance, chain, circular, and
guest worker. Forced migration occurs when the migrant is forced to leave, fearing loss
of life. Examples of forced
migration include slavery
and other events that
produce refugees, internally
displaced persons (IDPs),
and asylum seekers. Globally,

from rural to urban areas and

from the developing world to
the developed world. Ernst
Ravenstein was a geographer
whose research served as the
“laws” for migration research
and theory. He concluded
that most migrants are young
adults and likely to move
shorter distances.

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AP® Human Geography Study Guide
UNIT THREE: CULTURAL PATTERNS
AND PROCESSES
CULTURE AND THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
Culture is the collection of beliefs and artifacts that represent
values and social institutions. Culture can be material or
non-material. Material culture is comprised of concrete
artifacts, while non-material culture includes abstract
beliefs and ideals. Clothing worn for religious reasons would
be considered material culture, while belief in that religion
would be non-material. Geographers divide the study of
culture into folk and popular culture. Folk culture is typical
of isolated, homogenous communities, while popular
culture is seen in large, heterogenous societies with access
to modern communication and technology.
The cultural landscape is the imprint humans place on their
environment. It is the combination of human activities. Each culture creates a distinctive
cultural landscape. These landscapes are the combinations of physical features, agricultural
and industrial practices, religious and linguistic characteristics, and other expressions of
culture, like architecture.

No two places are the same—people will represent who they are—and what
they value—based on how they shape the use of space.

CULTURAL PATTERNS AND PROCESSES

As communication technology increases, so too does the spread of ideas
and information. Cultural ideas and innovations change, disappear, and

DIFFUSION
Migration is the movment of people across space. But
when ideas, behaviors, and information spreads, it is
called . Cultural characteristics originate in
hearths
relocation and expansion. There are four
contagious, stimulus,
hierarchichal, and reverse hierarchical. As interactions
between cultures occur, new forms of cultural expressions
are created. Syncretism is when a group combines

colonialism, imperialism, and trade, cultural practices were spread all over Earth. Modern
communication technologies—like the Internet—have accelerated cultural interactions
Cultural convergence is
the tendency for cultures to become more and more similar over time, whereas cultural
divergence occurs when cultures become less and less similar over time.
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CULTURAL PATTERNS AND PROCESSES

CONSEQUENCES OF DIFFUSION
As ideas and information spread across space over time, various consequences emerge—
both good and bad. For example, as the English language becomes more widely accepted,
it could lead to the loss of traditional languages—but its spread has also made international
trade and travel much easier. Acculturation is when an ethnic group moves to a new
location and adopts both cultures—the culture they left and the culture they entered.
Assimilation occurs when the migratory group no longer resembles the culture they left—
they resemble the culture they entered. Multiculturalism is created when various cultures
co-exist. In contrast, nativism is the belief that foreign cultures should be excluded from
the accepted cultural beliefs and expressions of a society.

THE GEOGRAPHY OF LANGUAGES

Language is mutually understood sounds used to
communicate between people. A dialect is a regional
variety of a language. For example, English is a language

that spoken in America. Dialects exists within countries,

too. English is not spoken the same across all regions
of the United States. The boundary between linguistic
isogloss.
Some global estimates put the number of spoken
languages over 6,000; however, the vast majority of these
languages are spoken in very small numbers. The most

Chinese, but the most spoken language is English. When

third language, that language is called a lingua franca.

English is considered the world’s lingua franca.
Because of their shared history, languages can be organized into familes, branches, and
can be displayed on a language tree. The world’s most spoken language family is the Indo-
European, which includes English, Spanish, Hindi, Bengali, Portuguese, among others.
Mandarin is in the second largest language family—Sino Tibetan.

THE GEOGRAPHY OF RELIGIONS

Religious artifacts have long marked Earth’s landscape. Geographers categorize religions
ethnic religion is a religion related
to—and attempts to appeal to—a particular ethnicity. The most practiced ethnic religions
are Hinduism and Judaism. Ethnic religions are typically located near their hearths or
Universalizing religions attempt to appeal to all
people, regardless of ethnicity. The most practiced universalizing religions are Christianity,

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CULTURAL PATTERNS AND PROCESSES

Religions interpret events, people, and artifacts

be disagreements on these interpretations.

Consequently, religions can be broken down
into branches, denominations, and sects.
Strict interpretation of a religion’s holy text
is called fundamentalism. Belief in the holy
text with some human interpretation is called
conservatism, whereas belief with higher
degrees of human interpretation is called
liberalism.

GLOBALIZATION
Globalization is the process of becoming world-wide in scope. Globalization increases
the likelihood of interaction between places, regardless of distance. Geographers can
study globalization by analyzing both economy and culture. Today’s economy is one
characterized by globalization and interdependence. Transnational corporations conduct
business in multiple countries and help create an interdependent global distribution of
goods. Consumers in the developed world
often purchase products manufactured
or grown in the developing world. The
globalization of culture can be seen as the
cultural landscapes of the world become
increasingly similar. As artifacts and ideas
of popular culture spread around the
world, use of space can be become less
distinctive. For example, the heart of every
major city contains high-rise skyscrapers,
and distinguishing one downtown from

NOTES

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AP® Human Geography Study Guide
UNIT FOUR: POLITICAL PATTERNS & PROCESSES
POLITICAL UNITS
Earth’s space is organized into various political units because of the historical and modern
spread of people and ideas. Each political unit has characteristics that distinguish it from others.
A state refers to an independent country. A state has sovereignty, which is total control over

A nation is a group of people who

share similar cultural characteristics,
such as heritage, traditions, and

the Kurds and Palestinians—they

each share a common culture and
self-determination, the
belief that ethnicities should have
their own state. However, since the
Kurds and Palestinians do not have
their own state, they are considered
stateless nations.
When a nation corresponds to the boundaries of a state, it creates a nation-state. Japan and
multi-
state nation multi-national state is a state with multiple
autonomous and
semi-autonomous regions

and competition. Geopolitics is the relationship between geography and

international politics.
POLITICAL PATTERNS & PROCESSES

POLITICAL BOUNDARIES
how humans live—and where humans
live is dictated by boundaries. Boundaries are established to

and may or may not follow other human divisions, such as cultural or
national. Boundaries can be , meaning they are established
by a legal document. Boundaries can also be delimited and
demarcated—delimited boundaries
on a map, and demarcated boundaries
physical objects on the landscape, such as a sign, wall, or fence.
Boundaries that cross water are called maritime boundaries.
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POLITICAL PATTERNS & PROCESSES

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) established the territorial
claims of states into ocean waters.
Many types of political boundaries are used to separate countries and internal divisions of
space, such as cities and counties. Relic boundaries no longer serve to separate space but
are still part of the cultural landscape, such as the Berlin Wall and the Great Wall of China.
Subsequent boundaries
Antecedent boundaries were

border along the 49th parallel. Physical boundaries follow physical features of Earth’s
surface, such as rivers and mountains, whereas geometric boundaries are straight lines
drawn by humans. Superimposed boundaries are drawn by outside forces and placed on

Berlin Conference or the demilitarized zone (DMZ)

POLITICAL GOVERNANCE
A primary function of political boundaries is to show the
Territoriality is the connection of
human activities—their culture, political, and economic
institutions—to land. Each country can govern its territory

Unitary states place power in the central government,

whereas federal states divide power between the central

function of internal boundaries is to create voting districts.

Most voting districts include an equal number of voters.

political group is called gerrymandering.

DEVOLUTION
Devolution
unit governments. Devolution can occur for a multitude of reasons. Devolutionary forces
include physical separation, ethnic competition, genocide, terrorism, and irredentism,
which is a desire to unite a common cultural group
that is divided by political boundaries. Devolutionary

balances of power shared between governing

sub-nationalism,

national group—as can be seen in Quebec and

autonomous regions can result from devolution,

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POLITICAL PATTERNS & PROCESSES

lines, like what happened in Yugoslavia.

GLOBAL COOPERATION

supranationalism. Supranationalism occurs when three or more countries create an

alliance—they will each give up some local power and place it in hands of the collective.

and trade agreements include NAFTA (North American

Free Trade Agreement), EU (European Union),
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), the
Arctic Circle, and OPEC (Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries)
organizations may limit the economic or political actions
of member states, challenging their sovereignty.

CENTRIPETAL & CENTRIFUGAL FORCES

of forces—centripetal and centrifugal. Centripetal forces are those that bring people
together and create a sense of unity. Centrifugal forces drive people apart and create
division. Centripetal and centrifugal forces can
be economic, social, political, or environmental.

can be seen in many things, such as religion.

Membership in a religion can act as a centripetal
force among its united members; however,
when one religion’s ideology causes clashes
with another region’s ideology, it can serve as
a centrifugal force. Centripetal and centrifugal
forces may produce or be the result of stateless
nations, nationalist movements, infrastructure
development, and increased cultural cohesion.

NOTES

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AP® Human Geography Study Guide
UNIT FIVE: AGRICULTURE AND RURAL LAND USE
AGRICULTURE TYPES AND REGIONS
Agriculture
commercial agriculture,
subsistence agriculture

intensive agriculture takes

extensive agriculture takes

Market gardening
Mixed crop &
livestock farming
Plantations

Nomadic
herding pastoral nomadism,

Transhumance

Livestock
ranching
feedlot
Shifting cultivation slash-and-burn
fallow

Mediterranean

AGRICULTURE & RURAL LAND-USE

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AP® Unit Five

AGRICULTURE AND RURAL LAND USE

AGRICULTURE REVOLUTIONS

second agricultural revolution

Green Revolution
hybridization and , and

SURVEY METHODS AND RURAL SETTLEMENTS

Land surveying

Metes and
bounds Township
and range
long lot

Nucleated settlements

in dispersed settlements
Linear settlements

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AGRICULTURE AND RURAL LAND USE

GLOBALIZATION AND CHALLENGES OF AGRICULTURE

economy of scale

and aquaculture

commodity chains

Agribusiness

sustainability

organic farming & value-added specialty crops, fair trade, and eat-local food movements

VON THÜNEN MODEL

von The Von Thunen Model

Thünen
Grazing
Three Field
Enclosed Field
Crop Rotation
Forestry
Horticulture and Dairying
bid-rent theory City

CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURE

Terrace farming

pollution, land cover change,

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