SRI CHANDRASEKHARENDRA SARASWATHI VISWA MAHAVIDYALAYA

(University established under section 3 of UGC Act 1956) (Accredited With

‘A’ Grade by NAAC)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Course Material on
ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION
V SEMESTER (PROGRAM ELECTIVE)

Prepared By: Dr.S.Omkumar, Associate Professor

Approved By: Prof.V.Swaminathan, Professor/Head
 Subject Name: Antennas & Propagation

Topic Name: Fundamentals of Radiation

(Unit – 1)

Syllabus / Fundamentals of Radiation

1. Antenna Parameters

2. Radiation from oscillating current elements

3. Half wave dipole and folded dipole

Aim and Objective:

• To give insight of basic Knowledge of Antenna parameters

• To give thorough understanding of the radiation characteristics of

Oscillating current elements

• To impart knowledge about half wave dipole and monopole

Pre Test – MCQ:
1. A permanent magnet
(a) attracts some substances and repels others
(b) attracts all paramagnetic substan¬ces and repels others
(c) attracts only ferromagnetic sub¬stances
(d) attracts ferromagnetic substances and repels all others
Ans: a
2. Magnetic moment is a
(a) pole strength
(6) universal constant
(c) scalar quantity
(d) vector quantity
Ans: d
3. Temporary magnets are used in
(a) loud-speakers
(b) generators
(c) motors
(d) all of the above
Ans: d
4. The unit of magnetic flux is
(a) henry
(b) weber
(c) ampereturn/weber
(d) ampere/metre
Ans: b
5. The law that the induced e.m.f. and current always oppose the cause producing them is due
to
(a) Faraday
(b) Lenz
(c) Newton
(d) Coulomb
Ans: b
6.An antenna is a transitional structure between –
(a) Free space and guiding element
(b) Free space and free space
(c) Guiding element and another guiding element
(d) All of the above
Ans : a

7.The guiding device used for the antenna system –

(a) Transmission line
(b) Co-axial line
(c) Waveguide
(d) All of the above
Ans : d

8.If the radiation from an antenna is represented in terms of field strength, it is called –
(a) Field pattern
(b) Power pattern
(c) Radiation pattern
(d) None of the above
Ans: a
9.A major lobe is defined as the radiation lobe containing –
(a) Direction of minimum radiation
(b) Direction of maximum radiation
(c) Direction of moderate radiation
(d) None of the above
Ans : b

10.The First-null beam width (FNBW) is defined as the angular measurement between the
directions –
(a) radiating the maximum power
(b) radiating half of the maximum power
(c) radiating no power
(d) None of the above
Ans : c
11.The half-power beam width (HPBW) is defined as the angular measurement between the
directions –
(a) radiating the maximum power
(b) radiating half of the maximum power
(c) radiating no power
(d) None of the above
Ans : b

12.The 𝑥-𝑧 plane (elevation plane; 𝜙 = 0) is the principal –

(a) 𝑬-plane
(b) H-plane
(c) Either E-plane or H-plane
(d) None of the above
Ans: a

13.An Omni directional antenna is a special antenna of type –

(a) Directional
(b) Non-directional
(c) Isotropic
(d) None of the above
Ans : a
14.The ratio of the main beam area to the total beam area is called –
(a) beam efficiency
(b) beam deficiency
(c) stray factor
(d) None of the above
Ans: a

15.Radiation density is defined as power per –

(a) Unit area
(b) Unit angle
(c) Unit field
(d) None of the above
Ans: a

Pre-requisite:
• Basic knowledge of Electromagnetic Fields and Wave guides.
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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

UNIT I: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION:

Definition of antenna parameters – Gain, Directivity, Effective aperture, Radiation
Resistance, Band width, Beam width, Input Impedance. Matching – Baluns,
Polarization mismatch, Antenna noise temperature, Radiation from oscillating
dipole, Half wave dipole. Folded dipole, Yagi array.

INTRODUCTION - ANTENNA:
 An antenna is a transitional structure (metallic device: as a rod or wire) between free-space
and a guiding device , for radiating or receiving radio waves as shown in Fig. 1-1.

Fig. 1-1 : Wireless communication link with Transmitting and Receiving antenna

 The guiding device may take the form of a transmission line (coaxial line) or a waveguide
(hollow pipe), and it is used to transport electromagnetic energy (from the transmitting source
to the antenna, or from the antenna to the receiver).
 Thevenin equivalent of the antenna system in the transmitting mode is shown in Fig. 1-2. The
source is represented by an ideal generator (with voltage 𝑽𝒈 and impedance 𝒁𝒈,
[ 𝒁𝒈 = 𝑹𝒈 + 𝒋 𝑿𝒈]), the transmission line is represented by a line with characteristic
impedance 𝒁𝒄 , and the antenna is represented by a load with impedance 𝒁𝑨 ,
[ 𝒁𝑨 = ( 𝑹𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 + 𝑹𝒓𝒂𝒅) + 𝒋 𝑿𝑨] connected to the transmission line.

Fig. 1-2 Thevenin equivalent of antenna system in transmitting mode

 The load resistance 𝑹𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 represents the conduction and dielectric losses associated with
the antenna while the radiation resistance 𝑹𝒓𝒂𝒅 represents radiation by the antenna. The
reactance 𝑿𝑨 represents the imaginary part of the impedance associated with radiation by
the antenna.

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

DEFINITION OF ANTENNA PARAMETERS - RADIATION PATTERN

 An antenna radiation pattern is defined as “a mathematical function or a graphical
representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space coordinates”.
Radiation pattern is very important characteristic of an antenna. Radiation properties
include radiation density, radiation intensity, field strength, gain, directivity, effective
aperture, polarization, etc.,
If the radiation from an antenna is represented in terms of field strength (electric or
magnetic), then the radiation pattern is called field pattern.
Similarly, if the radiation from an antenna is represented in terms of power per unit solid
angle, then the radiation pattern is called power pattern.
To completely specify the radiation pattern with respect to field intensity and polarization
requires three patterns.
 The 𝜃 component of the electric field as a function of the angles 𝜃 and 𝜙 or 𝐸𝜃(𝜃, 𝜙).
 The 𝜙 component of the electric field as a function of the angles 𝜃 and 𝜙 or 𝐸𝜙(𝜃, 𝜙).
 The phases of these fields as a function of the angles 𝜃 and 𝜙 or 𝛿𝜃(𝜃, 𝜙) and 𝛿𝜑(𝜃, 𝜙).

 Fig. 1-2. shows three-dimensional field pattern (in spherical coordinates) of a directional
antenna with maximum radiation in 𝑧- direction at 𝜃 = 0°.

Fig. 1-2 Three dimensional field pattern

 Radiation pattern lobes:

Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as lobes, which may be subclassified into
major or main, minor, side and back lobes. A major lobe is defined as the radiation lobe
containing the direction of maximum radiation.
 A minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe. A side lobe is a radiation lobe in any direction
other than the lobe. A back lobe is a radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of
approximately 180° with respect to the beam of an antenna.

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

Fig. 1-3 Radiation lobes and beamwidths of an antenna

Fig. 1-3 demonstrates a symmetrical three dimensional power pattern with a number of
radiation lobes. Fig. 1-4 illustrates a linear plot of power pattern and its associated lobes and
beamwidths.
The half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is defined as the angular measurement between the
directions in which the antenna is radiating half of the maximum value.
The First-null beamwidth or beamwidth between first two nulls (FNBW) is defined as the
angular measurement between the directions radiating no power.

Fig. 1-4 Linear plot of power pattern and its

associated lobes and beamwidths.

Often the field and power patterns are normalized with respect to their maximum value,
yielding normalized field and power patterns. Fig.1-5 shows the normalized field pattern and
normalized power pattern.
Dividing a field component by its maximum value, we obtain a normalized or relative field
pattern which is a dimensionless number with maximum value of unity. The half power level
occurs at those angles 𝜃 and 𝜙 for which 𝑬𝜽(𝜽, 𝝓)𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 (or) 𝑬𝝓(𝜽, 𝝓)𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 .

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

Fig.1-5 (a) Normalized field pattern (b) Normalized power pattern

Thus the normalized field pattern for the electric field is given by;

𝑬𝜽(𝜽, 𝝓)
𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏 = 𝑬 𝜽(𝜽, 𝝓) =
𝒏 (𝑜𝑟)
𝑬𝜽(𝜽, 𝝓) 𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝑬𝝓(𝜽, 𝝓)
= 𝑬𝝓(𝜽, 𝝓)𝒏 =
𝑬 𝝓 (𝜽, 𝝓)𝒎𝒂𝒙

Patterns may also be expressed in terms of the power per unit area. Normalizing this power
with respect to its maximum value yields normalized power pattern as a function of angle
which is a dimensionless number with a maximum value of unity. The half power level
occurs at those angles 𝜃 and 𝜙 for which 𝑷𝒏(𝜽, 𝝓)𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟓.
Thus the normalized power pattern is given by;

𝑾(𝜽, 𝝓)
𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏 = 𝑷𝒏(𝜽, 𝝓)𝒏 =
𝑾(𝜽, 𝝓) 𝒎𝒂𝒙

Where ; 𝑾(𝜽, 𝝓) = Poynting vector = [𝑬𝟐𝜽(𝜽, 𝝓) + 𝑬𝟐𝝓(𝜽, 𝝓]/𝜂0 , (𝑾/𝒎𝟐)

𝑾(𝜽, 𝝓)𝒎𝒂𝒙 = maximum value of 𝑾(𝜽, 𝝓)
𝜂0 = Intrinsic impedance of free space = 377 Ω

 Principle patterns:
For a linearly polarized antenna, performance is often described in terms of its principal
𝑬-and 𝑯-plane patterns. The 𝑬-plane is defined as “the plane containing the electric-field
vector and the direction of maximum radiation,” and the 𝑯-plane as “the plane containing the
magnetic-field vector and the direction of maximum radiation.”
The 𝑥-𝑧 plane (elevation plane; 𝜙 = 0) is the principal 𝑬-plane and the 𝑥-𝑦 plane (azimuthal
plane; = 𝜋/2) is the principal 𝑯-plane.

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

ISOTROPIC, DIRECTIONAL AND OMNIDIRECTIONAL PATTERNS

 An isotropic radiator is defined as “a hypothetical lossless antenna having equal radiation in
all directions.” Although it is ideal and not physically realizable, it is often taken as a
reference for expressing the directive properties of actual antennas.
A directional antenna is one having the property of radiating or receiving electromagnetic
waves more effectively in some directions than in others.
 An omnidirectional antenna is defined as one “having an essentially non-directional pattern
in a given plane and a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane. An omnidirectional
pattern is then a special type of a directional pattern.

BEAM SOLID ANGLE (OR) BEAM AREA

In polar-two dimensional coordinates an incremental area 𝑑𝐴 on the surface of a sphere is
the product of the length 𝑟𝑑𝜃 in the 𝜃 direction and 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 in the 𝜙 direction, as shown
in Fig. 1-6.

Fig.1-6 (a) Polar coordinates showing incremental solid angle 𝒅𝑨 = 𝒓𝟐 𝒅Ω on the surface
of a sphere of radius 𝒓 (b) Antenna power pattern and its equivalent solid angle.

The incremental area of a sphere is given by;

𝑑𝐴 = ( 𝑟𝑑𝜃 ). (𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙) = 𝑟2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 -------- (1.1)
where 𝑑Ω = solid angle subtended by the area 𝑑𝐴, and 𝑑Ω = 𝑑𝐴/𝑟2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
(Generally solid angle is nothing but angle subtended by an elementary area on a sphere.)

The beam solid angle of an antenna is given by the integral of the normalized power pattern
over a sphere (4𝜋).

Ω𝐴 = ∬ 𝑃𝑛(𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑑Ω -------- (1.2)

Ω=4𝜋

where 4𝜋 = solid angle subtended by a sphere (sr, Sterdian)

2𝜋 𝜋
Ω𝐴 = ∫ ∫ 𝑃𝑛(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 -------- (1.3)
𝜙=0 𝜃=0

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

 The beam area of an antenna can often be described approximately in terms of the angles
subtended by the half-power points of the main lobe in the two principal planes. Thus,
Ω𝐴 = 𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝜙𝐻𝑃 -------- (1.4)

where 𝜃𝐻𝑃 and 𝜙𝐻𝑃 are the half-power beamwidths (HPBW) in the two principal planes,
minor lobes being neglected.
 The (total) beam area consists of the main beam area (Ω𝑀) plus the minor-lobe area (Ω𝑚).

Ω𝐴 = Ω 𝑀 + Ω𝑚 -------- (1.5)
 The ratio of the main beam area to the (total) beam area is called the (main) beam efficiency.
𝑀 = Ω𝑀/Ω𝐴 -------- (1.6)
 The ratio of the minor-lobe area to the (total) beam area is called the (main) stray factor.
𝑚 = Ω𝑚/Ω𝐴 -------- (1.7)
It follows that 𝑀 + 𝑚 = 1

RADIATION DENSITY
Electromagnetic waves are used to transport information through a wireless medium or a
guiding structure, from one point to the other. The quantity used to describe the power
associated with an electromagnetic wave is the instantaneous Poynting vector defined as;
𝑾=𝑬×𝑯
where ; 𝑾= instantaneous Poynting vector , (𝑾/𝒎𝟐)
𝑬= instantaneous electric-field intensity, (𝑽/𝒎)
𝑯= instantaneous magnetic-field intensity , (𝑨/𝒎)

The total power crossing a closed surface can be obtained by integrating the normal
component of the Poynting vector over the entire surface.
𝑷 = ∯ 𝑾. 𝒅𝒔 -------- (1.8)
𝑆

For time-varying fields, the time average power density (average Poynting vector);
1
𝑾𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑅𝑒[𝑬 × 𝑯∗] -------- (1.9)
2
The average power radiated by an antenna (radiated power) can be written as
1
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∯ 𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑. 𝑑𝑠 = ∯ 𝑅𝑒[𝐸 × 𝐻 ∗] . 𝑑𝑠 -------- (1.10)
2
𝑆 𝑆

RADIATION INTENSITY
 Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as ” the power radiated from an antenna
per unit solid angle”. The radiation intensity is a far-field parameter, and it can be obtained
by simply multiplying the radiation density by the square of the distance. It is given by;
𝑈 = 𝑟2 𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 -------- (1.11)
where ; 𝑈 = radiation intensity, (W/unit solid angle)
𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 = radiation density, (𝑾/𝒎𝟐)

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

The total power radiated by the antenna is obtained by integrating the radiation intensity
over the entire solid angle of 4𝜋. Thus,
2𝜋 𝜋

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∯ 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑑Ω = ∫ ∫ 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 -------- (1.12)

Ω 0 0

where 𝑑Ω =element of solid angle = sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙

For an isotropic source, 𝑈 will be independent of the angles 𝜃 and 𝜙. Thus (1.12) can be
written as,
2𝜋 𝜋

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∯ 𝑈0 𝑑Ω = 𝑈0 ∫ ∫ 𝑑Ω = 4𝜋𝑈0 -------- (1.13)

Ω 0 0

The radiation intensity of an isotropic source as;

𝑈0 = 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑/4𝜋 -------- (1.14)

Note: The normalized power pattern 𝑃𝑛(𝜃, 𝜙)𝑛 can also be obtained by normalizing the radiation
intensity 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙).
𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙)
Normalized power pattern: 𝑃𝑛(𝜃, 𝜙)𝑛 =
𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙)𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑛(𝜃, 𝜙)𝑛 -------- (1.15)

DIRECTIVE GAIN & DIRECTIVITY

 Directive gain of an antenna is defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions”.
𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑈
𝐷= = -------- (1.16)
𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙)𝑎𝑣 𝑈0
The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated divided by 4𝜋. In
mathematical form ;
𝑈 4𝜋𝑈
𝐷= =
(𝑃 /4𝜋) 𝑃 -------- (1.17)
𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑

If the direction is not specified, it implies the direction of maximum radiation intensity
(maximum directivity, 𝐷0,) expressed as;
4𝜋𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷0 = -------- (1.18)
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
Directivity (maximum directivity, 𝐷0,) : It is defined as the ratio of the maximum radiation
intensity to the average radiation intensity.

The total power radiated by the antenna is defined in terms of normalized power pattern is
gien by ; (Eqn. 1.12 in Eqn.1.15)

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∯ 𝑃𝑛(𝜃, 𝜙)𝑛 𝑑Ω -------- (1.19)

Ω

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

Eqn. (1.19) in (1.18);

𝐷0 = 4𝜋𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝜋
𝑈 ∯ 𝑃 (𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑑Ω ∯ 𝑃 (𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑑Ω
𝑚𝑎𝑥 Ω 𝑛 𝑛 Ω 𝑛 𝑛

4𝜋
𝐷0 = (𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎) -------- (1.20)
Ω𝐴

POWER GAIN
 Gain of an antenna is defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity, in a given direction, to
the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were
radiated isotropically. The radiation intensity corresponding to isotropically radiated power
is equal to the power accepted (input) by the antenna divided by 4𝜋.”
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙)
𝐺 = 4𝜋 = 4𝜋 -------- (1.21)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑) 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑖𝑛

 In most cases we deal with relative gain, which is defined as “ the ratio of the power gain in a
given direction to the power gain of a reference antenna in its referenced direction.”

The power input must be the same for both antennas. The reference antenna is usually a
dipole, horn or any other antenna whose gain can be calculated or it is known. However, the
reference antenna is a lossless isotropic source. Thus,
𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙)
𝐺 = 4𝜋
𝑃𝑖𝑛(𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒) -------- (1.22)

The total power radiated, 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑, by the antenna is related to the input power, 𝑃𝑖𝑛, by;

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜅𝑃𝑖𝑛 -------- (1.23)

Sub Eqn. (1.23) in (1.21) ;

𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙)
𝐺 = 4𝜋
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
(𝜅)

𝐺(𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝜅𝐷(𝜃, 𝜙) -------- (1.24)

where 𝜅 = antenna efficiency factor.
The gain (𝐺) of an antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less than the directivity
(𝐷) due to ohmic losses in the antenna or its radome (if it is enclosed). The maximum value
of the gain is related to maximum directivity;

𝐺(𝜃, 𝜙)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜅𝐷(𝜃, 𝜙)𝑚𝑎𝑥 -------- (1.25)

𝐺0 = 𝜅𝐷0 -------- (1.26)

Note: When the direction is not stated, the power gain is usually taken in the direction of maximum
radiation.

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

ANTENNA EFFICIENCY FACTOR

 Antenna Efficiency is defined as the ratio of power radiated by the antenna to the total input
power supplied by the antenna. It is denoted by 𝜅. It value lies between 0 ≤ 𝜅 ≤ 1.

Power radiated
Total input power
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
1
|𝐼|2 𝑅
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜅=1 2 2 1 2
|𝐼| 𝑅 + |𝐼| 𝑅
2 𝑟𝑎𝑑 2 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 -------- (1.27)

INPUT IMPEDANCE
 Input impedance is defined as “the impedance presented by an antenna at its terminals or
the ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of terminals or the ratio of the appropriate
components of the electric to magnetic fields at a point”.
Consider an antenna in the transmit mode, having an input impedance of
𝒁𝑨 = 𝑹𝑨 + 𝒋 𝑿𝑨 , connected directly to a source having an equivalent Thevenin’s voltage,
𝑽𝒈, and an internal impedance 𝒁𝒈 = 𝑹𝒈 + 𝒋 𝑿𝒈 , as shown in Fig.1-7.

Fig. 1-7 Transmitting Antenna and its equivalent circuits.

where 𝒁𝑨 is the antenna impedance , 𝑹𝑨 is the antenna resistance , 𝑋𝐴 is the antenna

reactance , 𝑹𝒓𝒂𝒅 is the radiation resistance of the antenna and 𝑹𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 is the ohmic loss
resistance of the antenna.

The maximum power transfer takes place when the antenna is conjugate-matched to the
source, i.e.,

𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝑔 𝑋𝐴 = −𝑋𝑔 -------- (1.28)

Under the complex conjugate-match condition, the antenna input current is
𝑉𝑔 𝑉𝑔
𝐼= =
𝑅𝑔 + 𝑅𝐴 2𝑅𝐴 -------- (1.29)

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The real power supplied by the source is given by;

1 |𝑉𝑔 | 2
𝑃 = 𝑅𝑒{𝑉 𝐼 ∗} =
𝑔 𝑔 -------- (1.30)
2 4 𝑅𝐴
Half the power supplied by the source is lost in the source resistance, 𝑹𝒈, and the other half
gets dissipated in the antenna resistance, 𝑹𝑨. Thus the effective power input to the antenna
is ;
2
1 2 |𝑉𝑔|
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = |𝐼| 𝑅𝐴 = -------- (1.31)
2 8𝑅𝐴

The antenna resistance, 𝑹𝑨, is comprised of two components, namely the radiation
resistance, 𝑹𝒓𝒂𝒅, and the loss resistance, 𝑹𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 ;

𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 -------- (1.32)

The total power inputed to the antenna is written as;

1 1
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = |𝐼|2 𝑅𝐴 = |𝐼|2( 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠) -------- (1.33)
2 2

The total power radiated by an antenna is given by;

1
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = |𝐼|2 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 -------- (1.34)
2
The power dissipated in the antenna by ohmic losses is given by;
1
|𝐼|2 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = -------- (1.35)
2
For a matched antenna these are given by
2
|𝑉𝑔|
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑅 -------- (1.36)
8𝑅𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2
|𝑉𝑔|
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅 -------- (1.37)
8𝑅𝐴 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

 Concept of Self Impedance , Mutual Impedance And Transfer Impedance:

The impedance of antenna measured at the terminals where transmission line carrying RF
power connected is called antenna input impedance. These terminals are nothing but feed
points of the antenna, the impedance is also called feed point impedance.

As the RF power carried by the transmission line from the transmitter, excites or drives the
antenna, the antenna input impedance can be alternatively called driving-point impedance.

When the antenna is losseless and isolated from and other objects, the impedance offered by
antenna to the transmission line is represented by a 2-terminal network with impedance 𝑍𝐴
as in Fig. 1-8.

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 With a losseless and isolated antenna, the antenna

terminal impedance is same as the self impedance of
the antenna. The self impedance have, in general, a real
and an imaginary part. The real part is designated as
the self resistance (radiation resistance) and the
imaginary part is called the self reactance.
 In case there are near by objects, say several other
antennas, the terminal impedance can still be replaced
by a 2-terminal network.
 Self impedance of the antenna is nothing but the
impedance measured at input terminals of an antenna Fig. 1-8 Transmission line with
with all other antennas are isolated from it. antenna and with equivalent
impedance.

However, its value is determined not only by the self impedance of the antenna, but also by
the mutual impedance between it and the other antennas and the currents flowing on them.
The terminal is same for both transmission and reception.

The mutual impedance of the coupled circuit is defined as negative ratio of the voltage induced
at the open terminals of one circuit to the current in other circuit.
𝑉12 𝑉21
𝑍12 = − ; 𝑍21 = −
𝐼2 𝐼1
The mutual impedance and the transfer impedance are altogether different concepts. While
the transfer impedance is the ratio of voltage imposed in one circuit to the current in other
circuit.
In mutual impedance induced voltage is measured across open terminals while in transfer
impedance current is measured in short circuited terminals.

RADIATION RESISTANCE :
 Radiation resistance is the fictitious resistance such that when it is connected in series with an
antenna will consume the same power as is actually radiated by the antenna.

 The total power radiated by an antenna is given by;

1
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = |𝐼|2 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑
2
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
∴ 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1
2
2 |𝐼|

Significance of radiation resistance:

The radiation resistance is the part of an antenna's feed point resistance that is caused by
the radiation of electromagnetic waves from the antenna. The radiation resistance is
determined by the geometry of the antenna. The energy lost by radiation resistance is
converted to electromagnetic radiation.

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BANDWIDTH:
 The Bandwidth of an antenna is defined as “the range of frequencies within which the
performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristics, conforms to a specified
standard”.
The bandwidth can be considered to be the range of frequencies, on either side of a center
frequency (usually the resonance frequency for a dipole), where the antenna characteristics
(such as input impedance, pattern, beam width, polarization, side lobe level, gain, beam
direction, beamwidth, radiation efficiency) are within an acceptable value of those at the
center frequency.
For narrow band antennas, the bandwidth is expressed as a percentage of the frequency
difference (upper minus lower) over the center frequency of the bandwidth.
In general, the antenna bandwidth mainly depends on impedance and pattern of antenna. At
low frequency, generally impedance variation decides the bandwidth as pattern
characteristics are frequency insensitive.
Under such condition, bandwidth of the antenna is inversely proportional to Q factor of the
antenna. The bandwidth of the antenna can be expressed as ;
𝜔0
Bandwidth (𝐵. 𝑊) = ∆𝜔 = 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 = -------- (1.38)
𝑄
𝑓0
∆𝑓 = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1 = -------- (1.39)
𝑄
where 𝑓0 is the center frequency or resonant frequency, while 𝑄 factor of antenna is given
by,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎
𝑄 = 2𝜋 = -------- (1.40)
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

Thus for lower 𝑄 antennas, the antenna bandwidth is very high and viceversa.

POLARIZATION:
Polarization can be defined as the figure traced as a function of time by the tip of the
instantaneous electric field vector at fixed location in free space observed along the direction of
propagation.
The polarization of an antenna is the polarization of the wave radiated by the antenna in the
far-field. In the far-field region, the radiated field essentially has a spherical wavefront with
𝑬 and 𝑯 fields transverse to the radial direction, which is the direction of propagation.
As the radius of curvature tends to infinity, the wavefront can be considered as a plane wave
locally and the polarization of this plane wave is the polarization of the antenna.
Generally the polarization of the antenna is direction-dependent, thus, i.e., polarization as a
function of (𝜃, 𝜙).
Polarization of a plane wave describes the shape, orientation, and sense of rotation of the tip
of the electric field vector as a function of time, looking in the direction of propagation.
Consider a general situation in which the radiated electric field has both 𝜃 and 𝜙
components.
𝑬= 𝒂
̂ 𝜽𝑬 𝜽 + 𝒂
̂ 𝝓𝑬𝝓 -------- (1.41)

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where, 𝑬𝜽 and 𝑬𝝓 are functions of 𝑟, 𝜃 and 𝜙 can be complex. The instantaneous values of
the electric field can be written as;
̅ (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙, 𝑡) = 𝒂
𝑬 ̂ 𝜽𝑅𝑒 {𝑬𝜽 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } + 𝒂
̂ 𝝓𝑅𝑒 {𝑬𝝓 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 }
-------- (1.42)
Let 𝑬𝜽 = 𝐴𝑒𝑗𝛼 and 𝑬𝝓 = 𝐵𝑒𝑗𝛽, where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are the magnitudes, 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the phase
angles of 𝑬𝜽 and 𝑬𝝓, respectively. Substituting the above in Eqn. (1.42) and simplifying ;

̅ (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙, 𝑡) = 𝒂
𝑬 ̂ 𝜽 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼) + 𝒂
̂ 𝝓 𝐵 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽) -------- (1.43)

Depending on the values of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝛼, and 𝛽 in Eqn. (1.43), the tip of the 𝑬̅ field vector can
trace a straight line, a circle, or an ellipse. These three cases are termed as linear, circular,
and elliptical polarizations and are explained in the following subsections.

 Linear Polarization:
A time-harmonic wave is linearly polarized at a given point in space if the electric field (or
magnetic field) vector at that point is alweays oriented along the same straight line at every
instant of time.
Condition: 1. Only one component,
2. Two orthogonal linear components are in time phase.
 Consider a field with 𝐵 = 0 in Eqn. (1.43). Such an electric field has only a 𝜃 component.
Then, the tip of the electric field traces a straight line along the 𝒂
̂ 𝜽-direction. On the other
hand, if 𝐴 = 0 and 𝐵 ≠ 0, the antenna is still linearly polarized but the orientation of the
electric field is along 𝒂
̂𝝓.

 If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are not equal to zero and the 𝜃 and 𝜙 components of the electric field are in phase,
i.e., if 𝛼 = 𝛽, the wave is still linearly polarized but the resultant vector is tilted with respect
to 𝒂 ̂𝜽 and the angle of the tilt depends on the 𝐴/𝐵 ratio. The plane of polarization makes an
angle tan−1 (𝐵/𝐴) to the 𝒂 ̂𝜽-direction.

 Circular Polarization:
A time-harmonic wave is circularly polarized at a given point in space if the electric field
(or magnetic field) vector at that point traces a circle as a function of time.
Condition: 1. The field must have two orthogonal linear components,
2. The two components must have the same magnitude, and .
3. The two components must have a time-phase difference of odd multiples of
90°.
 If 𝐴 = 𝐵 and 𝛽 = (𝛼 − 𝜋/2) in Eqn. (1.43), the electric field vector is given by ;
̅ (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙, 𝑡) = 𝒂
𝑬 ̂ 𝜽 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼) + 𝒂
̂ 𝝓 𝐵 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼) -------- (1.44
)
As a function of time, the electric field vector traces a circle. The direction of rotation of the
tip of the electric field vector is clockwise, looking in the direction of wave propagation,
which is the positive 𝑟-direction. This can also be represented by a right-handed screw that
moves along the direction of propagation if rotated clockwise. Such a wave is called
𝑎 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 (𝑅𝐶𝑃) wave and the antenna is known as an 𝑅𝐶𝑃 antenna.

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

For 𝐴 = 𝐵 and 𝛽 = (𝛼 + 𝜋/2) in Eqn. (1.43), the electric field vector will still trace a circle
but will rotate anticlockwise. Such a wave is called a 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 (𝐿𝐶𝑃) wave
and the antenna producing it would be an 𝐿𝐶𝑃 antenna.

 Elliptical Polarization:
A time-harmonic wave is elliptically polarized at a given point in space if the electric field
(or magnetic field) vector at that point traces an elliptical locus in space.
Condition: 1. The field must have two orthogonal linear components,
2. The two components can be of the same or different magnitude, and
3. i). If the two components are not of the same magnitude,the time-phase
between two components must not be 0° or multiples of 180°(because it will be
linear). ii). If the two components are of the same magnitude,the time-phase
between two components must not be odd multiples of 90°(because it will be
circular).
 In general, for 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵 ≠ 0 and 𝛼 ≠ 𝛽, Eqn. (1.43), represents an elliptically polarized wave.
At any point in space, the tip of the electric field of an elliptically polarized wave traces an
ellipse as a function of time. The ratio of lengths of the major and minor axes of the ellipse is
known as the axial ratio (𝐴𝑅).
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝐴𝑅 = -------- (1.45)
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
 The orientation of the major axis with respect to the 𝒂
̂ 𝜽-axis is known as the tilt angle.
Linear and circular polarizations are the two special cases of elliptical polarization with 𝐴𝑅 =
∞ and 𝐴𝑅 = 1,respectively.

Polarization Mismatch:
 In general, the polarization of the receiving antenna will not be the same as the polarization
of the incoming (incident) wave. This is commonly stated as “polarization mismatch.” The
amount of power extracted by the antenna from the incoming signal will not be maximum
because of the polarization loss.
Assuming that the electric field of the incoming wave can be written as ;

-------- (1.46)

-------- (1.47)

-------- (1.48)

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

The relative alignment of the polarization of the incoming wave and of the antenna is shown
in Fig. 1-9. If the antenna is polarization matched, its PLF will be unity and the antenna will
extract maximum power from the incoming wave.

To illustrate the principle of polarization mismatch, the following example is considered.

Fig. 1-10 PLF for transmitting and receiving linear wire antennas

 If the polarization of the incoming wave is orthogonal to the polarization of the antenna, then
there will be no power extracted by the antenna from the incoming wave and the PLF will be
zero or−∞ dB. Fig. 1-10, illustrate the polarization loss factors (PLF) for linear wire antenna.

MATCHING – BALUNS
Transmission lines are referred to as balanced or unbalanced. Parallel wire lines are
inherently balanced in that if an incident wave (with balanced currents) is launched down
the line, it will excite balanced currents on a symmetrical antenna.
On the other hand, a coaxial transmission line is not balanced. A wave traveling down the
coax may have a balanced current mode, that is, the currents on the inner conductor and the
inside of the outer conductor are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
However, when this wave reaches a symmetrical antenna, a current may flow back on the
outside of the outer conductor, which unbalances the antenna and transmission line. This is
illustrated in Fig. 1-11.
Note that the currents on the two halves of the dipole are unbalanced. The current 𝐼3 flowing
on the outside of the coax will radiate. The currents 𝐼1, and 𝐼2 in the coax are shielded from
the external world by the thickness of the outer conductor. They could actually be

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

unbalanced with no resulting radiation; it is the current on the outside surface of the outer
conductor that must be suppressed.

 To suppress this outside surface

current, a balun (contraction for
"balanced to unbalanced transformer")
is used.
 The situation in Fig. 1-11 may be
understood by examining the voltages
that exist at the terminals of the
antenna. These voltages are equal in
magnitude but opposite in phase
(i.e., 𝑉𝑎= −𝑉𝑏 ). Both voltages act to
cause a current to flow on the outside of
Fig. 1-11 Cross section of a coaxial
the coaxial line.
transmission line feeding a dipole
antenna at its center.

If the magnitude of the currents on the outside of the coax produced by both voltages are
equal, the net current would be zero. However, since one antenna terminal is directly
connected to the outer conductor, its voltage 𝑉𝑏, produces a much stronger current than the
other voltage 𝑉𝑎.
A balun is used to transform the balanced input impedance of the dipole to the unbalanced
impedance of the coaxial line such that there is no net current on the outer conductor of the
coax.
One type of a balun is that shown in
Fig. 1-12, referred to usually as a
bazooka balun. Mechanically it requires
that a 𝜆/4 in length metal sleeve, and
shorted at its one end, encapsulates the
coaxial line.
Electrically the input impedance at the
open end of this 𝜆/4 shorted
transmission line, which is equivalent to
𝑍′ , will be very large (ideally infinity).
0
Thus the current 𝐼3 will be choked, if
not completely eliminated, and the
Fig. 1-12 Cross section of a sleeve
system will be nearly balanced.
balun feeding a dipole antenna at its
center.
 Fig. 1-13 shows five common types of baluns. Type I balun (Fig. 1-13 (a)) has a 𝜆/4 sleeve
which provides an infinite impedance at the top. Type II balun (Fig. 1-13 (b)) has two Type
I’s in series providing high bandwidth and load balance at all frequencies. Type III balun
(Fig. 1-13 (c)) is a more compact form.

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

Fig. 1-13

The inner conductors form a two conductor 𝜆/4 line shorted at the base providing an infinite
impedance at the top. It also features a sliding short circuit for frequency adjustment.
Fig. 1-13 (d) shows the equivalent circuit of Type III balun.

 Type I balun with dipole is shown in Fig. 1-13 (e). Fig. 1-13 (f) has a dipole fed by a Type III
balun minus shielding cavity. The length 𝐿 of all baluns is about 𝜆/4 at the center frequency.
Baluns in Fig. 1-13 (e) & (f) provide a reactive impedance 𝑍 = ±𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝐿 in parallel with the
dipole, where 𝑍0 is the characteristic impedance of the balun line of length 𝐿, and 𝛽 the
phase shift constant.

ANTENNA TEMPERATURE
 Every object with a physical temperature above absolute zero (0𝐾 = −273°𝐶) radiates
energy. The amount of energy radiated is usually represented by an equivalent temperature
𝑇𝐵, better known as brightness temperature, and it is defined as
𝑇𝐵(𝜃, 𝜙) = (𝜃, 𝜙)𝑇𝑚 -------- (1.49)
Where ; 𝑇𝐵 = brightness temperature (equivalent temperature; 𝐾)
 = emissivity (dimensionless)
𝑇𝑚 = molecular (physical) temperature (𝐾)

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 Since the values of emissivity are 0 ≤  ≤ 1, the maximum value the brightness temperature
can achieve is equal to the molecular temperature.
 Some of the better natural emitters of energy at microwave frequencies are (a) the ground
with equivalent temperature of about 300 K and (b) the sky with equivalent temperature of
about 5 K when looking toward zenith and about 100–150 K toward the horizon.
The brightness temperature emitted by the different sources is intercepted by antennas, and
it appears at their terminals as an antenna temperature. It is defined as;
2𝜋 𝜋
∫ ∫0 𝑇𝐵(𝜃, 𝜙) 𝐺(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑
𝑇 𝐴= 0
-------- (1.50)
2𝜋 𝜋
∫ ∫0 𝐺(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑
0

Where ; 𝑇𝐴 = antenna temperatur e (effective noise temperature of the antenna radiation

resistance ; 𝐾) , 𝐺(𝜃, 𝜙) = gain (power) pattern of the antenna.

Assuming no losses or other contributions between the antenna and the receiver, the noise
power transferred to the receiver is given by ;

𝑃𝑟 = 𝑘𝑇𝐴∆𝑓 -------- (1.51)

where ; 𝑃𝑟 = antenna noise power (W)
k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 × 10−23 J/K)
𝑇𝐴 = antenna temperature (K) ∆𝑓 = receiver bandwidth (Hz)
If the antenna and transmission line are maintained at certain physical temperatures, and the
transmission line between the antenna and receiver is lossy, the antenna temperature 𝑇𝐴 as
seen by the receiver through (1.51) must be modified to include the other contributions and
the line losses.
If the antenna itself is maintained at a certain physical temperature 𝑇𝑝 and a transmission
line of length 𝑙, constant physical temperature 𝑇0 throughout its length, and uniform
attenuation of 𝛼 (𝑁𝑝/𝑚) is used to connect an antenna to a receiver, as shown in Fig. 1-14 ,
the effective antenna temperature at the receiver terminals is given by ;

Fig. 1-14 Antenna, transmission line, and receiver arrangement for

system noise power calculation.

𝑇𝑎 = 𝑇𝐴𝑒−2𝛼𝑙 + 𝑇𝐴𝑃𝑒−2𝛼𝑙 + 𝑇0(1 − 𝑒−2𝛼𝑙) -------- (1.52)

1
𝑇𝐴𝑃 = ( − 1) 𝑇𝑝
𝑒𝐴

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where ; 𝑇𝑎 = antenna temperature at the receiver terminals

𝑇𝐴 = antenna noise temperature at the antenna terminals
𝑇𝐴𝑃 = antenna temperature at the antenna terminals due to physical temperature
𝛼 = attenuation coefficient of transmission line
𝑇0 = physical temperature of the transmission line
𝑇𝑝 = antenna physical temperature
𝑒𝐴 = themal efficiency of antenna 𝑙= length of the transmission line

The antenna noise power of Eqn. (1.52) must also be modified and written as;

𝑃𝑟 = 𝑘𝑇𝑎∆𝑓 -------- (1.53)

If the receiver itself has a certain noise temperature 𝑇𝑟 (due to thermal noise in the receiver
components), the system noise power at the receiver terminals is given by ;

𝑃𝑠 = 𝑘(𝑇𝑎 + 𝑇𝑟)∆𝑓 = 𝑘𝑇𝑠∆𝑓

-------- (1.54)
where ; 𝑃𝑠 = system noise power (at receiver terminals)
𝑇𝑎 = antenna noise temperature (at receiver terminals)
𝑇𝑟 = receiver noise temperature (at receiver terminals)
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑇𝑟 =effective system noise temperature (at receiver terminals)

EFFECTIVE APERTURE
The effective aperture (also known as the effective area) of an antenna is the area over which
the antenna collects energy from the incident wave and delivers it to the receiver load.
If the power density in the wave incident from the (𝜃, 𝜙) direction is 𝑾 at the antenna and
𝑃𝑟(𝜃, 𝜙) is the power delivered to the load connected to the antenna, then the effective
aperture, 𝐴𝑒,is defined as ;
𝑃𝑟(𝜃, 𝜙)
𝐴𝑒(𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝑚2 -------- (1.55)
𝑾

Fig. 1-15 shows the equivalent circuit of the receiving antenna and the load.

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Fig. 1-15 shows the equivalent circuit of the receiving antenna and the load, the power
delivered to the load, 𝑍𝐿, connected to the antenna terminals is ;
1
𝑃𝑟 = |𝐼𝑅|2 𝑅𝐿 -------- (1.56)
2
where ; 𝑃𝑟 = Power delivered to the load 𝑍𝐿
𝑅𝐿= Real part of the load impedance, ( 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿)
Let 𝑍𝐴 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐴 be the antenna impedance and 𝑉𝑎 be Thevenin's equivalent source
corresponding to the incident plane wave. The real part of the antenna impedance can be
further divided into two parts, i.e., 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠.
 If the antenna is conjugate-matched to the load so that maximum power can be transferred
to the load, we have 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝐴∗ or 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝐴 and 𝑋𝐿 = −𝑋𝐴.
It is seen from the equivalent circuit that the power collected from the plane wave is
dissipated in the three resistances, the receiver load, the radiation resistance, and the loss
resistance.
For a conjugate-match, the current through all three resistances is ;
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎
𝐼= = = -------- (1.57)
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝐴 2𝑅𝐿
and the three powers are computed using the formulae ;
1 1 |𝑉𝑎|2 |𝑉𝑎|2
𝑃𝑟 = |𝐼|2 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 = -------- (1.58)
2 2 (2𝑅𝐿)2 8𝑅𝐿
1 |𝑉𝑎|2
| |2
𝑃𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 -------- (1.59)
2 8𝑅𝐿 2
1 |𝑉𝑎|2
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = |𝐼|2 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 -------- (1.60)
2 8𝑅𝐿 2
where 𝑃𝑟 is the power delivered to the receiver load, 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 is the power dissipated in the
antenna, and 𝑃𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡 is the power scattered, since there is no physical resistance
corresponding to the radiation resistance. The total power collected by the antenna is the
sum of the three powers
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑟 + 𝑃𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 -------- (1.61)
If the power density in the incident wave is 𝑾, then the effective collecting aperture, 𝐴𝑐,of
the antenna is the equivalent area from which the power is collected
𝑃𝑐(𝜃, 𝜙)
𝐴𝑐(𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝑚2 -------- (1.62)
𝑊
 This area is split into three parts −𝐴𝑒: the effective aperture corresponding to the power
delivered to the receiver load, 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠: the loss aperture corresponding to the power loss in
the antenna, and 𝐴𝑠: the scattering aperture corresponding to the power re-radiated or
scattered by the antenna. These are given by
𝑃𝑟(𝜃, 𝜙) |𝑉𝑎|2
𝐴𝑒(𝜃, 𝜙) = = 𝑚2 -------- (1.63)
𝑊 8𝑅𝐿𝑊

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

𝑃𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡(𝜃, 𝜙) 1 |𝑉𝑎|2
𝐴𝑠(𝜃, 𝜙) = = |𝐼|2 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 2 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 -------- (1.64)
𝑊 2 8𝑅𝐿 𝑊
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠(𝜃, 𝜙) 1 |𝑉𝑎|2
𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠(𝜃, 𝜙) = = |𝐼|2 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 2 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 -------- (1.65)
𝑊 2 8𝑅𝐿 𝑊
All these are functions of the incident direction (𝜃, 𝜙).

 Relationship between Directivity and effective aperture

 Consider now an antenna with an effective aperture 𝐴𝑒, which radiates all of its power in a
conical pattern of beam area Ω𝐴, as suggested in Fig. 1-16 .

Fig. 1-16 Radiation over beam area Ω𝑨 from aperture 𝑨𝒆

Assuming a uniform field 𝑬𝒂, over the aperture, the power radiated is ;
𝑬 2
𝑃 = 𝒂 𝐴𝑒 -------- (1.66)
𝜂
Assuming a uniform field 𝑬𝒓 in the farfield at a distance 𝑟, the power radiated is also given by
𝑬𝒓 2 2
𝑃= 𝑟 Ω 𝐴 -------- (1.67)
𝜂

where ; 𝑬𝒓 = ( 𝑬𝒂𝐴𝑒𝑟)/𝝀
Eqn. (1.66) and (1.67) yield aperture-beam area relationship ;
𝝀2 = 𝐴𝑒Ω𝐴 -------- (1.68)
 We know that directive gain (𝐷) and beam-area (Ω𝐴) relationship ;
4𝜋
𝐷=
Ω𝐴 -------- (1.69)

Comparing the above equations ;

𝝀2
𝐴𝑒 = 𝐷
4𝜋
Maximum effective aperture

𝝀2
𝐴𝑒𝑚 = 𝐷0 -------- (1.70)
4𝜋

REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY:

Electromagnetic fields are produced by time-varying charge distributions which can be
supported by time-varying current distributions.
Consider sinusoidally varying electromagnetic sources. (Sources having arbitrary variation
with respect to time can be represented in terms of sinusoidally varying functions using

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

Fourier analysis). A sinusoidally varying current 𝑖(𝑡) can be expressed as a function of time,
𝑡, as:
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) -------- (1.71)

where 𝐼0 is the amplitude (magnitude) of the current , 𝜔 is the angular frequency (𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓)
and 𝜑 is the phase angle.

Eqn. (1.71) in phasor form:

𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 {𝐼0𝑒𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜑)} = 𝑅𝑒 {𝐼0𝑒𝑗𝜑𝑒𝑗𝜔𝑡} -------- (1.72)
where 𝐼0𝑒𝑗𝜑 is a phasor that contains the amplitude and phase information of 𝑖(𝑡).
 Similarly, a sinusoidally varying instantaneous field vectors, 𝑬 ̅ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡), can also be
represented by phasors.
̅ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 { 𝑬(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 }
𝑬 -------- (1.73)
where 𝑬(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a phasor that contains the direction, magnitude and phase information of
the electric field.

 Maxwells Equations:
 Using phasor notation, Maxwell’s Equations can be written for the fields and sources that are
sinusoidally varying with time as,
∇ × 𝑬 = −𝑗𝜔𝑩 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝑯 -------- (1.74)
∇ × 𝑯 = 𝑗𝜔𝑫 + 𝑱 = 𝑗𝜔𝜖𝑬 + 𝑱 -------- (1.75)
∇. 𝑫 = 𝜌 -------- (1.76)
∇. 𝑩 = 0 -------- (1.77)
The symbols used in Eqns. (1.74) to (1.77) are explained below:
𝑬: Electric field intensity 𝑫: Electric flux density 𝝆: Charge density
𝑯: Magnetic field intensity 𝑩: Magnetic flux density 𝑱: Conduction current density

The conduction current density, 𝑱, is given by ;

𝑱 = 𝜎𝑬 -------- (1.78)
where 𝜎 is electric conductivity of the medium. For free space medium 𝜎 = 0.
In an isotropic and homogeneous medium, the electric flux density, 𝑫, and the electric field
intensity, 𝑬, are related by
𝑫 = 𝜖𝑬 -------- (1.79)
where : 𝜖 = 𝜖𝑟𝜖0 is electric permittivity of the medium, 𝜖0 is the permittivity of free space
(𝜖0 = 8.854 × 10−12, 𝑭/𝒎) and 𝜖𝑟 is the relative permittivity of the medium.

Similarly, magnetic flux density, 𝑩, and magnetic field intensity, 𝑯, are related by
𝑩 = 𝜇𝑯 -------- (1.80)
where 𝜇 = 𝜇𝑟𝜇0 is electric permeability of the medium, 𝜇0 is the permeability of free space
(𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7, 𝑯/𝒎) and 𝜇𝑟 is the relative permeability of the medium.

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VECTOR POTENTIAL:
 Considering the current distribution in the antenna, the problem is to determine the 𝑬 and 𝑯
fields due to this current distribution, which satisfy all the four Maxwell’s equations along
with the boundary conditions.

In the vector potential approach we carry out the solution to this problem in two steps by
defining intermediate potential functions (Fig. 1-17).
i. In the first step, we determine the potential function due to the current distribution.
ii. In the second step, the 𝑬 and 𝑯 fields are computed from the potential function.

Fig. 1-17 Block diagram for computing fields radiated

by electric and magnetic sources.

 Consider Maxwell’s fourth equations, ∇. 𝑩 = 0. Since the curl of a vector is divergence-free

(∇. ∇ × 𝑨 = 0), 𝑩 can be expressed as a curl of an arbitrary vector field, 𝑨.
𝑩=∇×𝑨 -------- (1.81)
where 𝑨 is the magnetic vector potential function, because it is related to the magnetic flux
density, 𝑩.
Eqn. (1.80) in Eqn. (1.81): 𝜇𝑯 = ∇ × 𝑨
𝟏 -------- (1.82)
𝑯 = (∇ × 𝑨)
𝜇

Eqn. (1.82) in Eqn. (1.74) (Maxwell’s first equation ∇ × 𝑬 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝑯):

𝟏
∇ × 𝑬 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 [ (∇ × 𝑨)] = −𝑗𝜔(∇ × 𝑨)
𝜇
∇ × (𝑬 + 𝑗𝜔𝑨) = 0 -------- (1.83)
 Since the curl of a gradient is zero (∇ × (−∇𝑉) = 0), the quantity (𝑬 + 𝑗𝜔𝑨) can be replaced
by the gradient of a scalar function.

(𝑬 + 𝑗𝜔𝑨) = −∇𝑉
𝑬 = −(∇𝑉 + 𝑗𝜔𝑨) -------- (1.84)
where 𝑉 is the electric scalar potential function.

Eqns. (1.82) and (1.84) relate the 𝑬 and 𝑯 fields to the potential functions 𝑨 and 𝑉. (The
fields expressed in Eqns. (1.82) and (1.84) satisfy two of Maxwell’s equations (1.74) and
(1.77)).

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 To satisfy Maxwell’s second equation (∇ × 𝑯 = 𝑗𝜔𝜖𝑬 + 𝑱), substitute Eqns. (1.82) and (1.84)
in (1.75):
𝟏
∇ × [ (∇ × 𝑨)] = 𝑗𝜔𝜖[−(∇𝑉 + 𝑗𝜔𝑨)] + 𝑱
𝜇
∇ × ∇ × 𝑨 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜖∇𝑉 + 𝜔2𝜇𝜖𝑨 + 𝜇𝑱 -------- (1.85)
Using the vector identity ∇ × ∇ × 𝑨 = ∇(∇. 𝐀) − ∇2𝑨
∇(∇. 𝐀) − ∇2𝑨 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜖∇𝑉 + 𝜔2𝜇𝜖𝑨 + 𝜇𝑱
∇2𝑨 + 𝜔2𝜇𝜖𝑨 = −𝜇𝑱 + ∇(∇. 𝐀) + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜖∇𝑉
∇2𝑨 + 𝜔2𝜇𝜖𝑨 = −𝜇𝑱 + ∇(∇. 𝐀 + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜖𝑉) -------- (1.86)
To simplify Eqn. (1.86), the potential functions 𝑨 and 𝑉 are related by the equation;
∇. 𝐀 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜖𝑉 -------- (1.87)
This relation is called Lorentz condition. With this the magnetic vector potential function, 𝑨,
satisfies the vector wave equation ;

∇2𝑨 + 𝜔2𝜇𝜖𝑨 = −𝜇𝑱 [∵ 𝑘 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜖]

∇2𝑨 + 𝑘2𝑨 = −𝜇𝑱 -------- (1.88)

where 𝑘 is the propagation constant (𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒎) in the medium.

 Now, to satisfy Maxwell’s third equation (∇. 𝑫 = 𝜌), substitute Eqn. (1.84) in (1.76):

∇. 𝑫 = 𝜌 [∵ 𝑫 = 𝜖𝑬]
𝜌
∇. 𝑬 =
𝜖
𝜌
∇. (−(∇𝑉 + 𝑗𝜔𝑨)) =
𝜖
𝜌
∇2𝑉 + 𝑗𝜔(∇. 𝑨) = − -------- (1.89)
𝜖
Eliminating 𝑨 from the equation using the Lorentz condition [Eqn.(1.87)];
𝜌
∇2𝑉 + 𝑘2𝑉 = − -------- (1.90)
𝜖

Thus, both 𝑨 and 𝑉 must satisfy the wave equation, the source function being the current
density for the magnetic vector potential, 𝑨, and the charge density for the electric scalar
potential, 𝑉.

 The solutions of the Eqn’s. (1.88) & (1.90) for time varying fields are given by ;
𝜇 [𝑱]
𝑨= ∭ 𝑑𝑣′ -------- (1.91)
4𝜋 𝑅
𝑉′
1 [𝜌]
𝑉= ∭ 𝑑𝑣′ -------- (1.92)
4𝜋𝜖 𝑅
𝑉′

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

 The term [𝜌] or ([𝑱]) means that the time 𝑡 in 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) or [𝑱(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)] is replaced by the
retarded time 𝑡′, given by :
𝑅
𝑡′ = 𝑡 − -------- (1.93)
𝑐
where : 𝑐 is the velocity of light , 𝑅 = |𝑟 − 𝑟′| is the distance between the source point 𝑟′ and
the observation point 𝑟 as shown in Fig. 1-18.

Fig.1-18 Coordinate system for computing fields radiated by sources

Note: The primed coordinates 𝑟′ i.e., ( 𝑥′, 𝑦′, 𝑧′ ), represents the source point and unprimed
coordinates 𝑟 i.e., (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) , represents the field point.

RETARDED POTENTIAL:
It is clear that, the potential at time, 𝑡, is due to the source that existed at an earlier time 𝑅/𝑐.
Or the effect of any change in the source has travelled with a velocity 𝑐 to the observation
point at a distance 𝑅 from the source. Therefore, 𝑨 is also known as the retarded magnetic
vector potential. It is given by;
𝜇 𝑱𝑒𝑗𝜔[𝑡−(𝑅/𝑐)] ′
𝑨= ∭ 𝑑𝑣 𝑊𝑏 𝑚 −1 -------- (1.94)
4𝜋 𝑟
𝑉′

Similarly, the retarded electric scalar potential, 𝑉 is given by;

1 𝜌𝑒𝑗𝜔[𝑡−(𝑅/𝑐)] ′
𝑉= ∭ 𝑑v 𝑉
4𝜋𝜖 ′ 𝑅 -------- (1.95)
𝑉

 Phaor Form:
Very often, sources of an electromagnetic field are time-harmonic. For harmonic time
dependence the phasor retarded potentials are;

𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑅
𝑨(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ∭ 𝑱(𝑥′, 𝑦′, 𝑧 ′) 𝑑𝑣′
4𝜋 𝑅 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍)
𝑉′

1 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑅
𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ∭ 𝜌(𝑥 ′, 𝑦′, 𝑧′) 𝑑𝑣′ 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍)
4𝜋𝜖 ′ 𝑅
𝑉

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

If the current density is confined to a surface with current density, 𝑱𝒔 ,the volume integral
reduces to surface integral;
𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑅
𝑨(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ∬ 𝑱𝒔(𝑥 ′, 𝑦′, 𝑧′) 𝑑𝑠′
4𝜋 𝑅 -------- (1.96)
𝑆′

For a line current, 𝑰, the integral reduces to surface integral;

𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑅 ′
𝑨(𝑟) = ∫ 𝑰(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 )
′ ′ ′ 𝑑𝑙 -------- (1.97)
4𝜋 𝑅
𝐶′

RADIATION FROM OSCILLATING DIPOLE (HERTZIAN DIPOLE)

 A Hertzian dipole is “an elementary source consisting of a time-harmonic electric current
element of a specified direction and infinitesimal length (𝑙 ≪ 𝜆).” It is also called infinitesimal
dipole. It is also called as alternating current element or oscillating currnt element.
Although such a current element does not exist in real life, it serves as a building block from
which the field of a practical antenna can be calculated by integration.
 Consider an infinitesimal time-harmonic current element, 𝑰 = 𝒂 ̂𝒛 𝐼0 𝑑𝑙, kept at the origin with
the current flow directed along the 𝑧-direction indicated by the unit vector 𝒂 ̂𝒛 , as shown in
Fig. 1-19. 𝐼0 is the current and 𝑑𝑙 is the elemental length of the current element.

 Radiated fields:
To find the fields radiated by the current element, consider the following procedure.
i. Determine the current distribution on the antenna structure and then compute the
vector potential, 𝑨. In a source-free region 𝑨, is related to 𝑯 field viz., Eqn. (1.82):
𝟏
𝑯= (∇ × 𝑨) -------- (1.98)
𝜇
ii. Then, 𝑯 is related to 𝑬 field viz., Eqn. (1.75) with 𝑱 = 0 in a source-free region.
𝟏
𝑬= (∇ × 𝑯) -------- (1.99)
𝑗𝜔𝜖

Fig. 1-19 Infinitesimal dipole

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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Consider the relationship between the current distribution 𝑰 and the vector potential 𝑨:
𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑅
𝑨(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ∫ 𝑰(𝑥′, 𝑦′, 𝑧′) 𝑑𝑙′
4𝜋 𝑅
𝐶′
where (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) represent the observation point coordinates, (𝑥′ , 𝑦′, 𝑧 ′ ) represent the
coordinates of the source, 𝑅 is the distance from any point on the source to the observation
point, and 𝐶′ path is along the length of the source.
Since we have an infinitesimal current element kept at the origin 𝑥′ = 𝑦′ = 𝑧′ = 0

𝑅 = √(𝑥 − 𝑥′)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦′)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑧′)2 = √𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 𝑟

The vector potential due to a current element can be written as:
𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 -------- (1.100)
𝑨(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝒂
̂𝒛 (𝐼0 𝑑𝑙) =𝒂
̂ 𝒛 𝑨𝒛
4𝜋 𝑟
 Note that the vector potential has the same vector direction as the current element. In this
case, the 𝒂 ̂ 𝒛 directed current element produces only the 𝑨𝒛 component of the vector
potential.
The transformation between rectangular and spherical components is given, in matrix form:
𝑨𝒓 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜃 𝑨𝒙
[ 𝑨𝜽] = [cos 𝜃 cos 𝜙 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙 − sin 𝜃] [𝑨𝒚] -------- (1.101)
𝑨𝝓 −sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 0 𝑨𝒛

Substituting 𝑨𝒙 = 𝑨𝒚 = 0 in Eqn. (1.101):

𝑨𝒓 = 𝑨𝒛 cos 𝜃
𝑨𝜽 = −𝑨𝒛 sin 𝜃 -------- (1.102)
𝑨𝝓 = 0

Taking the curl of 𝑨 in spherical coordinates;

𝒂
̂𝒓 𝑟𝒂
̂𝜽 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝒂
̂𝝓
1
∇×𝑨= 2 [𝜕/𝜕𝑟 𝜕/𝜕𝜃 𝜕/𝜕𝜙 ]
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑨 𝑟𝑨 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑨
𝒓 𝜽 𝝓

𝒂
̂𝒓 𝑟𝒂
̂𝜽 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝒂
̂𝝓
1
∇×𝑨= 2 [ 𝜕/𝜕𝜙 ]
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕/𝜕𝑟 𝜕/𝜕𝜃
𝑨 cos 𝜃 −𝑟𝑨 sin 𝜃 0
𝒛 𝒛

Since 𝑨𝒛 is a function of 𝑟 alone (from Eqn. 1.100), its derivative with respect to 𝜃 and 𝜙 are
zero. Hence, the curl equation reduces to;
1 𝜕 𝜕
−𝑟𝑨 sin 𝜃) − (𝑨𝒛 cos 𝜃)] -------- (1.103)
∇×𝑨=𝒂 ̂𝝓 [ ( 𝒛
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜇(𝐼0𝑑𝑙) 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
Let ; 𝑨𝒛 =
4𝜋 𝑟

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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1𝜕 𝜇(𝐼0𝑑𝑙) 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 𝜕 𝜇(𝐼0𝑑𝑙) 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟

∇×𝑨=𝒂
̂𝝓 [ (−𝑟 ( ) sin 𝜃) − (( ) cos 𝜃)]
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 4𝜋 𝑟

∇ × 𝑨 = 𝒂̂ 1 𝑨 sin 𝜃 (𝑗𝑘𝑟 + 1) -------- (1.104)

𝝓
𝑟 𝒛

Eqn. (1.104) in (1.98): 1

𝑨 sin 𝜃 (𝑗𝑘𝑟 + 1) -------- (1.105)
𝑯 = 𝒂̂ 𝝓 𝒛
𝜇𝑟
1
𝑯𝒓 𝒂
̂ 𝒓 + 𝑯𝜽 𝒂
̂ 𝜽 + 𝑯𝝓 𝒂
̂𝝓 = 𝒂
̂𝝓 𝑨𝒛 sin 𝜃 (𝑗𝑘𝑟 + 1)
𝜇𝑟
The expressions for the components of the 𝑯 field of a Hertzian dipole in spherical
coordinates as:

𝑯𝒓 = 0
𝑯𝜽 = 0
-------- (1.106)
𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 1
𝑯𝝓 = 𝑗𝑘 [1 + ]
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟

Consider Eqn. (1.99):

𝒂
̂𝒓 𝑟𝒂
̂𝜽 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝒂
̂𝝓
𝟏 𝟏 1
𝑬= (∇ × 𝑯) = ( [𝜕/𝜕𝑟 𝜕/𝜕𝜃 𝜕/𝜕𝜙 ])
𝑗𝜔𝜖 𝑗𝜔𝜖 𝑟2 sin 𝜃 𝟎 0 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑯 𝝓
𝟏 1 𝜕 𝜕
𝑬= [𝒂
̂𝒓 (𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑯𝝓 ) − 𝑟𝒂
̂𝜽 (𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑯𝝓)]
𝑗𝜔𝜖 𝑟2 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟

1
𝒂̂ 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 [1 + ] 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑘 1 𝐼0𝑑𝑙 𝒓 𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝑬= 2 1 1
𝜔𝜖 𝑟 sin 𝜃 4𝜋
̂ ( sin𝟐𝜃) (𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 [−
−𝑟𝒂 ] + [1 + ] 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 (−𝑗𝑘))
{ 𝜽 𝑗𝑘𝑟2 𝑗𝑘𝑟 }

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

1
1 𝐼0𝑑𝑙 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 sin 𝜃 ̂𝒓 (2 cos 𝜃) [1 +
𝒂
]
𝑬 𝒂̂ + 𝑬 𝒂̂ + 𝑬 𝒂̂ = 𝜂 𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝒓𝒓 𝜽𝜽 𝝓𝝓 𝑟2 sin 𝜃 4𝜋 1 1
̂ 𝜽(sin 𝜃)(𝑗𝑘) ([1 +
+𝑟𝒂 + ])
{ 𝑗𝑘𝑟 𝑗𝑘(𝑗𝑘)𝑟 2 }

The expressions for the components of the 𝑬 field of a Hertzian dipole in spherical
coordinates as:
𝐼0𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 1
𝑬𝒓 = 𝜂 [1 + ]
2𝜋𝑟 𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 -------- (1.107)
1 1
𝑬𝜽 = 𝑗𝜂 [1 + − ]
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟 (𝑘𝑟)2
𝑬𝝓 = 0

where 𝜂 = 𝑘/(𝜔𝜖) is the intrinsic impedance of the medium.

Special case – Hertzian dipole:

 The expressions for the field components 𝑬 and 𝑯 of a Hertzian dipole in spherical
coordinates as;
𝐼0𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 1 1
𝑬𝒓 = 𝜂 𝑒 [ 2+ ]
2𝜋 𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟3
𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 1 1 1
𝑬𝜽 = 𝑗𝜂 𝑒 [ + − ]
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟2 𝑘2𝑟3
𝑬𝝓 = 𝑯𝒓 = 𝑯𝜽 = 0
𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 1 1
𝑯𝝓 = 𝑗𝑘 𝑒 [ + ]
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟2

 The 𝑧- directed current element kept at the origin has only the 𝑯𝝓, 𝑬𝒓 and 𝑬𝜽 components
and, further, the field components that decay as 1/𝑟, 1/𝑟2 and 1/𝑟3, away from the current
element.

1/𝑟 term in 𝑬 and 𝑯 fields is called Radiation Field, 1/𝑟2 term is called Induction Field and
1/𝑟3 term is called Electrostatic Field.

 Near field region: (𝑘𝑟 ≪ 1)

𝐼0𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃 1 𝐼0𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃

𝑬𝒓 = 𝜂 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 [ ] ≅ −𝑗𝜂 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟
2𝜋 𝑗𝑘𝑟3 2𝜋𝑘𝑟3
𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 1 𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑬𝜽 = 𝑗𝜂 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 [− ] ≅ −𝑗𝜂 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟
4𝜋 𝑘 2𝑟 3 4𝜋𝑘𝑟3
𝑬𝝓 = 𝑯𝒓 = 𝑯𝜽 = 0
𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 1 𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝑯𝝓 = 𝑗𝑘 𝑒 [ ] ≅ 𝑒
4𝜋 𝑗𝑘𝑟2 4𝜋𝑟2

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

 Intermediate-field region: (𝑘𝑟 > 1)

𝐼0𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃 1 𝐼0𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃

𝑬𝒓 = 𝜂 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 [ ]≅𝜂 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟
2𝜋 𝑟2 2𝜋𝑟2
𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 1 𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑬𝜽 = 𝑗𝜂 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 [ ] ≅ 𝑗𝜂 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋𝑟
𝑬𝝓 = 𝑯𝒓 = 𝑯𝜽 = 0
𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 1 𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝑯𝝓 = 𝑗𝑘 𝑒 [ ]≅𝑗 𝑒
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋𝑟

 Far-field region: (𝑘𝑟 ≫ 1)

𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 1 𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 −𝑗𝑘𝑟

𝑬𝜽 = 𝑗𝜂 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 [ ] ≅ 𝑗𝜂 𝑒
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋𝑟
𝑬𝒓 = 𝑬𝝓 = 𝑯𝒓 = 𝑯𝜽 = 0
𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 1 𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝑯𝝓 = 𝑗𝑘 𝑒 [ ]≅𝑗 𝑒
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋𝑟

 In the far-field, 𝑬𝜽 and 𝑯𝝓 are perpendicular to each other and transverse to the direction of
propagation. The ratio of the two field components is same as the intrinsic impedance, 𝜂, of
the medium
𝑬𝜽
=𝜂
𝑯𝝓 -------- (1.108)

 Power radiated and Radiation resistance:

 The time average power density (average Poynting vector) is given by;
1 1 1
2 2 2𝜂 -------- (1.109)

𝟐 𝟐
1 𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 1 𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 sin2𝜃
2𝜂 4𝜋𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑟2

 The radiation intensity 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) is given by;

1 𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 𝟐 sin2𝜃 1 𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 𝟐
𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝑟2𝑾𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑟 2 { 𝜂 | | } = 𝜂| | sin2𝜃 -------- (1.110)
2 4𝜋 𝑟2 2 4𝜋
 The average power radiated by an antenna (radiated power) can be written as ;
2𝜋 𝜋

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∯ 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑑Ω = ∫ ∫ 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 -------- (1.111)

Ω 0 0
2𝜋 𝜋
1 𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 𝟐
=∫ ∫( 𝜂| | sin2𝜃) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
2 4𝜋
00
2𝜋 𝜋
1𝑘𝐼0𝑑𝑙 𝟐
= 𝜂| | ∫ ∫ sin3𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
2 4𝜋
0 0

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

Substitute 𝜂 = 120𝜋 (for free space medium) 𝑘 = 2𝜋/𝜆 ; 2𝜋 𝜋

𝑑𝑙 2 4
𝐼0 2 ∫ ∫ sin3𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 = (2𝜋) ( )
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = [80𝜋 ( ) ]
2
3
2 𝜆 00

 The total power radiated by an antenna is given by;

1
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = |𝐼0|2 𝑅𝑟 -------- (1.112)
2
 Radiation resistance is given by;
𝑑𝑙 2
𝑅 = 80𝜋2 ) -------- (1.113)
𝑟 (
𝜆
 Directive Gain (𝐷) and Dire ctivity(𝐷0):
 Directive Gain is given by ;
1 𝑘𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝟐
4𝜋 [ 𝜂 | 0 | sin2 𝜃]
4𝜋𝑈 2 4𝜋
𝐷= = = 1.5 sin2𝜃 -------- (1.114)
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐼02 𝑑𝑙 2
2
2 [80𝜋 ( 𝜆 ) ]
 Directivity (maximum directivity, 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 or 𝐷0) , maximum value occurs at 𝜃 = 𝜋/2 ;

𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷0 = 1.5 -------- (1.115)

 The maximum effective aperture is given by ;

𝜆2
𝐴𝑒𝑚 = 𝐷0 = 0.119 𝜆2 -------- (1.116)
4𝜋

HALF WAVE LENGTH DIPOLE: (Hertz Antenna or Half wave doublet)

Half wave dipole is a linear antenna whose length is 𝝀/𝟐 and the current distribution is
sinusoidal.
It is a vertical radiator fed in the center. It produces maximum radiation in the plane normal
to the axis. For a center-fed dipole of length 𝑙 , symmetrically placed about the origin with its
axis along the 𝑧-axis as shown in Fig. 1-20 (a).

Fig. 1-20 (a) Geometry of a Have wavelength dipole (b) The far-field approximation

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

As the length of the dipole approaches a significant fraction of the wavelength, it is found that
the current distribution is closer to a sinusoidal distribution (Fig. 1-21) than a triangular
distribution.
The half wave dipole consists two legs each of length 𝑙/2. The physical length of the half
wave dipole at the frequency of operation is 𝝀/𝟐 in free-space.

Fig. 1-21 Current distributionon a half-wave dipole excited at the centre

Thus, the current on the dipole is given by ;

𝑙 𝑙
𝒂
̂𝒛 𝐼0 sin [𝑘 ( − 𝑧 ′)] 0 ≤ 𝑧′ ≤
2 2
𝐼𝑧(𝑧′) = { -------- (1.117)
𝑙 𝑙
𝒂
̂𝒛 𝐼0 sin [𝑘 ( + 𝑧 ′)] − ≤ 𝑧′ ≤0
2 2
 Since the current is 𝑧-directed, the magnetic vector potential, 𝑨, has only a 𝑧–component
(i.e., 𝑨𝒛). Therefore the vector potential is given by;
Consider the relationship between the current distribution 𝑰 and the vector potential 𝑨:
𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑅 ′
𝑨(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ∫ 𝑰(𝑥′, 𝑦 ′, 𝑧 ′) 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋 𝑅 -------- (1.118)
𝐶′

where 𝑅 is the distance from of point 𝑷 from the current element 𝑑𝑧′ , and assume that
𝑑𝑙′ = 𝑑𝑧′.
𝑙/2
𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑅
4𝜋 𝑅
−𝑙/2

0 𝑙/2

𝑨(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝒂
̂𝒛 ( ∫ 𝐼0 sin [𝑘 ( + 𝑧′)] + ∫ 𝐼0 sin [𝑘 ( − 𝑧′)]) 𝑑𝑧′ -------- (1.119)
−𝑙/2 0

 Geometrically, the far-field approximation implies that the vectors 𝑅 and 𝑟 are parallel to
each other and a path difference of 𝑧′ cos 𝜃 exists between the two (Fig. 1-20 (b)).
𝑅 ≅ 𝑟 − 𝑧′ cos 𝜃 for phase terms
Far – field approximations (𝑟 ≫ 𝑧′): {
𝑅≅𝑟 for amplitude terms

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

Substitute the above approximations in Eqn. (1.119) ;

0 𝑙/2
′ cos 𝜃)
𝜇 𝑙 𝑙 𝑒−𝑗𝑘(𝑟−𝑧
𝑨(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝒂
̂𝒛 𝐼0 ( ∫ sin [𝑘 ( + 𝑧 ′ )] + ∫ sin [𝑘 ( − 𝑧 ′)]) 𝑑𝑧 ′
4𝜋 2 2 𝑟
−𝑙/2 0

0 𝑙/2
𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 𝑙 𝑙
= 𝒂
̂𝒛 𝐼0 ( ∫ sin [𝑘 ( + 𝑧 ′ )] + ∫ sin [𝑘 ( − 𝑧 ′)]) 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑧 ′ cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑧 ′
4𝜋 𝑟 2 2
−𝑙/2 0
0
𝑙 ′ 𝑗𝑘𝑧′ cos 𝜃
∫ sin [𝑘 ( + 𝑧 )] 𝑒
2
𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟
= 𝒂
̂𝒛 𝐼0 −𝑙/2
𝑑𝑧 ′ -------- (1.120)
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑙/2
𝑙 ′
+ ∫ sin [𝑘 ( − 𝑧 ′)] 𝑒𝑗𝑘𝑧 cos 𝜃
2
( 0 )

Note: For half wave dipole 𝑙 = 𝜆/2 and 𝑘 = 2𝜋/𝜆

𝑙 2𝜋 𝜆 𝑙 2𝜋 𝜆
sin [𝑘 ( − 𝑧′)] = sin [ ( − 𝑧′)] = cos 𝑘𝑧′ ; sin [𝑘 ( + 𝑧′)] = sin [ ( + 𝑧′)] = cos 𝑘𝑧′
2 𝜆 4 2 𝜆 4
0 𝑙/2
𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 ′cos 𝜃 ′ 𝜃
𝑨(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝒂
̂𝒛 𝐼0 ( ∫ cos 𝑘𝑧 ′ 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑧 + ∫ cos 𝑘𝑧 ′ 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑧 cos ) 𝑑𝑧 ′
4𝜋 𝑟
−𝑙/2 0
𝑙/2 𝑙/2
𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 ′cos 𝜃 ′ 𝜃
= 𝒂
̂𝒛 𝐼0 (∫ cos(−𝑘𝑧 ′) 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 + ∫ cos 𝑘𝑧 ′ 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑧 cos ) 𝑑𝑧 ′
4𝜋 𝑟
0 0
𝑙/2
𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 ′cos 𝜃 ′ 𝜃
𝑨(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝒂
̂𝒛 𝐼0 (∫ cos 𝑘𝑧 ′ (𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑧 cos )) 𝑑𝑧 ′
4𝜋 𝑟
0
𝜆/4
𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟
= 𝒂
̂𝒛 𝐼0 (∫ cos 𝑘𝑧 ′ [2 cos(𝑘𝑧 ′ cos 𝜃)]) 𝑑𝑧 ′
4𝜋 𝑟
0
𝜆/4
𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟
= 𝒂
̂𝒛 𝐼0 (∫ cos 𝑘𝑧 ′ [cos(𝑘𝑧 ′ cos 𝜃)]) 𝑑𝑧 ′
2𝜋 𝑟 -------- (1.121)
0

By evaluating the integrals in Eqn. (1.121) and simplifying , we get approximately

𝜆
4 𝜋
cos (2 cos 𝜃)
∫ cos 𝑘𝑧′ [cos(𝑘𝑧′ cos 𝜃)] 𝑑𝑧′ = [ ]
𝑘 sin2𝜃
0

Thus the vector potential, 𝑨, is given by ;

𝜋
𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 cos (2 cos 𝜃)
𝑨(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝒂
̂𝒛 𝐼0 [ ]=𝒂
̂𝒛 𝑨𝒛
2𝜋 𝑟 𝑘 sin2 𝜃 -------- (1.122)

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

The transformation between rectangular and spherical components is given, in matrix form:
𝑨𝒓 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜃 𝑨𝒙
[ 𝑨𝜽] = [cos 𝜃 cos 𝜙 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙 − sin 𝜃] [𝑨𝒚]
-------- (1.123)
𝑨𝝓 −sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 0 𝑨𝒛

Substituting 𝑨𝒙 = 𝑨𝒚 = 0 in Eqn. (1.123):

𝑨𝒓 = 𝑨𝒛 cos 𝜃
𝑨𝜽 = −𝑨𝒛 sin 𝜃 -------- (1.124)
𝑨𝝓 = 0

***************************************************************************************
Note: In the far-field of the dipole the electric and magnetic field intensities are transverse to
each other as well as to the direction of propagation. 𝑬𝜽 , 𝑯𝝓 , and the direction of
propagation, 𝒂̂𝒓, form a right handed system. The ratio of 𝑬𝜽/𝑯𝝓 is equal to the the intrinsic
impedance of the medium. (𝑬𝜽/𝑯𝝓 = 𝜂)
The expressions for electric and magnetic field intensities are related to the magnetic vector
potential by the following equations ;
−𝑗𝜔
𝑬 = −𝑗𝜔𝑨𝒕 and 𝑯= 𝒂
̂𝒓 × 𝑨𝒕 -------- (1.125)
𝜂
where 𝑨𝒕 represents the transverse component of the magnetic vector potential given by;
𝑨𝒕 = 𝒂̂ 𝜽𝑨𝜽 + 𝒂
̂ 𝝓 𝑨𝝓 -------- (1.126)
These equations are valid only in the far-field region .
***************************************************************************************
In the far-field of the 𝑧-oriented dipole, the component of the magnetic vector potential
transverse to the direction of propagation is 𝑨𝜽.
The transverse component of the magnetic vector potential ,𝑨𝒕, is given by;
̂ 𝜽(−𝑨𝒛 sin 𝜃)
𝑨𝒕 = 𝒂 (By Eqn. 1.124 𝑨𝜽 = −𝑨𝒛 sin 𝜃)

The expression for magnetic field intensity 𝑯, can be computed using Eqn. (1.125) ;
−𝑗𝜔 −𝑗𝜔
𝜂 𝜂 -------- (1.127)

𝜋
𝑯= 𝒂
̂ 𝝓 (− [ 𝐼0 [ ]] sin 𝜃

𝜋
𝐼0 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 cos (2 cos 𝜃) -------- (1.128)

where 𝜂 = (𝜔𝜇)/𝑘 is the intrinsic impedance of the medium.

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

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ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

The expression for electric field intensity 𝑬, can be computed using the following
relationship.
𝑬𝜽
=𝜂
𝑯𝝓

𝜋
𝐼0 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 cos (2 cos 𝜃)
𝑬𝜽 = 𝜂𝑯𝝓 = 𝜂 [= 𝑗 [ ]]
2𝜋 𝑟 sin 𝜃

𝐼0 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 cos (𝜋
2 cos 𝜃) -------- (1.129)
𝑬𝜽 = 𝑗𝜂 [ ]
2𝜋 𝑟 sin 𝜃

 Power radiated and Radiation resistance:

 The time average power density(average Poynting vector) is given by;
1 1 1
𝑾𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑅𝑒[𝑬 × 𝑯∗ ] = [𝒂 ̂ 𝜽 𝑬𝜽 × 𝒂
̂ 𝝓 𝑯𝝓 ∗] = 𝒂
̂𝒓 |𝑬𝜽|2 -------- (1.130)
2 2 2𝜂

𝜋 𝟐
2 2𝜋
1 𝐼 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟 cos ( 2 cos 𝜃) 𝜂𝐼 cos ( 2 cos 𝜃)
̂𝒓 |𝑗𝜂 0
𝑾𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝒂 [ ̂𝒓 2 02 [
]| = 𝒂 ]
2𝜂 2𝜋 𝑟 sin 𝜃 8𝜋 𝑟 sin2 𝜃

 The radiation intensity 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) is given by;

𝜋 2 2 2 2𝜋
𝜂𝐼0 cos (2 cos 𝜃) 𝜂𝐼0 cos ( 2 cos 𝜃)
𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝑟2 𝑾 = 𝑟2 { [ [ -------- (1.131)
𝒓𝒂𝒅 ]} = ]
8𝜋2 𝑟2 sin2 𝜃 8𝜋2 sin2 𝜃

 The average power radiated by an antenna (radiated power) can be written as ;

2𝜋 𝜋

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∯ 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑑Ω = ∫ ∫ 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 -------- (1.132)

Ω 0 0
2𝜋 𝜋
2 cos2
𝜋
𝜂𝐼 (cos 𝜃)
=∫ ∫(
0
[ 2 ] sin 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
8𝜋2 sin2𝜃
00
2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝜂𝐼 2 cos2 cos
( 𝜃)
0 2
= ∫ ∫[ ] 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
8𝜋2 sin 𝜃
00

2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Substitute 𝜂 = 120𝜋 (for free space medium) cos2 ( 2 cos 𝜃)
∫∫[ ] 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 = (2𝜋)(1.218)
sin 𝜃
00
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 36.54 𝐼02
 The total power radiated by an antenna is given by;
1
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = |𝐼0|2 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑
2 -------- (1.133)

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

 36
ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

 Radiation resistance is given by;

𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 73 Ω -------- (1.134)

 Directive Gain (𝐷) , Directivit y(𝐷0) and Effective aperture (𝐴𝑒𝑚)):
 Directive Gain is given by ;
2 2 𝜋
𝜂𝐼 cos (2 cos 𝜃)
4𝜋8𝜋20 [ ]
sin2𝜃 2𝜋
cos (2 cos 𝜃) -------- (1.135)
4𝜋𝑈
𝐷= = = 1.643 [ ]
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 36.54 𝐼02 sin2𝜃

 Directivity (maximum directivity, 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥or 𝐷0) , maximum value occurs at 𝜃 = 𝜋/2 ;

𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷0 = 1.643 -------- (1.136)

 The maximum effective aperture is given by ;

𝜆2
𝐴𝑒𝑚 = 𝐷0 = 0.13 𝜆2 -------- (1.137)
4𝜋

YAGI-UDA ANTENNA:
Yagi-Uda arrays or Yagi-Uda antennas are high gain antennas. The antenna was first invented
by a Japanese Prof. S. Uda in early 1940's. Afterwards it was described in English by Prof. H.
Yagi. Hence the antenna name Yagi-Uda antenna was given after Prof. S. Uda and
Prof. H. Yagi.
A basic Yagi-Uda antenna consists a driven element, one reflector and one or more directors.
Basically it is an array of one driven element and one of more parasitic elements. The driven
element is usually a folded dipole made of a metallic rod which is excited.
A Yagi-Uda antenna uses both the reflector (𝑅) and the director (𝐷) elements in same
antenna. The element at the back side of the driven element is the reflector. It is of the larger
length compared with remaining elements. The element infront of the driven element is the
director which is of lowest length in all the three elements.

Fig. 1-22 Yagi-Uda antenna

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

 37
ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

Directors and reflector are called parasitic elements. All the elements are placed parallel to
each other and close to each other as shown in Fig. 1-22. The length of the folded dipole is
about 𝜆/2 and it is at resonance. Length of the director is less than 𝜆/2 and length of the
reflector is greater than 𝜆/2.
The parasitic element receive excitation through the induced e.m.f. as current flows in the
driven element. The phase and amplitude of the currents through the parasitic elements
mainly depends on the length of the elements and spacing between the elements. To vary
reactance of any element, the dimensions of the elements are readjusted. Generally the
spacing between the driven and the parasitic elements is kept nearly 0.1 𝜆 to 0.15 𝜆.
The lengths of the different elements can be obtained by using following formula:
152
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 -------- (1.138)
𝑓𝑀𝐻𝑧
143
𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 -------- (1.139)
𝑓𝑀𝐻𝑧
137
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 -------- (1.140)
𝑓𝑀𝐻𝑧

Let us consider the action of the Yagi-Uda antenna. The parasitic element is used either to
direct or to reflect, the radiated energy forming compact directional antenna. If the parasitic
element is greater than length 𝜆/2, (i.e. reflector) then it is inductive in nature. Hence the
phase of the current in such element i.e., in reflector lags the induced voltage.
While if the parasitic element is less than the resonant length 𝜆/2 (i.e. director), then it is
capacitive in nature. Hence the current in director leads the induced voltage.
The directors adds the fields of the driven element in the direction away from the driven
element. If more than one directors are used, then each director will excite the next.
Exactly opposite to this, properly spaced reflector adds the fields of the driven element in the
direction towards driven element from the reflector. To increase the gain of the Yagi-Uda
antenna, the number of directors is increased in the beam direction. To get good excitation,
the elements are closely spaced.
The driven element radiates from front to rear (i.e., from reflector to director). Part of this
radiation induces currents in the parasitic elements which actually reradiate almost all
radiations. With the proper lengths of the parasitic elements and the spacing between the
elements, the backward radiation is cancelled and the radiated energy is added infront.
When the spacing between the driven element and the parasitic element is reduced, the
driven element gets loaded which reduces the input impedance at the terminals of the driven
element. To overcome this the driven element used is the folded dipole which maintains the
impedance at the input terminals.
The Yagi-Uda antenna is the most widely used antenna for television signal reception. The
gain of such antenna is very high and the radiation pattern is very much directive in one
direction. The Yagi-Uda antenna along with its field radiation pattern is as shown in Fig. 1-23.

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

 38
ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

 The signal strength of the Yagi-Uda antenna can be increased by increasing number of
directors in antenna.

Fig. 1-23 Yagi antenna and its field radiation pattern

 Applications:
 Yagi-Uda array is the most popular antenna for the reception of terrestrial television signals
in the VHF band (30 MHz-300 MHz). The array for this application is constructed using
aluminium pipes.
 The driven element is usually a folded dipole, which gives four times the impedance of a
standard dipole. Thus, a two-wire balanced transmission line having a characteristic
impedance of 300 𝛺 can be directly connected to the input terminals of the Yagi-Uda array.
 Yagi-Uda arrays have been used in the HF, VHF, UHF, and microwave frequency bands. In the
HF band, the array is usually constructed using wires and at VHF and UHF frequencies,
hollow pipes are used for the construction of Yagi-Uda arrays.
 At microwave frequencies, the array is constructed using either printed circuit board (PCB)
technology or machined out of a metal sheet.

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

 39
ECE-VI SEM/ EC 6602 (ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION)

 Folded dipole:
 To achieve good matching to practical coaxial lines with 50 Ω or 75 Ω characteristic
impedances, the most widely used dipole is half wavelength 𝜆/2, and which has an input
impedance of 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 73 + 𝑗42.5 and directivity of 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.643.
 In practice, there are other very common transmission lines whose characteristic impedance
is much higher than 50 Ω or 75 Ω. For example, a “twin-lead” transmission line (usually two
parallel wires) is widely used for TV applications and has a characteristic impedance of about
300 Ω.
 One simple geometry that can achieve this is a folded wire which forms a very thin
rectangular loop as shown in Fig. 1-24.

Fig. 1-24 2 Wire folded dipole antenna

 A folded dipole consists of two parallel 𝜆/2 dipoles connected to each other at the ends. It is
fed at the centre of one of the dipoles and the other dipole is shorted.
 The impedance of the folded dipole is four times greater than that of an isolated dipole of the
same length, i.e., 𝒁𝒇 = 𝟒𝒁 𝒅.

 Advantages:
i. Very high input impedance
ii. Inherent impedance transformation property
iii. Wide bandwidth
iv. Acts as reactance compensation network

 Applications: The folded dipoles with parasitic elements can be used for wideband
transmissions such as TV signals. It is used in Yagi-uda antenna as a driven element.

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION

Post – MCQ:
1. The polarization mismatch is defined as –
(a) Polarization of the receiving antenna not matching with incoming wave
(b) Polarization of the transmitting antenna not matching with incoming wave
(c) Polarization of the receiver not matching with transmitter
(d) All of the above
Ans: a

2. The balun is a device used to match –

(a) Transmission line with dipole feed
(b) Co-axial line with dipole feed
(c) Transmitter with antenna load
(d) None of the above
Ans:b

3. If the PLF parameter is unity, then –

(a) Maximum power extracted from the incoming wave
(b) Moderate power extracted from the incoming wave
(c) No power extracted from the incoming wave
(d) None of the above
Ans : a

4. The currents on the inner conductor and the inside of the outer conductor in a co-axial
cable are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, then it is said to be –
(a) Balanced current mode
(b) Unbalanced current mode
(c) Normal current mode
(d) None of the above
Ans:b

5. The resistance if connected in series with an antenna will consume the same power as
actually radiated by the antenna is called as –
(a) Lossy resistance
(b) Antenna resistance
(c) Radiation resistance
(d) Any of the above
Ans: c
 6. The radiation pattern of an isotropic antenna is –
(a) Elliptical
(b) Figure of eight
(c) Spherical
(d) Hyperbolic
Ans: c

7. The effective aperture indicates the amount of power –

(a) Captured from the plane wave and delivered by the antenna
(b) Reflected from the plane wave and delivered by the antenna
(c) Refracted from the plane wave and delivered by the antenna
(d) None of the above
Ans: a

8. The principle of reciprocity states that the receive and transmit antennas have-
(a) Radically different radiation patterns
(b) Identical radiation patterns
(c) Slightly different radiation patterns
(d) None of the above
Ans: b

9. A half wave folded dipole is an antenna with-

(a) Half of wavelength and feed at the ends
(b) Half of wavelength and feed at the centre
(c) Half of wavelength and feed at anywhere
(d) None of the above
Ans: b

10. The antenna noise temperature is –

(a) Physical temperature of the antenna
(b) Physical temperature of antenna and transmission line
(c) Temperature at the receiver terminals in a thermal environment
(d) Any of the above
Ans: c
 11. Radiation intensity is defines as power per -
(a) Unit area
(b) Unit angle
(c) Unit field
(d) None of the above
Ans: b

12. The radiation intensity can be obtained by multiplying the radiation density by –
(a) The distance
(b) Square of the distance
(c) Cube of the distance
(d) None of the above
Ans: b

13. Directivity is defined as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity to –

(a) average radiation intensity
(b) peak radiation intensity
(c) unity radiation intensity
(d) None of the above
Ans: a

14. The gain of an antenna is an actual quantity which is less than directivity (𝐷) due to –
(a) Radiating losses in the antenna
(b) ohmic losses in the antenna
(c) inductive losses in the antenna
(d) All of the above
Ans: b

15. In an antenna system, the maximum power transfer takes place when the antenna is
__________to the source.
(a) Perfectly matched
(b) Inductively matched
(c) Conjugate matched
(d) None of the above
Ans: c
Conclusion:
At the end of the topic, students will be able –

1) To understand the basic concept of Antenna Fundamentals

2) To understand the different types of Antenna Parameters

3) To get exposure on Monopole and half wave dipole antennas

4) To know the EM wave equation of oscillating current elements.

References:
1. John D Kraus,” Antennas for all Applications”, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2010.

2. Edward C. Jordan and Keith G. Balmain” Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems”
Prentice Hall of India, 2nd Edition 2011.

3. R.E. Collin,” Antennas and Radio wave Propagation”, McGraw Hill 1985.

4. Robert S. Elliott “Antenna Theory and Design” Wiley Student Edition, 2006.

Assignments:
1. Explain briefly the various antenna parameters with necessary equations.

2. Derive an expression for the radiation from an oscillating current element with diagram.

3. Derive an expression for the radiation from a half-wave dipole with diagram

4. Write short notes on – (i) Matching Baluns (ii) Antenna Temperature

5. Explain about Polarization mismatch in a brief manner

 Subject Name: Antennas & Propagation

Topic Name: Antenna Arrays

(Unit – 2)
Prepared

By

Dr. S.Omkumar,

Associate Professor,

Department of ECE

SCSVMV

Syllabus / Antenna Arrays

1. Broad side arrays
2. End fire arrays
3. Collinear arrays
Example of Antenna Arrays:
Yagi Uda Arrays
Aim and Objective:

• To give insight of basic Knowledge of Antenna Arrays

• To give thorough understanding of the radiation characteristics of types of

Antenna Arrays i.e Broad side array, End fire array and Collinear arrays.

• To impart knowledge about applications of Antenna Arrays

Pre – Test MCQ:

1. An antenna is a transitional structure between –

(a) Free space and guiding element
(b) Free space and free space
(c) Guiding element and another guiding element
(d) All of the above
Answer - a

2. The guiding device used for the antenna system –

(a) Transmission line
(b) Co-axial line
(c) Waveguide
(d) All of the above
Answer - d

3. If the radiation from an antenna is represented in terms of field strength, it is called –

(a) Field pattern
(b) Power pattern
(c) Radiation pattern
(d) None of the above
Answer - a

4. A major lobe is defined as the radiation lobe containing –

(a) Direction of minimum radiation
(b) Direction of maximum radiation
(c) Direction of moderate radiation
(d) None of the above
Answer - b

5. The First-null beam width (FNBW) is defined as the angular measurement between the
directions –
(a) radiating the maximum power
(b) radiating half of the maximum power
 (c) radiating no power
(d) None of the above
Answer - c

6. The half-power beam width (HPBW) is defined as the angular measurement between
the directions –
(a) radiating the maximum power
(b) radiating half of the maximum power
(c) radiating no power
(d) None of the above
Answer - b

7. The 𝑥-𝑧 plane (elevation plane; 𝜙 = 0) is the principal –

(a) 𝑬-plane
(b) H-plane
(c) Either E-plane or H-plane
(d) None of the above
Answer - a

8. An Omni directional antenna is a special antenna of type –

(a) Directional
(b) Non-directional
(c) Isotropic
(d) None of the above
Answer - a

9. The ratio of the main beam area to the total beam area is called –
(a) beam efficiency
(b) beam deficiency
(c) stray factor
(d) None of the above
Answer - a

10. Radiation density is defined as power per –

(a) Unit area
(b) Unit angle
(c) Unit field
(d) None of the above
Answer - a
 11. Radiation intensity is defines as power per -
(a) Unit area
(b) Unit angle
(c) Unit field
(d) None of the above
Answer - b

12. The radiation intensity can be obtained by multiplying the radiation density by –
(a) The distance
(b) Square of the distance
(c) Cube of the distance
(d) None of the above
Answer - b

13. Directivity is defined as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity to –

(a) average radiation intensity
(b) peak radiation intensity
(c) unity radiation intensity
(d) None of the above
Answer - a

14. The gain of an antenna is an actual quantity which is less than directivity (𝐷) due to –
(a) Radiating losses in the antenna
(b) ohmic losses in the antenna
(c) inductive losses in the antenna
(d) All of the above
Answer - b
15. In an antenna system, the maximum power transfer takes place when the antenna is
__________to the source.
(a) Perfectly matched
(b) Inductively matched
(c) Conjugate matched
(d) None of the above
Answer - c

Pre-requisite

• Basic knowledge of Electromagnetic Fields and Wave guides.

• Basic Knowledge of Antenna Parameters and Radiations

 1

UNIT II: ANTENNA ARRAYS

N element linear array, Pattern multiplication, Broadside and End fire array –
Concept of Phased arrays, Adaptive array, Basic principle of antenna Synthesis-
Binomial array, Yagi Arrays.

INTRODUCTION – ARRAY ANTENNAS:

 The radiation pattern of a single element is relatively wide, and each element provides low
values of directivity (gain). In many applications, it is necessary to design antennas with very
directive characteristics (very high gains) to meet the demands of long distance
communication. This can only be accomplished by increasing the electrical size of the
antenna.
Note: Higher directivity is the basic requirement in point-to-point communication, radars and
space applications.
 Enlarging the dimensions of single elements often leads to more directive characteristics.
Another way to enlarge the dimensions of the antenna, without necessarily increasing the size
of the individual elements, is to form an assembly of radiating elements in an electrical and
geometrical configuration. This new antenna, formed by multielements, is referred to as an
array. Inmost cases, the elements of an array are identical. The individual elements of an array
may be of any form (wires, apertures, etc.).
 Thus antenna array can be defined as the system of similar antennas directed to get required
high directivity in the desired direction.
 The total field of the array is determined by the vector addition of the fields radiated by the
individual elements. The individual element is generally called element of an antenna array.
This assumes that the current in each element is the same as that of the isolated element
(neglecting coupling).
 The antenna array is said to be linear if the elements of the antenna array are equally spaced
along a straight line. The linear antenna array is said to be uniform linear array if all the
elements are fed with a current of equal magnitude with progressive uniform phase shift
along the line.
 In an array of identical elements, there are at least five controls that can be used to shapethe
overall pattern of the antenna. These are:
 the geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear, circular, rectangular, spherical, etc.)
 the relative displacement between the elements
 the excitation amplitude of the individual elements
 the excitation phase of the individual elements
 the relative pattern of the individual elements

 Practically various forms of the antenna array are used as radiating systems. They are;
i. Broadside Array (BSA) ii. End-Fire Array (EFA)
iii. Collinear Array iv. Parasitic Array
 2

 Broadside Array (BSA)

 The broadside array is the array of antennas in which all the elements are placed parallel to
each other and the direction of maximum radiation is always perpendicular to the plane
consisting elements.A typical arrangement of a Broadside array is as shown in Fig. 3-1.
 A broadside array consists number of identical antennas placed parallel to each other along a
straight line. This straight line is perpendicular to the axis of individual antenna. It is known
as axis of antenna array. Thus each element is perpendicular to the axis of antenna array.
 All the individual antennas are spaced equally along the axis of antenna array. The spacing
between any two elements is denoted by ′𝑑′. All the elements are fed with currents with equal
magnitude and same phase. As the maximum radiation is directed in broadside direction i.e.
perpendicular to the line of axis of array, the radiation pattern for the broadside array is
bidirectional.
 Thus broadside array can be defined as the arrangement of antennas in which maximum
radiation is in the direction perpendicular to the axis of array and plane containing the
elements of array.

Fig. 3-1 Broadside array

 End-Fire Array (EFA)

 The end fire array is very much similar to the broadside array from the point of view of
arrangement. But the main difference is in the direction of maximum radiation. In broadside
array, the direction of the maximum radiation is perpendicular to the axis of array; while in
the end fire array, the direction of the maximum radiation is along the axis of array.

Fig. 3-2 End-fire array

 Thus in the end fire array number of identical antennas are spaced equally along a line. All the
antennas are fed individually with currents of equal magnitudes but their phases vary
progressively along the line to get entire arrangement unidirectional finally. i.e. maximum
radiation along the axis of array as shown in Fig. 3-2.
 3

 Thus end fire array can be defined as an array with direction of maximum radiation coincides
with the direction of the axis of array to get unidirectional radiation.

 Collinear array
 As the name indicates, in the collinear array, the antennas are arranged co-axially i.e. the
antennas are arranged end to end along, a single line as shown in Fig. 3-3 (a) and (b).

Fig. 3-3 Collinear array

 The individual elements in the collinear array are fed with currents equal in magnitude and
phase. This condition is similar to the broadside array. In collinear array the direction of
maximum radiation is perpendicular to the axis of array.
 So the radiation pattern of the collinear array and the broadside array is very much similar
but the radiation pattern of the collinear array has circular symmetry with main lobe
perpendicular everywhere to the principle axis. Thus the collinear array is also called omni
directional array or broadcast array.
 The gain of the collinear array is maximum if the spacing between the elements is of the order
of 0.3 λ to 0.5 λ.

 Parasitic array
 In order to overcome feeding problems of the antenna, sometimes, the elements of the array
are fed through the radiation from the nearby element. The array of antennas in which the
parasitic elements get the power through electromagnetic coupling with driven element
which is in proximity with the parasitic element is known as parasitic array.
 The simplest form of the parasitic array consists one driven element and one parasitic
element. In multielement parasitic array, there may be one or more driving elements and also
one or more parasitic elements. So in general the multielement parasitic array is the array
with at least one driven element and one or more parasitic elements.
 The common example of the parasitic array with linear half wave dipoles as elements of array
is Yagi-Uda array or simply Yagi antenna.
 The amplitude and the phase of the current induced in the parasitic element depends on the
spacing between the driven element and parasitic element. To make the radiation pattern
 4

unidirectional, the relative phases of the currents are changed by adjusting the spacing
between the elements. This is called tuning of array. For a spacing between the driven and
parasitic element equal to 𝜆/4 and phase difference of 𝜋/2 radian, unidirectional radiation
pattern is obtained.

ARRAY OF POINT SOURCES

 The array of point sources is nothing but the array of an isotropic radiators occupying zero
volume. For the greater number of point source in the array, the analysis of antenna array
becomes complicated and time consuming. Also the simplest condition of number of point
sources in the array is two. Then conveniently analysis is done by considering first two point
sources, which are separated by distance 𝑑 and having same polarization. The results
obtained for only two point sources can be further extended for ′𝑛′ number of point sources in
the array.
 Let us consider the array of two isotropic point sources, with a distance of separation
′𝑑′ between them. The polarization of two isotropic point sources is assumed to be the same.
To derive different expressions following conditions can be applied to the antenna array ;
1. Two point sources with currents of equal magnitudes and with same phase.
2. Two point sources with currents of equal magnitude but with opposite phase.
3. Two point sources with currents of unequal magnitudes and with any phase.

 Two Point Sources with Currents Equal in Magnitude and Phase:

 Consider two point-sources 1 and 2 separated by distance ′𝑑′ and both the point sources are
supplied with currents equal in magnitude and phase as shown in Fig. 3-4.
 Let point 𝑃 far away from the array and the distance between point 𝑃 and point sources 1
and 2 be 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 respectively.
Assuming far-field observations ,
𝑟1 ≈ 𝑟2 ≈ 𝑟 -------- (3.1)

Fig. 3-4 Two element array

 The radiation from the point source 2 will reach earlier at point 𝑃 than that from point
source 1 because of the path difference. The extra distance is travelled by the radiated wave
from point source 1 than that by the wave radiated from point source 2. Hence path difference
is given by,
 5

𝑑 𝑑
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = cos 𝜙 + cos 𝜙 = 𝑑 cos 𝜙 -------- (3.2)
2 2

 The path difference can be expressed in terms of wavelength as ;

𝑑
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = cos 𝜙
𝜆
Hence the phase difference ′𝜓′is given by ;

𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜓 = 2𝜋 × 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑘 = 2𝜋

𝑑 2𝜋 𝜆
𝜓 = 2𝜋 × cos 𝜙 = 𝑑 cos 𝜙
𝜆 𝜆
𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙 -------- (3.3)
𝜓 𝜓
Let 𝐸1 = 𝐸0. 𝑒 −𝑗 2 is field component due topoint source 1. Similarly, let 𝐸 = . 𝑒2 𝑗
 0 2 is field

component due to point source 2. Therefore, the total far-field at a distant point 𝑃 is ;
𝜓 𝜓
𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 = 𝐸 . 𝑒−𝑗 + 𝐸 . 𝑒𝑗
2 2
𝑇 1 2 0 0
𝜓 𝜓 𝜓
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸0 (𝑒−𝑗2 + 𝑒𝑗2 ) = 2𝐸0 cos -------- (3.4)
2

Note that the amplitude of both the field components is 𝐸0 as currents are same and the point
sources are identical.
Substituting value of 𝜓 from Eqn. (3.3), we get,

𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙
𝐸𝑇 = 2𝐸0 cos [ ] -------- (3.5)
2

 Above equation represents total field intensity at point 𝑃, due to two point sources having
currents of same amplitude and phase. The total amplitude of the field at point 𝑃 is 2𝐸0 while
the phase shift is (𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙)/2 . By putting 2𝐸0 = 1 , then the pattern is said to be normalized.

 Maxima direction:
𝑘 𝑑 cos
 From Eqn. (3.5), the total field is maximum when cos [ is] maximum. Maximum value
2
of cosine function is ±1. Hence the condition for maxima is given by,
𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙
cos [ ] = ±1 -------- (3.6)
2
 Let spacing between the two poi nt sources be 𝜆/2 , then ; 2𝜋 𝜆
𝑘= ;𝑑=
𝜋 𝜆 2
cos [ cos 𝜙] = ±1
2
π
𝑖. 𝑒, cos𝜙2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = cos−1(±1) = ±nπ, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 0,1,2, ….
π
If 𝑛 = 0, then ; cos𝜙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0
2

cos𝜙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0 ; 𝜙 𝑚𝑎 = 90° or 270° --------------- (3.7)

 6

 Minima direction:
𝑘 𝑑 cos 𝜙
 From Eqn. (3.5), the total field is minimum when cos [ ] is minimum. Minimum value
2
of cosine function is 0. Hence the condition for maxima is given by,
𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙
cos [ ]=0 -------- (3.8)
2
 Let spacing between the two point sources be 𝜆/2 , then ;
𝜋
cos [ cos 𝜙] = 0
2
π 𝜋
𝑖. 𝑒, cos𝜙 𝑚𝑖 = cos−1(0) = ±(2𝑛 + 1) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 0,1,2, ….
2 2

π 𝜋
If 𝑛 = 0, then ; cos𝜙 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ±
2 2

cos𝜙 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ±1 ; 𝜙 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0° or 180° -------- (3.9)

 Half power point directions:

1
 When the power is half, the voltage or current is times the maximum value. Hence the
√2
condition for half power point is given by,
𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙 1
cos [ ]= ± -------- (3.10)
2 √2
 Let spacing between the two point sources be 𝜆/2 , then ;
𝜋 1
cos [ cos 𝜙] = ±
2 √2
π 1 𝜋
𝑖. 𝑒, cos𝜙 𝐻𝑃𝑃𝐷 = cos−1 (± ) = ± , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 0,1,2, ….
2 √2 4

π 𝜋
If 𝑛 = 0, then ; cos𝜙 𝐻𝑃𝑃𝐷 = ±
2 4
1
cos𝜙 𝐻𝑃𝑃𝐷 = ± ; 𝜙 𝐻𝑃𝑃𝐷 = ±60° or ± 120° -------- (3.11)
2

 The field pattern drawn with 𝐸𝑇 against 𝜙 for 𝑑 = 𝜆/2, then the pattern is bidirectional as
shown in Fig. 3-5. The field pattern obtained is bidirectional and it is a figure of eight (8). If
this patterns is rotated by 360° about axis, it will represent three dimensional doughnut
shaped space pattern.
 7

Fig. 3-5 Field pattern for two point source with 𝒅 = 𝝀/𝟐 and
fed with currents equal in magnitude and phase.

 Two Point Sources with Currents Equal in Magnitude and opposite phase:
 Consider two point sources separated by distance ′𝑑′ and supplied with currents equalin
magnitude but opposite phase. Consider Fig.3-4, all theconditions are exactly same except the
phase of the currents is opposite i.e. 180°. Withthis condition, the total field at far point 𝑃 is
given by,
𝐸𝑇 = (−𝐸1) + 𝐸2 -------- (3.12)
 Assuming equal magnitudes of currents, the fields at point 𝑃 due to the point sources 1 and 2
can be written as ; 𝐸 = 𝐸 . 𝑒−𝑗 𝜓2
1 0
𝜓
𝑗
𝐸2 = 𝐸0. 𝑒 2

 Therefore, the total far-field at a distant point 𝑃 is ;

𝜓 𝜓
𝐸 = (−𝐸 ) + 𝐸 = −𝐸 . 𝑒−𝑗 + 𝐸 .𝜓𝑒𝑗
𝐸 = 𝐸 (𝑒𝑗 − 𝑒𝜓−𝑗 ) = 𝑗𝜓(2𝐸 ) sin
-------- (3.13)

 Now as the condition for two point sources with currents in phase and out of phaseis exactly
same, the phase angle can be written as ;
𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙 -------- (3.14)

Substituting value of 𝜓 in Eqn. (2.93), we get,

𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑗(2𝐸0) sin [ ] -------- (3.15)
2
By putting (2𝐸0) = 1 , then the pattern is said to be normalized.
 8

 Maxima direction:
𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙
 From Eqn. (3.15), the total field is maximum when sin [ ]is maximum. Maximum
2
value of sine function is ±1. Hence the condition for maxima is given by,
𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙
sin [ ] = ±1 -------- (3.16)
2
 Let spacing between the two poin t sources be 𝜆/2 , then ; 2𝜋 𝜆
𝑘= ;𝑑=
𝜋 𝜆 2
sin [ cos 𝜙] = ±1
2
π 𝜋
𝑖. 𝑒, cos 𝜙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = sin−1( ±1) = ±(2𝑛 + 1) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 0,1,2, ….
2 2

π 𝜋
If 𝑛 = 0, then ; cos𝜙
2 𝑚𝑖 =±
2
cos𝜙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ±1 ; 𝜙 𝑚𝑎 = 0° or 180°--------------- (3.17)

 Minima direction:
𝑘 𝑑 cos 𝜙
 From Eqn. (3.15), the total field is minimum when sin[ ] is minimum. Minimum
2
value of sine function is 0.Hence the condition for maxima is given by,
𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙
sin [ ]=0 -------- (3.18)
2
 Let spacing between the two point sources be 𝜆/2 , then ;
𝜋
sin [ cos 𝜙] = 0
2
π
𝑖. 𝑒, cos𝜙 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = sin−1(0) = ±𝑛𝜋, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 0,1,2, ….
2
π
cos𝜙 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
If 𝑛 = 0, then ; 2

cos𝜙 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0 ; 𝜙 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 90° or 270° -------- (3.19)

 Half power point directions:

1
 When the power is half, the voltage or current is times the maximum value. Hence the
√2
condition for half power point is given by,
𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙 1
sin [ ]= ± -------- (3.20)
2 √2
 Let spacing between the two point sources be 𝜆/2 , then ;
𝜋 1
sin [ cos 𝜙] = ±
2 √2
π 1 𝜋
𝑖. 𝑒, cos𝜙 𝐻𝑃𝑃𝐷 = sin−1 (± ) = ± , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 0,1,2, ….
2 √2 4
 9

π 𝜋
If 𝑛 = 0, then ; cos𝜙 𝐻𝑃𝑃𝐷 = ±
2 4

1
cos𝜙 𝐻𝑃𝑃𝐷 = ± ; 𝜙 𝐻𝑃𝑃𝐷 = ±60° or ± 120° -------- (3.21)
2

 Thus from the conditions of maxima, minima and half power points, the field pattern can be
drawn with 𝐸𝑇 against 𝜙 for 𝑑 = 𝜆/2 as shown in Fig. 3-6.

Fig. 3-6 Field pattern for two point source with 𝒅 = 𝝀/𝟐 and
fed with currents equal in magnitude and out of phase.

 Two Point Sources with Currents Unequal in Magnitudeand with any Phase:
 Let us consider, two point sources are separated by distance 𝑑 and supplied with currents
which are different in magnitudes and with any phase difference say 𝛼, as shown in
Fig. 3-7 (a).
 Assume that source 1 is taken as reference for phase. The amplitude of the fields due to
source 1 and source 2 at the distant point 𝑃 is 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 respectively, in which 𝐸1 is greater
than 𝐸2 , as shown in the vector diagram in Fig. 3-7 (b).

Fig. 3-7 (a) Two point sources with currents unequal in magnitude
and with any phase (b) Vector diagram
 10

 Now the total phase difference between the radiations by the two point sources at any far
point 𝑃 is given by,

𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙 + 𝛼 -------- (3.22)

where 𝛼 is the phase angle with which current 𝐼2leads current𝐼1.

Then the resultant field at point 𝑃 is given by,
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1𝑒𝑗0 + 𝐸2𝑒𝑗𝜓 -------- (3.23)
(Source 1 is assumed to be reference hence phase angle is 0)
𝐸2
𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 𝑒𝑗𝜓 = 𝐸 (1 + 𝑒𝑗𝜓)
𝑇 1 2 1
𝐸1

Let 𝐸2 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1[1 + 𝑘(cos 𝜓) + 𝑗 sin 𝜓]

=𝑘 -------- (3.24)
𝐸1
Note that 𝐸1 > 𝐸2 , the value of 𝑘 is less than unity and varies from 0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 1.

 The magnitude and phase angle of the resultant field at point 𝑃 is given by,

|𝐸𝑇| = 𝐸1√(1 + 𝑘 cos 𝜓)2 + 𝑗(𝑘 sin 𝜓)2 -------- (3.25)

𝑘 sin 𝜓
𝜃 = tan−1 -------- (3.26)
1 + 𝑘 cos 𝜓

N- ELEMENT UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAY:

 An array of 𝑁 elements is said to be linear array if all the individual elements are spaced
equally along a line. An array is said to be uniform array if the elements in the array are fed
with currents with equal magnitudes and with uniform progressive phase shift along the line.
 Consider uniform linear array of 𝑵 isotropic point sources with all the individual elements
spaced equally at distance ′𝑑′ from each other and all elements are fed with currents equal in
magnitude and uniform progressive phase shift along line as shown in Fig. 3-8.

Fig. 3-8 Uniform linear array of 𝑵 elements

 11

 The total resultant field at the distant point 𝑃 is obtained by adding the fields due to
𝑁 individual sources vectorically. Hence,

𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸0𝑒𝑗0 + 𝐸0𝑒𝑗𝜓 + 𝐸0𝑒2𝑗𝜓 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 𝐸0𝑒(𝑁−1)𝑗𝜓

𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸0(1 + 𝑒𝑗𝜓 + 𝑒2𝑗𝜓 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑒(𝑁−1)𝑗𝜓) -------- (3.27)

 Note that 𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙 + 𝛼 indicates the total phase difference of the fields from adjacent
sources calculated at point . Simlarly 𝛼 is the progressive phase shift betweentwo
adjacentpoint sources. The value of 𝛼 may lie between 0°and 180°. If 𝛼 = 0° we get 𝑁 element
uniform linear broadside array. If 𝛼 = 180°, we get 𝑁 element uniformlinear end fire array.
Multiply by 𝑒𝑗𝜓 on both sides ;
𝐸𝑇𝑒𝑗𝜓 = 𝐸0(𝑒𝑗𝜓 + 𝑒2𝑗𝜓 + 𝑒3𝑗𝜓 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑒𝑁𝑗𝜓) -------- (3.28)
 Subtract Eqn. (3.27) and (3.28) ;
𝐸𝑇(1 − 𝑒𝑗𝜓) = 𝐸0(1 − 𝑒𝑁𝑗𝜓)

𝐸𝑇 (1 − 𝑒𝑁𝑗𝜓) 𝑗[(𝑁−1)/2]𝜓 [
𝑒𝑗(𝑁/2)𝜓 − 𝑒−𝑗(𝑁/2)𝜓
= = 𝑒 ] -------- (3.29)
𝐸0 (1 − 𝑒𝑗𝜓 𝑒𝑗(1/2)𝜓 − 𝑒−𝑗(1/2)𝜓

 If the reference point is the physical center of the array, then Eqn. (2.94)reduces to ;
𝑁
𝐸𝑇 sin ( 𝜓)
2
𝐸 = 𝐴𝐹 = [ 1 ]
0 sin ( 𝜓)
2
which is the antenna array factor.

 If 𝜓 = 0, the maximum value of 𝐸𝑇 is determined using L’Hospital’s rule ;

𝐸𝑇 𝑚𝑎 = 𝐸0 𝑁
 Thus the maximum value of 𝐸𝑇 is 𝑁 times the field from a single source. To normalize the
field pattern , so that the maximum value of each is equal to unity. The normalized field
pattern is given by ;
𝑁
𝐸𝑇 sin ( 2 𝜓)
(𝐸𝑇) 𝑁 = -------- (3.30)
=[ ]
𝐸𝑇 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁 sin (12 𝜓)

 Eqn. (3.30) is the normalized array factor ;

𝑁
sin𝜓)
(
(𝐴𝐹)𝑁 = [ 2
1 ] -------- (3.31)
𝑁 sin ( 𝜓)
2

BROADSIDE ARRAY (BSA)

 An array is said to be broadside array, if maximum radiation occurs in direction perpendicular
to array axis.
 In broadside array, individual elements are equally spaced along a line and each element is
fed with current of equal magnitude and same phase.
 The total phase difference of the fields at point 𝑃 from adjacent sources is given by,
 12

𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙 + 𝛼 -------- (3.32)

 The normalized array factor for ′𝑁′ elements ; 𝑁

sin 𝜓)
(
(𝐴𝐹)𝑁 = [ 2
1 ] -------- (3.33)
𝑁 sin ( 𝜓)
2

Major lobe
 In broadside array sources should be in phase i.e., 𝛼 = 0° and 𝜓 = 0 for maximum must be
satisfied.

𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙 + 𝛼 = 0
𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙 + 𝛼 = 0 ∵𝛼=0
cos 𝜙 = 0 ; 𝜙 𝑚 = 90° or 270°

Nulls
 To find the nulls of the array Eqn. (3.33) is set to zero ;
2𝜋
𝑁 𝑁 𝑘=
sin ( 𝜓) = 0 = ±𝑛𝜋2 𝜆
2  𝜓|
𝜙=𝜙𝑛
𝑁 𝑛𝜆 -------- (3.34)
(𝑘𝑑 cos𝜙𝑛 + 𝛼) = ±𝑛𝜋 𝜙 = cos−1 (± )
For BSA 𝛼 = 0° 2  𝑛 𝑁𝑑
where ; 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 …
Maxima of minor lobes (secondary maxima)
 The maximum value of Eqn. (3.33) occur when ;
𝑁 𝑁 𝜋 2𝜋
sin ( 𝜓) = 1 2 𝜓| = ±(2𝑠 + 1) 𝑘=
2 𝜙=𝜙𝑠 2 𝜆
𝑁 𝜋
(𝑘𝑑 cos𝜙𝑠 + 𝛼) = ±(2𝑠 + 1)
2 2
1 (2𝑠 + 1)𝜋
𝜙 = cos−1 { [± − 𝛼]}
For BSA 𝛼 = 0° 𝑠 𝑘𝑑 𝑁
1 (2𝑠 + 1)𝜋 𝑠 = 1,2,3, …
𝜙 = cos−1 { [± ]}
𝑠 𝑘𝑑 𝑁
(2𝑠 + 1)𝜆 -------- (3.35)
𝜙 = cos−1 [± ]
𝑠 2𝑁𝑑

Beamwidth of major lobe

 Beamwidth is defined as angle between first null and maximum of major lobe (or) Beamwidth
is the angle equal to twice the angle between first null and the major lobe maximum.
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = 2 × 𝜙𝑏 = 2 × (90 − 𝜙𝑛)

90 − 𝜙𝑛 = 𝜙𝑏 90 − 𝜙𝑏 = 𝜙𝑛 -------- (3.36)

 13

𝑛𝜆
90 − 𝜙 = cos−1 (± )
𝑏 𝑁𝑑
Take cosine on both sides ;
𝑛𝜆
cos(90 − 𝜙 ) = cos (cos−1 (± ))
𝑏 𝑁𝑑

𝑛𝜆
sin 𝜙𝑏 = ±
𝑁𝑑
𝜆
For first null 𝑛 = 1 sin 𝜙𝑏 = +
𝑁𝑑

𝑁𝑑 indicates the total length of the array 𝐿

2𝜆
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = 2 × 𝜙𝑏 = + -------- (3.37)
𝑁𝑑
2𝜆 2
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = = 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐿 (𝐿/𝜆)
114.6°
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = 𝑑𝑒𝑔 -------- (3.38)
(𝐿/𝜆)
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 1
Half power beamwidth (HPBW) 𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = = 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2 (𝐿/𝜆)
57.3°
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = 𝑑𝑒𝑔 -------- (3.39)
(𝐿/𝜆)
Directivity
 Directivity can be expressed in terms of the total length of the array ;

𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2(𝐿/𝜆) -------- (3.40)

Example: A broadside array of identical antennas consists of isotropic radiators separated

by a distance 𝒅 = 𝝀/𝟐. Obtain positions of maxima and minima of the radiation pattern.

Solution:

𝝀
Length of the array: 𝑁𝑑 = 4 ( ) = 𝟐𝝀
𝟐

Major lobe: 𝜙 𝑚 = 90° or 270°

Maxima of minor lobes (Secondary maxima):

(2𝑠 + 1)𝜆 𝑠 = 1 ; ±41.4° , ±138.6°
𝜙 = cos−1 [± ] 𝑠 = 1,2,3, …
𝑠 2𝑁𝑑

∴ These are the 4 minor lobe maxima of the array of 4 isotropic radiators fed in phase and
5
spaced 𝝀/𝟐 apart. No other maxima exist for 𝑠 ≥ 2 , because for 𝑠 = 2 , cos−1 (± ≫ 1 , )
4
whereas cosine value is always << 1.
 14

Nulls:
𝑛𝜆 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … 𝑛 = 1 ; ±60° , ±120°
𝜙 = cos−1 (± )
𝑛 𝑁𝑑 𝑛 = 2 ; ±0° , ±180°
∴ 0°, 60°, 120°, 180°, −60°, −120° are six minor lobe minima of the array of 4 isotropic radiators
spaced 𝝀/𝟐 apart. No other minima (nulls) exist for which cosine functions becomes more than
one.

END-FIRE ARRAY (EFA)

 An array is said to be end-fire array, if the direction of maximum radiation coincides with the
array axis.
 In end-fire array, individual elements are equally spaced along a line and each element is fed
with current of equal magnitude and opposite phase.
 The total phase difference of the fields at point 𝑃 from adjacent sources is given by,

𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙 + 𝛼 -------- (3.41)

 The normalized array factor for ′𝑁′ elements ; 𝑁

sin 𝜓)
(
(𝐴𝐹)𝑁 = [ 2
1 ] -------- (3.42)
𝑁 sin ( 𝜓)
2

Major lobe
 In end-fire array 𝜓 = 0 and𝜙 = 0° or 180°

𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙 + 𝛼 = 0
𝜓 = 0 and 𝜙 = 0° 𝛼 = −𝑘𝑑 -------- (3.43)

𝜓 = 0 and 𝜙 = 180° 𝛼 = 𝑘𝑑 -------- (3.44)

𝜙 𝑚 = 0° or 180°
 15

Nulls
 To find the nulls of the array Eqn. (3.42) is set to zero ;
2𝜋
𝑁 𝑁 𝑘=
sin ( 𝜓) = 0  𝜓|𝜙=𝜙 = ±𝑛𝜋2 𝜆
2 𝑛

𝑁
For EFA𝛼 = −𝑘𝑑 (𝑘𝑑 cos𝜙𝑛 + 𝛼) = ±𝑛𝜋
2
𝑁
(𝑘𝑑 cos𝜙𝑛 − 𝑘𝑑) = ±𝑛𝜋 where ; 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 …
2
𝑁𝑑
(cos𝜙𝑛 − 1) = ±𝑛 -------- (3.45)
𝜆
𝜙𝑛 𝑛𝜆
2 sin2 =±
2 𝑁𝑑
𝑛𝜆
𝜙 = 2 sin−1 (±√ ) -------- (3.46)
𝑛 2𝑁𝑑
Further simplication : From Eqn. (3.45) , note that the value of (cos𝜙𝑛 − 1) is always less
than 1, Hence it is negative. So consider negative values of R.H.S ;
𝑁𝑑
From Eqn. (3.45): (cos𝜙𝑛 − 1) = −𝑛
𝜆
𝑛𝜆
𝜙𝑛 = cos−1 (1 − ) -------- (3.47)
𝑁𝑑

Maxima of minor lobes (secondary maxima)

 The maximum value of Eqn. (3.42) occur when ;
𝑁 𝑁 𝜋 2𝜋
sin ( 𝜓) = 1 𝑘=
2 2 𝜓| = ±(2𝑠 + 1)
2 𝜆
𝜙=𝜙𝑠
𝑁 𝜋
(𝑘𝑑 cos𝜙𝑠 + 𝛼) = ±(2𝑠 + 1)
2 2

For EFA 𝛼 = −𝑘𝑑 𝜆

(cos𝜙𝑠 − 1) = ±(2𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 = 1,2,3, … -------- (3.48)
2𝑁𝑑
𝜆
𝜙 = cos−1 [±(2𝑠 + 1) + 1] -------- (3.49)
𝑠 2𝑁𝑑

Further simplication : From Eqn. (3.48) , note that the value of (cos𝜙𝑠 − 1) is always less
than 1, Hence it is negative. So consider negative values of R.H.S ;
𝜆
From Eqn. (3.48): (cos𝜙𝑠 − 1) = −(2𝑠 + 1)
2𝑁𝑑
(2𝑠 + 1)𝜆
𝜙 = cos−1 [1 − ] -------- (3.50)
𝑠 2𝑁𝑑
 16

Beamwidth of major lobe

 Beamwidth is defined as angle between first null and maximum of major lobe (or) Beamwidth
is the angle equal to twice the angle between first null and the major lobe maximum.
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = 2 × 𝜙𝑛

𝑛𝜆
𝜙 = 2 sin−1 (±√ )
𝑛 2𝑁𝑑

𝜙𝑛 𝑛𝜆
sin = ±√
2 2𝑁𝑑

𝜙𝑛 𝑛𝜆
For small angles ; sin 𝜙𝑛 ≈ 𝜙𝑛 ≈ ±√
2 2𝑁𝑑

2𝑛𝜆
-------- (3.51)
𝜙𝑛 = ±√
𝑁𝑑
𝑁𝑑 indicates the total length of the array 𝐿
2𝑛𝜆
𝜙𝑛 = ±√
𝑁𝑑

2𝜆
For first null 𝑛 = 1 𝜙 𝑛 = ±√
𝐿
2𝜆
-------- (3.52)
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = 2 × 𝜙𝑛 = ±2√
𝐿
2
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = ±2√𝑟𝑎𝑑
(𝐿/𝜆)

2
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = 114.6°√𝑑𝑒𝑔 -------- (3.53)
(𝐿/𝜆)

𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 2
Half power beamwidth (HPBW) 𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = = ±√
𝑟𝑎𝑑2
(𝐿/𝜆)
2
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = 57.3°√𝑑𝑒𝑔 -------- (3.54)
(𝐿/𝜆)
Directivity
 Directivity can be expressed in terms of the total length of the array ;

𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4(𝐿/𝜆) -------- (3.55)

 17

Example: A end-fire array of identical antennas consists of isotropic radiators separated by a

distance 𝒅 = 𝝀/𝟐. Obtain positions of maxima and minima of the radiation pattern.

Solution:
𝝀
𝑁𝑑 =
Length of the array: 𝟐

Major lobe: 𝜙 𝑚 = 0° or 180°

Maxima of minor lobes (Secondary maxima):

𝜆 𝑠 = 1 ; ±75.5°
𝜙𝑠 = cos−1 [1 − (2𝑠 + 1) ] 𝑠 = 1,2,3, …
2𝑁𝑑
𝑠 = 2 ; ±104.5°

𝑠 = 3 ; ±138.6°

∴ These are the 6 minor lobe maxima of the array of 4 isotropic radiators fed spaced 𝝀/𝟐 apart.
5
No other maxima exist for 𝑠 ≥ 4 , because for 𝑠 = 4 , cos−1 (± ≫ )1 , whereas cosine value is
4
always << 1.
Nulls:
𝑛𝜆
𝜙 = cos−1 (1 − ) 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … 𝑛 = 1 ; ±60°
𝑛 𝑁𝑑 𝑛 = 2 ; ±90°
𝑛 = 3 ; ±120°
∴ ±60°, ±90°, ±120° are six minor lobe minima of the array of 4 isotropic radiators spaced 𝝀/𝟐
apart. No other minima (nulls) exist for which cosine functions becomes more than one.

HANSEN WOODYARD END-FIRE ARRAY

 In end-fire array, the maximum radiation can be obtained along the axis of the array , if the
progressive phase shift 𝛼 between the elements is given by ;

= ± 𝑘𝑑 ; 𝛼 = −𝑘𝑑 for maximum 𝜙 = 0° direction

𝛼 = 𝑘𝑑 for maximum 𝜙 = 180°direction

 It is found that the field produced in the direction 𝜙 = 0°is maximum, but the directivity is not
maximum. In many applications it is necessary to have the maximum possible directivity of
the linear array.
 18

 In 1938, Hansen and Woodyard proposed certain conditions for the end-fire case which are
helpful in enhancing the directivity without altering other characteistics of the end-fire array.
These conditions are known as Hansen –Woodyard conditions for end-fire radiation.
 According to Hansen –Woodyard conditions, the phase shift between closely spaced radiators
of a very long array should be ;

𝛼 = −(𝑘𝑑 + 2.94/𝑛) ≈ −(𝑘𝑑 + 𝜋/𝑛) for maximum 𝜙 = 0° direction

𝛼 = +(𝑘𝑑 + 2.94/𝑛) ≈ +(𝑘𝑑 + 𝜋/𝑛) for maximum 𝜙 = 180° direction

Directivity
 Directivity can be expressed in terms of the total length of the array ;

𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.789[4(𝐿/𝜆)] -------- (3.56)

Parameter : Broadside array End-fire array Hansen –Woodyard End-fire array

Directivity 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2(𝐿/𝜆) 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4(𝐿/𝜆) 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.789[4(𝐿/𝜆)]

Where ; 𝐿 = 𝑁𝑑

PRINCIPLE OF PATTERN MULTIPLICATION

 The field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar sources is the product of the pattern of
the individual sources and the pattern of isotropic point sources having the same locations,
relative amplitudes, and phase as the non-isotropic point sources. This is referred to as pattern
multiplication for arrays of identical elements.

Total field (𝐸) = {𝐸𝑖(𝜃, 𝜙) × 𝐸𝑎(𝜃, 𝜙)} × {𝐸𝑝𝑖(𝜃, 𝜙) + 𝐸𝑝𝑎(𝜃, 𝜙)} -------- (3.57)
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛

where ; 𝐸𝑖(𝜃, 𝜙) = Field pattern of individual source

𝐸𝑎(𝜃, 𝜙) = Field pattern of array of isotropic source
𝐸𝑝𝑖(𝜃, 𝜙) = Phase pattern of individual source
𝐸𝑝𝑎(𝜃, 𝜙) = Phase pattern of array of isotropic source

 RADIATION PATTERN OF 4-ISOTROPIC ELEMENTS FED IN PHASE & SPACED 𝝀/𝟐 APART
 Consider a 4-element array of antennas as shown in Fig. 3-8, in which the spacing between the
elements is 𝝀/𝟐 and the currents are in-phase (𝛼 = 0). The pattern can be obtained directly
by adding the four electric fields due to the 4 antennas. However the same radiation pattern
can be obtained by pattern multiplication in the following manner.
 19

Fig. 3-8 Linear array of 4 isotropic elements spaced 𝝀/𝟐 apart , fed in-phase
 Two isotropic point sources spaced 𝜆/2 apart fed in-phase provides a bidirectional pattern as
in Fig. 3-9 (b). Now the elements 1 and 2 are considered as one unit and this new unit is
considered to be placed between the midway of elements 1, 2 and similarly the elements 3,4
as shown in Fig. 3-9 (a).

Fig. 3-9
 4 elements spaced 𝜆/2 have been replaced by 2 units spaced 𝜆 and therefore the problem of
determining radiation of 4 elements has been reduced to find out the radiation pattern of 2
antennas spaced 𝜆 apart as in Fig. 3-9 (a).
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑜𝑓 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
{ }={ }×{ }
𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑓 4 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝜆
 20

Fig. 3-10 Resultant radiation pattern of 4 isotropic elements by pattern multiplication

 Here the width of the principal lobe is the same as the width of the corresponding lobe of the
group pattern. The number of secondary lobes can be determined from the nulls in the
resultant pattern, which is sum of the nulls in the unit and group patterns.

CONCEPT OF PHASED ARRAYS, ADAPTIVE ARRAY

 In case of the broadside array and the end fire array, the maximum radiation can be obtained
by adjusting the phase excitation beween elements in the direction normal and along the axis
of array respectively.
 That means in other words elements of antenna array can be phased in particular way. So we
can obtain an array which gives maximum raidation in any direction by controlling phase
excitation in each element. Such an array is commonly called phased array.
 The array in which the phase and the amplitude of most of the elements is variable, provided
that the direction of maximum radiation (beam direction) and pattern shape along with the
side lobes is controlled, is called as phased array.
 Suppose the array gives maximum radiation in direction 𝜙 = 𝜙0 where 0 ≤ 𝜙0 ≤ 180°, then
the phase shift that must be controlled can be obtained as follows.

𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜙 + 𝛼|𝜙=𝜙0 = 0 -------- (3.58)

 Thus from Eqn. (3.58), it is clear that the maximum radiation can be achieved in any direction
if the progressive phase difference between the elements is controlled. The electronic phased
array operates on the same principle.
 Consider a three element array as shown in the Fig. 3-11. The element of array is considered
as 𝜆/2 dipole. All the cables used are of same length. All the three cables are brought together
at common feed point. Here mechanical switches are used. Such switch is installed one at each
antenna and one at a common feed point.
 All the switches are ganged together. Thus by operating switch, the beam can be shifted to any
phase shift.
 To make operation reliable and simple, the ganged mechanical switch is replaced by PIN
dipole which acts as electronic switch. But for precision in results, the number of cables
should be minimised.
 21

Fig. 3-11 Phased array with mechanical switches at elements and feed point

 To make operation reliable and simple, the ganged mechanical switch is replaced by PIN
dipole which acts as electronic switch. But for precision in results, the number of cables
should be minimised.
 In many applications phase shifter is used instead of controlling phase by switching cables. It
can be achieved by using ferrite device. The conducting wires are wrapped around the phase
shifter. The current flowing through these wires controls the magnetic field within ferrite and
then the magnetic field in the ferrite controls the phase shift.
 The phased array for specialized functional utility are recognized by different names such as
frequency scanning array, retroarray and adoptive array.
 The array in which the phase change is controlled by varying the frequency is called
frequency scanning array. This is found to be the simplest phased array as at each element
separate phase control is not necessary. A simple transmission line fed frequency scanning
array as shown in the Fig. 3-12.

Fig. 3-12 Frequency scanning line fed phased array.

 Each element of the scanning array is fed by a transmission line via directional coupler. Note
that the directional couplers are fixed in position, while the beam scanning is done with a
 22

frequency change. To avoid reflections and to obtain pure form of the travelling wave, the
transmission line is properly terminated of the load.
 The main advantage of the frequency scaning array is that there are no moving parts and no
switches and phase shifters are required.
 The array which automatically reflects an incoming signal back to the source is called
retroarray. It acts as a retroreflector similar to the passive square corner reflector. That
means the wave incident on the array is received and transmitted back in the same direction.
 In other words, each element of the retroarray reradiates signal which is actually the
conjugate of the received one. Simplest form of the retroarray is the Van Atta array as X
shown in the Fig. 3-13 in which 8 identical dipole elements are used, with pairs formed
between elements l and 8, 2 and 7, 3 and 6, 4 and 5 using cables of equal length. If the wave
arrives at angle say , then it gets transmitted in the same direction.

Fig. 3.15 Van Atta retorarray

 An array which automatically turn the maximum beam in the desired direction while turn the
null in the undesired direction is called adoptive array. The adpotive array adjust itself in the
desired direction with awareness of its enviomment.
 In modem adoptive arrays, the output of each element in the array is sampled, digitized and
then processed using computers. Such arrays are commonly called smart antennas.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ANTENNA SYNTHESIS - (BINOMIAL ARRAY)

 In case of uniform linear array, to increase the directivity, the array length has to be
increased. But when the array length increases, the secondary or side lobes appear in the
pattern. In some of the special applications, it is desired to have single main lobe with no
minor lobes.
 That means the minor lobes should be eliminated completely or reduced to minimum level as
compared to main lobe. To achieve such pattern, the array is arranged in such away that the
broad side array radiate more strongly at the centre than that from edges.
 To reduce the side lobe level, John Stone proposed that sources have amplitudes proportional
to the coefficients of a binomial series of the form ;
 23

-------- (3.59)

where 𝑚 is the number of radiating sources in the array.

Binomial array is an array whose elements are excited according to the current levels
determined by the binomial coefficient.
 The positive cooefficients of the series expansion for different values of 𝑚 are ;

-------- (3.60)
 The above represents Pascal’s triangle. If the values of 𝑚 are used to represent the number of
elements of the array, then the coefficients of the expansion represent the relative amplitudes
of the elements. Since the coefficients are determined from a binomial series expansion, the
array is known as binomial array.

Nonuniform amplitude arrays of even and odd number of elements:

 Assuming that the amplitude excitation is symmetrical about the origin, the array factor for a
nonuniform amplitude array can be written as ;

-------- (3.61)

where 𝑎𝑛’s are the excitation coefficients of the array elements.

 From Eqn’s (3.60) and (3.61) , the amplitude coefficients for the following arrays are:
 24

 Binomial array’s do not exhibit any minor lobes provided the spacing between the elements is
equal or less than one-half of a wavelength.
 The design using a 𝜆/2 spacing leads to a pattern with no minor lobes, the half-power
beamwidth and maximum directivity for 𝑑 = 𝜆/2 spacing in terms of the numbers of
elements or the length of the array are given by ;
0.75
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 (𝑑 = 𝜆/2) ≈ -------- (3.62)
√𝐿/𝜆
𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.77√1 + 2𝐿/𝜆 -------- (3.63)

 The advantages of binomial array is that there are no side lobes in the resultant pattern. The
disadvantages are i. Beam width of the main lobe is large which is undesirable ii. Directivity
is small and high excitation levels are required for the center elements of large arrays.
Yagi Arrays:
Yagi Uda Antenna:
Yagi-Uda arrays or Yagi-Uda antennas are high gain antennas. The antenna was first invented by a
Japanese Prof. S. Uda in early 1940's and described in English by Prof. H. Yagi. Hence the antenna
name Yagi-Uda antenna was given after Prof. S. Uda and Prof. H. Yagi. A basic Yagi-Uda
antenna consists a driven element, one reflector and one or more directors. Basically it is an array of one
driven element and one of more parasitic elements. The driven element is a folded dipole made of a
metallic rod which is excited.
A Yagi-Uda antenna uses both the reflector (𝑅) and the director (𝐷) elements in same antenna.The
element at the back side of the driven element is the reflector. It is of the larger length compared with
remaining elements. The element in front of the driven element is the director which is of lowest length.
Directors and reflector are called parasitic elements. All the elements are placed parallel and close to
each other as shown in Fig. 1. The length of the folded dipole is about 𝜆/2 and it is at resonance. Length
of the director is less than 𝜆/2 and length of the reflector is greater than 𝜆/2.
The parasitic element receive excitation through the induced e.m.f. as current flows in the driven
element.The phase and amplitude of the currents through the parasitic elements mainly depends on the
length of the elements and spacing between the elements. To vary reactance of any element, the
dimensions of the elements are readjusted. Generally the spacing between the driven and the parasitic
elements is kept nearly 0.1 𝜆 to 0.15 𝜆.
 25

Working of Yagi Antenna:

The parasitic element is used either to direct or to reflect, the radiated energy forming compact
directional antenna. If the parasitic element is greater than length 𝜆/2, (i.e. reflector) then it is inductive
in nature. Hence the phase of the current in such element lags the induced voltage.If the parasitic element
is less than resonant length 𝜆/2 (i.e. director), then it is capacitive in nature.
Hence the current in director leads the induced voltage.The directors adds the fields of the driven
element in the direction away from the driven element. If more than one directors are used, then each
director will excite the next.To increase the gain of the Yagi-Uda antenna, the number of directors is
increased in the beam direction.
To get good excitation, the elements are closely spaced.The driven element radiates from front to rear
(i.e., from reflector to director). Part of this radiation induces currents in the parasitic elements which
reradiate almost all radiations. With the proper lengths of the parasitic elements and the spacing between
the elements, the backward radiation is cancelled and the radiated energy is added in front.

Yagi Antenna Radiation Pattern:

 26

Applications of Yagi Antenna:

 Yagi-Uda array is the most popular antenna for the reception of terrestrial television signals in
the VHF band (30 MHz-300 MHz).

 The array for this application is constructed using aluminium pipes.

 The driven element is usually a folded dipole, which gives four times the impedance of a
standard dipole.

 Thus, a two-wire balanced transmission line having a characteristic impedance of 300 𝛺 can be
directlyconnected to the input terminals of the Yagi-Uda array.

 Yagi-Uda arrays have been used in the HF, VHF, UHF, and microwave frequency bands.
Post – MCQ:
1. The antenna array is defined as the system of similar antennas directed to get required -
----------------- in the desired direction.
(a) High gain
(b) High directivity
(c) High bandwidth
(d) All of the above
Answer - d

2. Find the odd element out –

(a) Broadside array
(b) End fire array
(c) Co-linear array
(d) Yagi array
Answer - d

3. The Broadside array is defined as an array having maximum radiation-------------------- the

axis array
a) Perpendicular to
b) Along
c) Parallel
d) None of the above
Answer - a

4. The collinear array is also called as –

(a) Broadcast array
(b) Broad fire array
(c) Omni directional array
(d) All of the above
Answer - a

5. The End fire array is defined as an array having maximum radiation-------------------- the
axis array
a) Perpendicular to
b) Along
c) Parallel
d) None of the above
Answer - b
 6. An array is said to be uniform array if the array elements are fed with –
(a) Equal amplitudes and any phase shift
(b) Equal amplitudes and uniform progressive phase shift
(c) Unequal amplitudes and any phase shift
(d) None of the above
Answer - b

7. In a broadside array, the direction of maximum radiations indicated by –

(a) 0 and 180 degrees
(b) 90 and 270 degrees
(c) 90 and 180 degrees
(d) None of the above
Answer -b

8. In a End fire array, the direction of minimum radiations indicated by –

(a) 0 and 180 degrees
(b) 90 and 270 degrees
(c) 90 and 180 degrees
(d) None of the above
Answer - b

9. The relation between directivity and the array factor length is given by –
(a) D = 2 (L/ƛ)
(b) D = 3(L/ƛ)
(c) D = 4(l/ƛ)
(d) None of the above
Answer - c

10. In a phase array, the maximum radiation in any direction can be obtained by controlling
------------------ excitation in each element.
(a) Angle
(b) Phase
(c) Amplitude
(d) None of the above
Answer - b

11. The Adaptive array is an array which turns the --------------beam in the desired direction
and ----------in the undesired direction.
(a) Minimum and maximum
(b) Maximum and zero
(c) Maximum and minimum
(d) None of the above
Answer - b

12. The frequency scanning array is an array in which phase change can be controlled by
Varying the –

(a) Phase
(b) Frequency
(c) amplitude
(d) Any of the above
Answer -b

13. The array in which the incoming signal received and sent back in the same direction is
called as-
(a) End fire array
(b) Frequency scanning array
(c) Van Atta array
(d) None of the above
Answer - c

14. Binomial array is an array whose elements are excited according to the current
levels determined by the –
(a) binomial coefficients
(b) binary coefficients
(c) integer coefficients
(d) All of the above
Answer - a

15. The important characteristic of a binomial array is –

(a) Small beam width
(b) High directivity
(c) No side lobes
(d) All of the above
Answer - c
Conclusion:
At the end of the topic, students will be able –

1) To understand the basic concept of Antenna Arrays and their radiation

characteristics.

2) To understand the principle of types of Antenna arrays

3) To get exposure to different types like Broadside array and End fire arrays etc

4) To know the applications of Antenna arrays – example Yagi uda array

References:
1. John D Kraus,” Antennas for all Applications”, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2010.

2. R.E. Collin,” Antennas and Radio wave Propagation”, McGraw Hill 1985.

3. Constantine.A. Balanis “Antenna Theory Analysis and Design”, Wiley Student Edition, 4 th
Edition 2016.

4. Rajeswari Chatterjee, “Antenna Theory and Practice” Revised Second Edition New Age
International Publishers, 2006.

Assignments:
1. Explain the working principle of Broadside antenna array and derive an expression for
the resultant electric field.

2. Explain the working principle of End fire antenna array and derive an expression for the
resultant electric field

3. Derive an expression for electric field intensity of an array of N - isotropic sources of (i)
Equal amplitude and same phase (ii) Equal amplitude and opposite phase.

4. Write a short note on antenna arrays.

5. Differentiate between BSA and EFA.

 Subject Name: Antennas & Propagation

Topic Name: Aperture and Slot Antennas

(Unit – 3)

Syllabus / Aperture and Slot Antennas

1. Aperture Antennas - Horn antenna, Reflector antenna, Aperture blockage

2. Feeding structures, Slot antennas, Micro strip antennas, Radiation mechanism –

Application

3. Numerical tool for antenna analysis

Aim and Objective:

• To give insight of basic Knowledge of Aperture Antennas

• To give thorough understanding of the radiation characteristics of Aperture antennas

Horn antenna, Reflector antenna, Slot antenna, Micro strip antenna.

• To impart knowledge about different feeding structure Aperture antennas and

applications.
Pre – Test MCQ:
1. The array factor is defined as factor by which array increases the field strength over
that of –
(a) Multiple elements radiating the same power
(b) Single element radiating the same power
(c) Half of elements radiating the same power
(d) None of the above
Ans: b

2. An antenna array is said to be linear if all the array elements are –

(a) Equally spaced in a straight line
(b) Perpendicular to each other in a straight line
(c) Unequally spaced in a straight line
(d) None of the above
Ans: a

3. The principle of pattern multiplication states that multiplication of –

(a) individual source patterns and isotropic source patterns
(b) isotropic source patterns and individual source patterns
(c) individual source patterns and identical source patterns
(d) None of the above
Ans: a

4. The pattern multiplication is a method to sketch the radiation pattern of an array –

(a) By calculating total electric field strength of the array
(b) By inspection
(c) By combining (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
Ans:b

5. The uniform amplitude distribution is a process by which sources are –

(a) equal in amplitude and in phase
(b) equal in amplitude and out of phase
(c) unequal in amplitude and any phase
(d) None of the above
Ans:a
 6. The gain of an antenna array is the ability of the antenna to –
(a) Concentrate the radiated power in a given direction
(b) Absorb the incident power in a given direction
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
Ans:c

7. The array in which the antenna elements are arranged end to end along a straight
line in a co-axial manner is called as-
(a) Broadside array
(b) End fire array
(c) Co-linear array
(d) None of the above
Ans: c
8. In a parasitic array, the parasitic element gets the power from the driven element by
means of –
(a) Electric coupling
(b) Magnetic coupling
(c) Electro-magnetic coupling
(d) None of the above
Ans: c

9. The tuning of an array is a process by which the relative phases of the currents are
changed by adjusting the –
(a) spacing between array elements
(b) length of the elements
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
Ans: a

10. In an antenna array, the total electric field strength can be obtained by –
(a) Adding the individual fields mathematically
(b) Adding the individual fields vectorically
(c) Adding the individual fields logically
(d) None of the above
Ans: b

Pre-requisite

• Basic knowledge of Electromagnetic Fields and Wave guides.

• Basic Knowledge of Antenna Arrays and Antenna parameters

 1

UNIT III: APERTURE AND SLOT ANTENNAS

Radiation from rectangular apertures, Uniform and Tapered aperture, Horn antenna,
Reflector antenna , Aperture blockage , Feeding structures , Slot antennas,
Microstrip antennas – Radiation mechanism – Application , Numerical tool for antenna
analysis

APERTURE ANTENNAS:
• Aperture antennas are most common at microwave frequencies. In general aperture means
opening. In concern with antenna, an aperture means opening in a closed surface.
• There are many different geometrical configurations of an aperture antenna with some of the
most popular shown in Fig. 2-1. They may take the form of a waveguide or a horn whose
aperture may be square, rectangular, circular, elliptical, or any other configuration.

Fig. 2-1 Aperture antenna configurations

• Aperture antennas are very practical for space applications, because they can be flush
mounted on the surface of the spacecraft or aircraft. Their opening can be covered with a
dielectric material to protect them from environmental conditions. This type of mounting
does not disturb the aerodynamic profile of the craft, which in high-speed applications is
critical.
• The radiation characteristics of wire antennas can be determined once the current
distribution on the wire is known. For many configurations, however the current distribution
is not known exactly and only physical experimental measurements can provide a reasonable
approximation to it. This is even more evident in aperture antennas. (Eg., slits, slots,
waveguides, horns, reflectors, lenses).
• The idea used in the analysis of aperture type antennas is the conversion of the original
antenna geometry into an equivalent geometry which can be looked at as radiation through
an aperture in a closed surface. This equivalence is obtained by the principle known as field
equivalence principle.
• Along with this principle, the duality, uniqueness theorem and image principles are also
useful in the aperture type antenna analysis.

MAGNETIC CURRENT AND ITS FIELDS

• In wire antennas, the fields produced by the electric current distribution is computed via
vector potential approach. The vector potential, 𝑨, is the magnetic-type vector potential
because the 𝑯 field is directly related to the curl of 𝑨. If the sources are radiating in free
space , then ;
 2

𝜇 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑅
𝑨(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ∭ 𝑱(𝑥′, 𝑦 ′, 𝑧 ′) 𝑑𝑣′ -------- (2.1)
4𝜋 𝑅
𝑉′
𝑗
𝑬 = −𝑗𝜔𝑨 − ∇𝑉 = −𝑗𝜔𝑨 − ∇(∇. 𝑨) -------- (2.2)
𝜔𝜇𝜖
1
𝑯= (∇ × 𝑨) -------- (2.3)
𝜇
• In the analysis of aperture antennas using the field equivalence principle, the concept of
magnetic current density 𝑴, is used.
• Let us assume that the flow of magnetic charges is the magnetic current which is similar to
the concept that the flow of electric charges is the electric current.

• Similar to electric charge density 𝜌, magnetic charge density 𝜌 , is used. With the introduction
of magnetic charge density, Maxwell’s Equations become ;

∇ × 𝑯 = 𝑱 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖𝑬 -------- (2.4)

∇ × 𝑬 = −𝑴 − 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝑯 -------- (2.5)
∇. 𝑫 = 𝜌 -------- (2.6)
∇. 𝑩 = 𝜌𝑚 -------- (2.7)
∇. 𝑱 = −𝑗𝜔𝜌 -------- (2.8)
∇. 𝑴 = −𝑗𝜔𝜌𝑚 -------- (2.9)

• The magnetic charges postulated above do not exist in nature, but they are a useful
mathematical construct to simplify the computation of fields. In the above equations if
𝜌𝑚 and 𝑴 are set to zero, we get back the equations in standard form.
• Let us define the 𝑬 field as the curl of an electric vector potential , similar to 𝑨.
1
𝑬 = − (∇ × 𝑭)
𝜖
• The expression for 𝑭 in terms of the magnetic current density, 𝑴, in free space ;
𝜖 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑅
𝑭= ∭ 𝑴(𝑥′, 𝑦′ , 𝑧 ′) 𝑑𝑣′ -------- (2.10)
4𝜋 𝑅
𝑉′

• The 𝑬 and 𝑯 fields are related to 𝑨, is related to the vector potential, 𝑭 ;

1
𝑬 = − (∇ × 𝑭) -------- (2.11)
𝜖
𝑗
𝑯 = −𝑗𝜔𝑭 − ∇(∇. 𝑭) -------- (2.12)
𝜔𝜇𝜖

• Thus, when both 𝑱 and 𝑴 are present, the fields are obtained by adding Eqns. (2.2)
and (2.11) for the 𝑬 field and Eqns. (2.3) and (2.12) for the 𝑯 field ;
1 𝑗
𝑬 = − (∇ × 𝑭) − 𝑗𝜔𝑨 − ∇(∇. 𝑨) -------- (2.13)
𝜖 𝜔𝜇𝜖
1 𝑗
𝑯 = (∇ × 𝑨) − 𝑗𝜔𝑭 − ∇(∇. 𝑭) -------- (2.14)
𝜇 𝜔𝜇𝜖
 3

UNIQUENESS THEOREM
• The uniqueness theorem states that for a given set of sources and the boundary conditions in
a lossy medium, there exists a unique solution to the Maxwell's equations.
• Suppose in a isotropic, homogeneous medium, a source-free volume 𝑉 is bounded by a
surface , and if (𝑬𝟏, 𝑯𝟏) are the fields inside the volume 𝑉 produced by external sources and
if (𝑬𝟐, 𝑯𝟐) is another set of fields in the volume 𝑉 produced by same external sources, then it
can be proved that the fields are identical everywhere in the volume 𝑉 , if either the
tangential component of 𝑬 field or tangential component of 𝑯 field is same on the surface 𝑆.
• The solution to the Maxwell's equations to be unique, only the tangential component of 𝑬
field or tangential component of 𝑯 field is to be equated on the surface 𝑆.
• So, in a source free region, the fields are completely determined by the tangential component
of 𝑬 field or tangential component of 𝑯 field on the surface 𝑆.

FIELD EQUIVALENCE PRINCIPLE

 Huygen’s Principle:
• The field equivalence was introduced in 1926 by S. A. Schelkunoff and it is a more rigorous
formulation of Huygens’ principle which states that “each point on a primary wavefront can
be considered to be a new source of a secondary spherical wave and that a secondary wavefront
can be constructed as the envelope of these secondary spherical waves.”

• The field equivqlence principle is a principle by which actual sources, such as antenna and
transmitter, are replaced by equivalent sources. The fictitious sources are said to be equivalent
within a region because they produce the same fields within that region.
• By the equivalence principle, the fields outside an imaginary closed surface are obtained by
placing over the closed surface suitable electric and magnetic-current densities which satisfy
the boundary conditions. The current densities are selected so that the fields inside the
closed surface are zero and outside they are equal to the radiation produced by the actual
sources.
• The equivalence principle is developed by considering an actual radiating source, which
electrically is represented by current densities 𝑱𝟏 and 𝑴𝟏, as shown in Fig. 2-2(a). The source
radiates fields 𝑬𝟏and 𝑯𝟏everywhere.
• However, it is desired to develop a method that will yield the fields outside a closed surface.
To accomplish this, a closed surface 𝑆 is chosen, shown dashed in Fig. 2-2 (a), which encloses
the current densities 𝑱𝟏 and 𝑴𝟏. The volume within 𝑆 is denoted by 𝑉1 and outside 𝑆 by 𝑉2.
• The primary task will be to replace the original problem, shown in Fig. 2-2(a), by an
equivalent one which yields the same fields 𝑬𝟏and 𝑯𝟏 outside 𝑆 (within 𝑉2).
• An equivalent problem of Fig. 2-2 (a), is shown in Fig. 2-2 (b). The original sources 𝑱𝟏 and 𝑴𝟏
are removed, and we assume that there exist fields 𝑬 and 𝑯 inside 𝑆 and fields 𝑬𝟏and 𝑯𝟏
outside of 𝑆. For these fields to exist within and outside S, they must satisfy the boundary
conditions on the tangential electric and magnetic field components. Thus on the imaginary
surface 𝑆 there must exist the equivalent sources and they radiate into an unbounded space
(same medium everywhere).
 4

𝑱𝒔 = 𝒏̂× [𝑯𝟏 − 𝑯] -------- (2.15)

𝑴𝒔 = −𝒏̂× [𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬] -------- (2.16)

• The current densities of Eqn. (2.15) and (2.16) are said to be equivalent only within 𝑉2,
because they produce the original fields (𝑬𝟏, 𝑯𝟏) only outside 𝑆. Fields 𝑬, 𝑯 different from
the originals (𝑬𝟏, 𝑯𝟏), result within 𝑉1.

Fig. 2-2. Actual and equivalent models.

• From electromagnetic uniqueness concepts, it is known that the tangential components of

only 𝑬 or 𝑯 are needed to determine the fields. Since the fields 𝑬, 𝑯 within 𝑆 can be anything,
it canbe assumed that they are zero.
• In that case the equivalent problem of Fig. 2-2 (b) reduces to that of Fig. 2-2 (a) with the
equivalent current densities being equal to ;
𝑱𝒔 = 𝒏̂× [𝑯𝟏 − 𝑯]|𝑯=𝟎 = 𝒏̂× 𝑯𝟏 -------- (2.17)
𝑴𝒔 = −𝒏̂× [𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬]|𝑬=𝟎 = −𝒏̂× 𝑬𝟏 -------- (2.18)
• This form of the field equivalence principle is known as Love’s Equivalence Principle.

Fig. 2-2 Equivalence principle models

• Love’s Equivalence Principle of Fig. 2-3 (a) produces a null field within the imaginary
surface 𝑆. Since the value of the 𝑬 = 𝑯 = 𝟎 within 𝑆 cannot be disturbed if the properties of
the medium within it are changed, let us assume that it is replaced by a perfect electric
conductor (𝜎 = ∞) .
• The introduction of the perfect conductor will have an effect on the equivalent source 𝑱𝒔. As
the electric conductor takes its place, as shown in Fig. 2-3 (b), the electric current density 𝑱𝒔,
which is tangent to the surface 𝑆, is short-circuited by the electric conductor. Thus the
equivalent problem of Fig. 2-3 (a) reduces to that of Fig. 2-3 (b). There exists only a
 5

magnetic current density 𝑴𝒔 over 𝑆, and it radiates in the presence of the electric conductor
producing outside 𝑆 the original fields 𝑬𝟏, 𝑯𝟏.
• Let us assume that instead of placing a perfect electrical conductor within 𝑆 we introduce a
perfect magnetic conductor which will short out the magnetic current density and reduce
the equivalent problem to that shown in Fig. 2-3 (c).

Summary:
The steps that must be used to form an equivalent and solve an aperture problem are as follows:
• Select an imaginary surface that encloses the actual sources (the aperture). The surface must
be chosen so that the tangential components of the electric and/or the magnetic field are
known, exactly or approximately, over its entire span. In many cases this surface is a flat
plane extending to infinity.
• Over the imaginary surface form equivalent current densities 𝑱𝒔, 𝑴𝒔 which take one of the
following forms:
a. 𝑱𝒔 and 𝑴𝒔 over 𝑆 assuming that the 𝑬 and 𝑯 fields within 𝑆 are not zero.
b. or 𝑱𝒔 and 𝑴𝒔 over 𝑆 assuming that the 𝑬 and 𝑯 fields within 𝑆 are zero (Love’s
theorem)
c. or 𝑴𝒔 over 𝑆 (𝑱𝒔 = 0) assuming that within 𝑆 the medium is a perfect electric
conductor
d. or 𝑱𝒔 over S (𝑴𝒔 = 0) assuming that within 𝑆 the medium is a perfect magnetic
conductor.
• Solve the equivalent problem and then compute the field components.

Example:
A waveguide aperture is mounted on an infinite ground plane, as shown in Fig. 2-4 (a).
Assuming that the tangential components of the electric field over the aperture are
known, and are given by 𝑬𝒂, find an equivalent problem that will yield the same fields 𝑬,
𝑯 radiated by the aperture to the right side of the interface.

Solution:
First an imaginary closed surface is chosen. For this problem it is appropriate to select a
flat plane extending from minus infinity to plus infinity, as shown in Fig. 2-4 (b). Over the
infinite plane, the equivalent current densities 𝑱𝒔 and 𝑴𝒔 are formed. Since the tangential
components of 𝑬 do not exist outside the aperture, because of vanishing boundary
conditions, the magnetic current density 𝑴𝒔 is only non-zero over the aperture. The
electric current density 𝑱𝒔 is non-zero everywhere and is yet unknown. Now let us
assume that an imaginary flat electric conductor approaches the surface 𝑆, and it shorts
out the current density 𝑱𝒔everywhere. 𝑴𝒔 exists only over the space occupied originally
by the aperture, and it radiates in the presence of the conductor [Fig. 2-4 (c)]. By image
theory, the conductor can be removed and replaced by an imaginary (equivalent) source
𝑴𝒔 as shown in Fig. 2-4 (d), which is analogous to Fig. 2-4(b). Finally, the equivalent
problem of Fig 2-4 (d) reduces to that of Fig. 2-4(e), which is analogous to that of
Fig. 2-4 (c).
 6

Fig. 2-4 Equivalent models for waveguide aperture mounted on an

infinite flat electric ground plane.

RADIATION FRPM APERTURE FIELDS

• The general coordinate system for aperture antenna analysis is shown in Fig. 2-5. The
radiating fields are determined by first finding the vector potentials 𝑨 and , from the surface
current densities 𝑱𝒔 and 𝑴𝒔 respectively.

Fig. 2-5 Coordinate system for aperture antenna analysis.

 7

• For far-field approximation:

-------- (2.19)
-------- (2.20)

• The auxiliary potential functions 𝑨 and 𝑭 generated by the current densities 𝑱𝒔 and 𝑴𝒔 is
given by ;

-------- (2.21)

-------- (2.22)

-------- (2.23)

-------- (2.24)

• In the far-field only the 𝜃 and 𝜙 components of the 𝑬 and 𝑯 fields are dominant.

-------- (2.25)

-------- (2.26)

• Combining Eqn’s. (2.25) to (2.26), yields :

-------- (2.27)
 8

where ;

-------- (2.28)

RADIATION FROM RECTANGULAR APERTURES,

A. Uniform Aperture:
• Consider that a rectangular aperture is mounted on an infinite ground plane (Fig. 2-6)
assuming field over the opening to be constant and is given by :

-------- (2.28)

Fig. 2-6 Rectangular aperture on an infinite electric ground plane.

• To obtain equivalent of this situation, assuming a closed surface extending from −∞ to ∞ on
the 𝑥𝑦 plane. Then we can write:

-------- (2.29)

• The far-zone fields radiated by the aperture of Fig. 2-6 can be found by using Eqn. (2.27),
(2.28) and (2.9). Thus,

-------- (2.30)
 9

-------- (2.31)

• Eqn. (2.31) reduces to ;

-------- (2.32)

• Similarly ;

-------- (2.33)

• From the above Eqn’s. the fields radiated by the aperture can be written as

-------- (2.34)
 10

B. Tapered Aperture:
• One practical aperture of tapered source distribution is the open rectangular waveguide. The
dominant 𝑻𝑬𝟏𝟎 mode has the following distribution:

-------- (2.35)

Fig. 2-7 𝑻𝑬𝟏𝟎 -Mode Distribution Aperture on Ground Plane.

• To obtain equivalent of this situation, assuming a closed surface extending from −∞ to ∞ on

the 𝑥𝑦 plane. Then we can write:

-------- (2.36)

• Similarly the fields are computed as ;

-------- (2.37)
 11

SLOT ANTENNA
• Slot antenna is a radiating element formed by a slot in a metallic surface. An opening cut in a
conducting sheet or in one of the walls of the waveguide acts as the antenna. It is excited
suitably either by a co-axial cable or through the waveguide. Slot antenna is the best suitable
radiator at frequencies above 200 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
• Consider an infinite conducting sheet as in Fig. 2-8 (a). Now consider that an aperture of any
size or shape is made leaving a slot on a sheet. The flat strip obtained can be treated as short
dipole as shown in Fig. 2-8 (b).

Fig. 2-8 Metallic conducting sheet and complementary flat strip

• When the two are combined together we get the complete original infinite conducting sheet.
Hence the infinite conducting sheet with slot and the flat strip of the dimension same as of
the slot are said to be complementary.
• Now consider that a slot of 𝜆/2 is cut in a large conducting sheet, we get complementary
dipole antenna. In general, the slot antenna is fed by either a generator (or) transmission line
connected across it.
• Principle: Whenever a high frequency field exists across a very narrow slot in an infinite
conducting sheet, the energy is radiated through slot. This is the working principle of the slot
antenna.
• In case of the waveguides, the slot antenna is fed with the guided waves incident on slot.
Consider that the slot antenna is fed with a transmission line connected across points 𝐴 & 𝐵
as in Fig. 2-9 (a).
• As the antenna is fed with a transmission line, the slot will radiate due to the currents in the
conducting sheet. The complementary of the slot antenna is the dipole as shown in
Fig. 2-9 (b).
• For the complementary dipole antenna, the regions with conducting sheet and air are
interchanged. According to the G. Booker’s theory, the field pattern of the slot is exactly
identical in shape as that of the half dipole with 𝑬 and 𝑯 interchanged. That means for the
slot, the electric field 𝑬 will be horizontally polarized, while for the dipole, it is vertically
polarized.
• A single half wavelength slot in a conducting sheet is analogous to the half wave dipole in
terms of gain and directivity with only difference in the polarization. The horizontal slot
 12

produces vertical polarization in the direction normal to the slot, while the vertical slot
produces horizontal polarization.

Fig. 2-9 Slot and complementary dipole antenna.

• Although the width of the slot is small (𝜔 ≪ 𝜆), the currents are not confined to the edges of
the slot but spread out over the sheet.
• The terminal impedance 𝑍𝑠 of the slot is related to the terminal impedance of dipole 𝑍𝑑 by
intrinsic impedance 𝜂 of free space by the relation,
𝜂2 (277)2
𝑍𝑠𝑍𝑑 = = -------- (2.38)
4 4
25,476
𝑍𝑠 ≃ -------- (2.39)
𝑍𝑑

• Suppose that the terminal impedance of dipole antenna is 𝑍𝑑 = 72 + 𝑗 42.5 Ω , then the
terminal impedance of the complementary slot will be,

25476 25476 × (72 − 𝑗 42.5)

𝑍𝑠 = =
72 + 𝑗 42.5 (72 + 𝑗 42.5) (72 − 𝑗 42.5)

𝑍𝑠 ≈ 262 − 𝑗 211 Ω -------- (2.40)

• The differences between the slot antenna and its complementary dipole antenna are,
▪ Polarization is different in both the antennas. That means if the polarization is
horizontal in slot antenna, then it is vertical in the complementary antenna.
▪ The radiations from the backside of the slot antenna and the complementary antenna
are of opposite polarity.
 13

 Method of Feeding Slot Antennas:

• Practically the slot antenna is fed with a co-axial transmission line. The outer conductor is
bonded to the metal sheet as shown in Fig. 2-10 (a). In general, the terminal impedance of
λ/2.
• Slot in a conducting large sheet is very large (approximately 500 Ω), while the characteristic
impedance of the transmission line is much smaller. Thus under such conditions, to provide
proper impedance matching, the off-center feed as shown in Fig. 2-10 (b) is used.

Fig. 2-10 Feeding of slot antenna using co-axial cable.

• In practical applications, generally a slot antenna fed with a transmission line is not
observed. Instead of that the slot is boxed in any one of the sides of the metallic cavity so that
by properly selecting dimensions of the cavity, the outward radiation from the opening of the
cavity is not affected, while the backward radiation is virtually eliminated.
• For the applications at very high frequencies, a slot antenna with a slot cut in a conducting
cylinder is most widely used. A longitudinal slot in infinitely long cylinder as shown in
Fig. 2-11 (a), produces circular radiation that diameter of the cylinder is very small.
• The gain and directivity properties of a basic slot antenna can be improved by using array of
slots placed half guide wavelength apart and placed on opposite side of central line as shown
in Fig. 2-11 (b). Actually are the slots radiates in same phase, but there is a reversal of
polarity of the field inside the guide. This is compensated by placing slots alternately on
opposite sides of the central line.

Fig. 2-11 a) Cylindrical slot antenna b) Planar array slot antenna

c) Annular slot antenna
 14

• The shape of the slot may be either rectangular or circular. The slot with circular or annular
shape is called annular slot antenna. The annular slot antenna is shown in 2-11 (c). When the
diameter of the annular slot is less than half wavelength the resulting radiations are identical
to those produced by short, vertical antenna.

• Boxed In Slot Antenna: A flat sheet with a 𝜆/2 slot radiates equally on both sides of the
sheet. However, if the sheet is very large (ideally infinite) and boxed in as in Fig. 2-12,
radiation occurs only from one side. The depth d of the box is approximate (𝑑 ∼ 𝜆/4 ) for a
thin slot.

Fig. 2-12 Boxed-in slot antenna

 Babinet’s Principle:
• Babinet’s principle states that when the field behind a screen with an opening is added to the
field of a complementary structure, the sum is equal to the field when there is no screen.

.
Fig. 2-13 Illustartion of Babinet’s principle.

• Consider case 1 where a perfectly absorbing screen is placed in plane A which has a region of
shadow in the observation plane B as shown in Fig. 2-13 (a).
• Let the field behind the screen be some function 𝑓1 of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 is given by 𝐹𝑠= 𝑓1(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).
 15

• Now case 2 where the first screen is replaced by its complementary screen as shown in
Fig. 2-13 (b).
• Let the field behind complementary screen is given by 𝐹𝑐𝑠 = 𝑓2(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).
• Finally in case 2, no screen is present and the field is given by 𝐹0 = 𝑓2(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).
• Now according to Babinet’s principle, at same point, the toatal field is given as 𝐹0 = 𝐹𝑠+ 𝐹𝑐𝑠.

HORN ANTENNA
• One of the simplest and probably the most widely used microwave antenna is the horn. The
horn is widely used as a feed element for large radio astronomy, communication dishes and
satellite tracking through out the world.
• The horn antenna can be considered as a a waveguide with hollow pipe of different cross-
sections which is flared or tapered into a large opening. When one end of the waveguide is
excited while other end is kept open, it radiates in open space in all directions.
• As compared with the radiation through transmission line, the radiation through the
waveguide is larger. In waveguide, a small portion of the incident wave is radiated and large
portion is reflected back due to the open circuit.
• As one end of the waveguide is open circuited, the impedance matching with the free space is
not perfect. To minimize reflections of the guided wave , the mouth of the waveguide is flared
or opened out such that it assumes shape like horn.
• A horn antenna is nothing but a flared out or opened out waveguide. The main function of
the horn antenna is to produce an uniform phase front with a aperture larger than
waveguide to give higher directivity.

 Types of Horn Antennas

• Basically the horn antennas are classified as rectangular horn antennas and circular horn
antennas. The rectangular horn antennas are fed with rectangular waveguide, while the
circular horn antennas are fed with circular waveguide.
• Depending upon the direction of flaring, the rectangular horns are further classified as
Sectoral horn and Pyramidal horn. A sectoral horn is obtained if the flaring (tapering) is done
in one direction only. A sectoral horn is further classified as E-plane sectoral horn and H-
plane sectoral horn.
• The E-plane sectoral horn is obtained when the flaring is done in the direction of the electric
field vector. The H-plane sectoral horn is obtained if the flaring is done in the direction of the
magnetic field vector.
• When the flaring is done along both the walls of the rectangular waveguide in the direction of
both the electric and magnetic field vectors, the horn obtained is called pyramidal horn.
• Similar to the rectangular horns, the circular horn antennas can be obtained by flaring the
walls of the circular waveguide. The circular horn antennas are of two types namely conical
horn antenna and biconical horn antenna.
 16

• Many times, the transition region between the throat of the waveguide and the aperture is
tapered with a gradual exponential taper. This minimizes the reflections of the guided waves.
Such horns are called exponentially tapered horn antennas.
• Fig. 2-14 shows the horn antennas such as the E-plane sectoral horn, H-plane sectoral horn,
pyramidal horn and conical horn.
• When the aperture size is large compared to the wavelength the wave impedance
approaches the free space impedance, asymptotically. Thus, a pyramidal horn provides a
slow transition from the waveguide impedance to the free space impedance, provided that
the length of the transition is large compared to the wavelength.

Fig. 2-14 Typical horn antennas

 Design of Horn antenna:

• The cross sectional view of rectangular horn antenna is shown in Fig. 2-15.
From the geometry ;

𝛹 𝐿
cos =
2 𝐿+𝛿
𝛹 𝑎
sin =
2 2(𝐿 + 𝛿)
𝛹 𝑎
tan =
2 2𝐿
Fig. 2-15 Cross sectional view of rectangular
horn antenna

where 𝛹 = flare angle (𝛹𝐸 for 𝐸 plane, 𝛹𝐻 for 𝐻 plane), 𝑎 = aperture (𝑎𝐸 for 𝐸 plane,
𝑎𝐻 for 𝐻 plane) , 𝐿 = horn length and 𝛿 = path difference.
• From the geometry we have also that

𝑎2
𝐿= (𝛿 ≪ 𝐿) -------- (2.41)
8𝛿
𝑎 𝐿
𝛹 = 2 tan −1 = 2 cos−1 -------- (2.42)
2𝐿 𝐿+𝛿

• When the flare angle is small, the aperture area for a specified length becomes small. Thus at
the mouth of the horn, the uniform phase front is resulted, which increases directivity with
decrease in the beam width. The angle represented in Eqn. (2.42) is known as optimum
aperture angle.
 17

• The directivity of maximum value can be obtained at the largest flare angle for which the value
𝛿 does not exceed typical value such as 0.25 𝜆 for E-plane sectoralhorn, 0.22 𝜆 for conical horn
and 0.40 𝜆 for H-plane sectoral horn.
• The directivity of the pyramidal horn and conical horn is highest as compared to other types of
the horns because they have more than one flare angle. One more advantage of the horn
antenna is that it can be operated over a wide range of high frequency as there is no resonant
element in the antennna.
• Optimum Horn: Generally to obtain uniform aperture distribution, it is observed that the horn
should be very long with small flare angle. But for practical convenience, the horn should be as
short as possible. Betweeen these two extreme conditions, it is possible to design a horn which
has minimum beamwidth and for a given length it is free of side lobes. Such a horn is called
optimum horn or optium flare horn.
• Hence, for optimum dimension 𝛿 such that for largest flare angle directivity is maximum and
such optimum value is 𝛿0. The dimensions of optimum horn as follows;
𝐿
Optimum value of 𝛿: 𝛿0 = −𝐿
𝛹 -------- (2.43)
cos
2
𝛹
𝛿0 cos 2
Optimum length L: 𝐿= 𝛹 -------- (2.44)
1 − cos
2

• For optimum flare horn, the HPBW is approximated as ;

67°𝜆 56°𝜆
𝛹𝐻 = and 𝛹𝐸 = -------- (2.45)
𝑎 𝐻 𝑎 𝐸

• FNBW is approximated as ;
172°𝜆 115°𝜆
𝛹𝐻 = and 𝛹𝐸 = -------- (2.46)
𝑎𝐻 𝑎𝐸
• Directive gain (𝐷)and power gain (𝐺) in terms of effective effecture of the horn as ;

4𝜋𝐴𝑒 4𝜋𝜀𝑎𝑝𝐴𝑝 7.5𝐴𝑝

[∵ 𝜀𝑎𝑝 ≈ 0.6] -------- (2.47)
𝜆2 𝜆2 𝜆2
4.5𝐴𝑝
-------- (2.48)
𝜆2
where ; 𝐴𝑒 = Effective aperture , 𝐴𝑝 = Physical aperture and 𝜀𝑎𝑝 = Aperture efficiency.

• For rectangular horn ; 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑎𝐸. 𝑎𝐻 and For conical horn ; 𝐴𝑝 = 𝜋𝑟2

 Applications of horn
• It is used as a feed element in antennas such as parabolic reflectors
• It is the most wide used antenna for measurement of various antenna parameters in the
laboratories.
• It is most suitable antenna for various application in microwave frequency range where
moderate gains are sufficient.
 18

REFLECTOR ANTENNAS
• The reflector antennas are most important in microwave radiation applications. At
microwave frequencies the physical size of the high gain antenna becomes so small that
practically any suitable shaped reflector can produce desired directivity.
• In reflector antenna, another antenna is required to excite it. Hence the antenna such as
dipole, horn, slot which excites the reflector antenna is called primary antenna, while the
reflector antenna is called secondary antenna.
• In general, reflector antenna can be represented in any geometrical configuration, but the
most commonly used shapes are plane reflector, corner reflector and curved or parabolic
reflectors. Using reflectors, the radiation pattern of a radiating antenna can be modified.
• By using a large, metallic plane sheet as a reflector, the backward radiations from the
antenna can be eliminated thus improving radiation pattern of an antenna. Thus for an
antenna, desired radiation characteristics can be produced with the help of a large, suitably
illuminated and suitably sized and shaped reflector surface. Some of the common reflectors
are plane reflector, corner reflector and curved reflector.

 Flat Reflector / Plane refelector:

• The plane reflector is the simplest form of the reflector antenna. When the plane reflector is
kept infront of the feed, the energy is radiated in the desired direction. The plane reflector is
as shown in Fig. 2-16.

Fig. 2-16 Plane reflector and examples

• To increase the directivity of the antenna, a large flat sheet can be kept as plane reflector
infront of a half dipole as shown in Fig. 2-16 (b).
• The main advantage of the plane reflector is that for the dipole backward radiations are
reduced and the gain in the forward direction increases. To increase directivity further,
we can use array of two half wave dipoles infront of a flat plane reflector as shown in
Fig. 2-16 (c).
 19

• It is observed that the flat sheet is less frequency sensitive than the thin element. Hence only
a reflector element can be used to increase directivity. Such arrangement is shown in
Fig. 2-16 (d).
• In case of the plane reflectors, the polarization of the radiating source and its position with
respect to the reflector both are important as one can control radiating properties ofthe
overall antenna such as radiation pattern, directivity, impedance etc.
• Image theory has been used to analyze the radiation characteristics of such a antenna.

 Corner Reflector:
• The disadvantage of the plane reflector is that there is radiation in back and side directions.
Hence in order to overcome this limitation, the shape of the plane reflector is modified so
that the radiation is in forward direction only.
• The modified arrangement consists of two plane reflector which are joined to form a corner
with some angle. The reflector is thus known as corner reflector. The angle at which two
plane reflectors are joined is called included angle (𝛼). In most of the practical applications,
the included angle is 90°.
• In some of the other applications angles other than 90° are also used. A typical corner
reflector is shown in Fig. 2-17. The top view of the corner reflector is shown in Fig. 2-17 (a).
• The Fig. 2-17 (b) indicates the front view of the corner reflector. The vertical corner reflector
with field pattern along main axis is shown in Fig. 2-17 (c).

Fig. 2-17 Views of corner reflector antenna

 20

• Thus when two flat reflecting sheets intersect each other at corner or at an angle, we get
effective directional antenna called corner reflector. When the corner angle or included angle
is 90°, the corner reflector is called square corner reflector.
• Practically corner reflectors with included angle less than 90° are not advantageous. When
included angle tends to 180° we get a flat sheet reflector which can be considered as the
limiting condition of corner reflector.
• The analysis of the corner reflector is carried out under the assumption that the two
intersecting planes are perfectly conducting and infinite.
• In most of the corner reflectors, the feed element is either a dipole or array of collinear
dipoles placed parallel to the vertex at a distance 𝑆 as shown in Fig. 2-17 (b). To increases the
bandwidth, instead of thin wires as feed element, the biconical or cylindrical dipoles are
preferred.
• For the mathematical analysis, the dimensions specified are aperture of corner reflector (𝐷𝐴)
length of the reflector (𝑙) and height (ℎ). Generally the dimension of the aperture of the
reflector (𝐷𝐴) is selected between one and two wavelengths (𝜆 < 𝐷𝐴 < 2𝜆).
• The spacing between the vertex of the reflector and the feed element is selected as a fraction
of wavelength (𝜆/2 < 𝑆 < 2𝜆). The length of the reflectors is typically selected as twice the
spacing between feed and vertex (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑙 ≈ 2𝑆) for the included angle of 90°.
• The radiation resistance is the function of the spacing between the feed and the reflector. If
the spacing is too large, the unwanted multiple lobes are produced and hence the directivity
of the antenna is lost. If the spacing is very small, the radiation resistance decreases.
• The losses in the system increase as the decreased radiation resistance becomes comparable
with the loss resistance of the antenna. Thus antenna is treated as inefficient antenna.
• The height of the reflector (ℎ) is generally selected as about 1.2 to 1.5 times greater than the
total length of the feed element.
• A corner reflector with two flat conducting sheets at a corner angle 𝛼 and a driven antenna is
called active corner reflector antenna or simply corner reflector antenna.
• If the corner reflector antenna consists only two flat conducting sheet at a corner angle 𝛼
without any driven element then it is called passive corner reflector antenna. Such a passive
corner reflector antenna is as shown in Fig. 2-17 (d).

 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR
• To improve the overall radiation characteristics of the reflector antenna, the parabolic
structure is oftenly used. Basically a parabola is a locus of a point which moves in such a way
that the distance of the point from fixed point called focus plus the distance from the straight
line called directrix is constant as shown in Fig. 2-18.
• By the definition ; 𝐹𝑀 + 𝑀𝑀′ = 𝐹𝑁 + 𝑁𝑁′ = 𝐹𝑃 + 𝑃𝑃′ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ;
• By the geometrical optics (GO), when the point source is placed at the focus or focal point,
then the rays reflected by the parabolic reflector form parallel wave front as shown in
Fig. 2-18 (b). This principle is used in the transmitting antenna.
 21

Fig. 2-18 Parabolic reflector principle

• Similarly when the beam of parallel rays is incident on a parabolic reflector, then the
radiations focus at a focal point as shown in Fig. 2-18 (c). This principle is used in the
receiving antenna.
• Consider a parabolic reflector as shown in Fig. 2-18 (b). When the point source is kept at the
focus or focal point of the parabola, the radiations striking the parabolic reflector are
reflected parallel to the axis of parabola irrespective of the angle at which the radiations
strike the reflector. That means the rays which are reflected by the parabolic reflector travel
same distance to reach near the mouth of the reflector.
• The open end of the parabolic reflector is called aperture. The time taken by the reflected
rays to travel a distance upto the directrix of the parabola is same. That means all the
reflected rays are in phase. Thus the wave front at the aperture of the parabolic reflector is
uniform phase front and thus very strong and concentrated beam is obtained along the axis.
• Thus parabolic reflector is the most effective microwave antenna which produces
concentrated radiation beam along the axis of parabola. The power gain of the paraboloid is a
function of ratio between diameter of aperture.

 Paraboloid or Paraboloidal Reflector or Microwave Dish Antenna:

• The parabolic reflector is a two dimensional structure. In practical applications, a three
dimensional structure of the parabolic reflector is used. The three dimensional structure of
the parabolic reflector can be obtained by rotating the parabola around its axis and it is
called paraboloid.

Fig. 2-19 Paraboloid with pyramidal horn as feed

 22

• The paraboloid is as shown in Fig. 2-19 (a). The radiation pattern of the paraboloid is as
shown in Fig. 2-19 (b). As the mouth of the paraboloid is circular in shape, the parallel, beam
produced are of the circular cross-section. The radiation pattern consists very sharp major
lobe and smaller minor lobes.
• Consider that the power gain of the paraboloid, with circular mouth or aperture, with respect
to half wave dipole is given by,
4𝜋𝐴0
𝐺=
𝜆2 -------- (2.49)

• Here 𝐴0 is the capture area which is less than the actual area 𝐴𝑒 of the mouth and it is given
by,
𝐴0 = 𝑘. 𝐴𝑒 -------- (2.50)
where 𝑘 = constant dependent on feed antenna used. It is 0.65 for dipole.

• The actual area of circular aperture with diameter 𝑑 is given by

𝑑 2 𝜋𝑑2
𝐴𝑒 = 𝜋 ( ) =
2 4 -------- (2.51)

• Hence, the power gain is given by;

4𝜋(𝑘𝐴𝑒) 4𝜋 × 0.65 𝐴𝑒 𝑑 2
𝐺= = =6( ) -------- (2.52)
𝜆2 𝜆2 𝜆

• The above equation clearly indicates that the power gain of the paraboloid depends on the
ratio or diameter 𝑑 of the circular aperture to the wavelength in free space. The ratio 𝑑/𝜆 is
called aperture ratio of the paraboloid. Hence the effective radiated power (ERP) is the
product of the input power fed and the power gain 𝐺.
• With small diameter of the paraboloid, the gain of the paraboloid is extremely large when 𝜆 is
small in microwave frequency range. Consider 𝜆 = 0.02 𝑚 and diameter 𝑑 = 1 𝑚 , then the
power gain of the paraboloid is given by ;
1 2
𝐺 =6 ( ) = 15000
0.02 -------- (2.53)

• Hence if the input power fed to the paraboloid is 1 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 at 1.5 𝐺𝐻𝑧 then the effective
radiated power is 15 𝑘𝑊.
• For lower frequencies such as VHF, 𝜆 is large. Thus the diameter of the circular aperture
becomes too large. Hence practically use of the parabolic reflectors are avoided at lower
frequency.
• If the feed antenna is isotropic (called primary antenna), then paraboloid produces beam of
radiation. Assuming large circular aperture, the FNBW is given by ;
140𝜆
𝐹𝑁𝐵𝑊 = 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 -------- (2.54)
𝑑
where ; 𝑑 = diameter of circular aperture in terms of 𝜆 in 𝑚.
 23

• Similarly for uniformly illuminated rectangular aperture ;

115𝜆
𝐹𝑁𝐵𝑊 = 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 -------- (2.55)
𝑑
where ; 𝐿 = length of rectangular aperture in terms of 𝜆 in 𝑚.
• The HPBW for large circular aperture is given by ;
58𝜆
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 -------- (2.56)
𝑑
• Similarly the directivity of uniformly illuminated aperture ;
4𝜋𝐴𝑒 𝑑 2 𝜋𝑑2
𝐷= = 9.87 ( ) [∵ 𝐴𝑒 = ] -------- (2.57)
𝜆2 𝜆 4

• Thus , from the above equations, it is clear that a sharp, concentrated pencil beam can be
easily obtained at microwave frequencies using the paraboloid as illustrated in Fig. 2-20.

Fig. 2-20 Illustration of FNBW and HPBW

 𝒇/ , SpillOver, BackLobe:
• In paraboloid reflector, the ratio of the focal length 𝑓 to the diameter of aperture is another
important design constraint. The paraboloid can be designed to obtain pencil shape radiation
beam by keeping the diameter of the aperture fixed and changing the focal length 𝑓.
• The three possible cases are as follows ;
▪ Focal point inside the aperture ofparaboloid.
▪ Focal point along the plane of open mouth of paraboloid.
▪ Focalpoint beyond the open mouth of paraboloid
• When the focal length is very small, the focal point lies inside the open mouth of paraboloid
as shown in Fig. 2-21 (a). It is very difficult to obtain uniform illumination over a wide angle.
When the focal point lies on the plane of the open mouth of the paraboloid by the geometry,
the focal length 𝑓 is one fourth of the open mouth diameter 𝑑.
• This condition gives maximum gain pencil shaped radiation equal in horizontal and vertical
plane. It is represented in Fig. 2-21 (b). Whenthe focal length is too large, the focal point lies
beyond the open mouth of the paraboloid as shown in Fig. 2-21 (c). Here it is difficult to
direct all the radiations from the source on the reflector.
• For practical applications, the value of the focal length to diameter ratio lies between 0.25 to
0.5.
 24

Fig. 2-21 Effect of variation of focal length 𝒇 keeping

diameter of aperture 𝒅 fixed in paraboloid

• In addition to the desired radiation, some of the desired rays are not fully captured by
reflector, such non-captured rays form spill over. While receiving spill over, the noise pick up
increases which is troublesome.
• In addition to this, few radiations originated from the primary radiators are observed in
forward direction such radiations get added with desired parallel beam. This is called back
lobe radiation as it originates from the back lobe of primary radiator. Obviously the back lobe
radiations are unwanted as they considerably affect the reflected beam.

 Types of Paraboloidal Reflectors:

• Depending upon the use the paraboloid is modified in various types of the structures. Some
of the important types of the paraboloid are as follows.
• Truncated paraboloid or cut paraboloid: This type of the paraboloid is formed by cutting
some of the portion of the paraboloid to meet the requirements. As the portion of the
paraboloid is cut away or truncated as shown in Fig. 2-22 (a) , the paraboloid is called cut
paraboloid or truncated paraboloid.

Fig. 2-22 a) Truncated paraboloid or cut paraboloid

b) Parabolic right cylinder c) Pill box or cheese antenna

• Parabolic right cylinder: The right cylindrical structure of the parabolic reflector is as
shown in Fig. 2-22 (b). This structure is obtained by moving the parabola side ways. This
parabolic structure has focal line instead of a focal point and similarly a vertex line instead of
avertex. In parabolic right cylinder reflector the energy is collimated at a line which is
parallel to the axis through the focal point of the reflector. In practice, linear dipole or linear
array or a slotted waveguide is used as primary antenna.
 25

• Pill box or cheese antenna: The cheese antenna or pill box is a short parabolic right
cylinder enclosed by parallel plates as shown in Fig. 2-22 (c). This antenna is useful in
producing wide beam in one of the planes while a narrow in other.

 Feed systems of Paraboloidal Reflectoror:

• A parabolic reflector antenna system consists of two basic parts namely a source of radiation
focus and a reflector. The source placed at the focus is called primary radiator, while the
reflector is called secondary radiator. The primary radiator i.e. the source is commonly called
feed radiator or simply feed.
• In case of a parabolic reflector a feed is said to be ideal feed, if it radiates entire energy
towards the reflector in such a way that the entire surface of reflector is illuminated and no
energy is radiated in any unwanted direction.
• Practically there are number of possible feeds to the parabolic reflector antenna. The
secondary radiator used is most of the times a paraboloid.
• The simplest type of the feed that can be used is a dipole antenna. But it is not a suitable feed
for the parabolic reflector antenna. Instead of only dipole, a feed consisting dipole with
parasitic reflectors ( like Yagi-Uda antenna) can be used as a feed system. In such cases, the
spacing between the dipole as a driven element and the parasitic reflector is 0.125 . In some
cases a dipole along with a plane reflector spaced 0.4 𝜆 apart from the dipole is used. It is
shown in Fig. 2-22 (a).
• In some cases, an end fire array of dipoles is used as feed radiator as shown in Fig. 2-22 (b).
The dipoles are spaced in such a way that the end fire pattern of an array, illuminates
reflector.
• The most widely used feed system in the parabolic reflector antenna is horn antenna as
shown in Fig. 2-22 (c). The horn antenna is fed with a waveguide. In case, if circular
polarization is required, then in place of a rectangular horn, a conical horn or helix antenna is
used at the focus.
• In all cases, the feed or primary radiator is placed at the focus to obtain maximum beam
pattern. If the feed is moved along a line perpendicular to the main axis then beam
deteriorates. But if the feed is moved along the main axis, then the beam gets broadened.
Hence focus is the important point on the main axis at which the feed is placed to obtain
maximised beam pattern.

Fig. 2-22 Feed system

 26

 Cassegrain Feed:
• This system of feeding paraboloid
reflector is named after a
mathematician Prof. Cassegrain. In
all the feed systems, the feed is
located at the focus. But in
Cassegrain feed system, the feed
radiator is placed at the vertex of
the parabolic reflector, instead of Fig. 2-24 Cassegrain feed system
placing it at the focus.

• This system uses a hyperboloid reflector, such that its one of the foci coincides with the focus
of the parabolic reflector. This hyperboloid reflector is called Cassegrain secondary reflector
or sub-reflector. The primary radiator or feed radiator used is generally a horn antenna.
• The radiation emitted from primary feed radiator reach sub-reflector. The sub reflector
reflects and illuminates the main parabolic reflector. The main reflector reflects the rays
parallel to the axis. The geometry ofthe Cassegrain feed system is as shown in Fig. 2-24.

Advantages of Cassegrain Feed System

▪ It reduces the spill over and thus minor lobe radiations.
▪ With this system greater focal length greater than the physical focal length can be
achieved.
▪ The system has ability to place a feed at convenient place.
▪ Using this system, beam can be broadened by adjusting one of the reflector surfaces.

Disadvantages of Cassegrain Feed System

▪ It is clear that there is a region of blocked rays infront of Cassegrain reflector. Some of
the radiation from the parabolic reflector are obstructed or blockedby the
hyperboloid reflector creating region of blocked rays. It is called aperture blockage.
This is not very serious problem in case of a parabolic reflector of larger dimensions.
▪ But for small dimension parabolic reflector it is the main drawback of the Cassegrain
feed system.

 Offset FeedSystem
• To overcome the aperture blocking effect due to the dependence of the secondary reflector
dimensions on the distance between feed and sub-reflector, the offset feed system as shown
in Fig. 2-25 is used. Here feed radiator is placed at the focus. With this system all the rays
are properly collimated without formation of the region of blocked rays.

Fig. 2-25 Offset feed system

 27

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA

• Microstrip patch antenna consists of a radiating patch on one side of a dielectric substrate
which has a ground plane on the other side as shown in Fig. 2-26. The patch is generally
made of conducting material such as copper or gold and can take any possible shape. The
radiating patch and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate.

Fig. 2-26 Structure of a Microstrip Patch Antenna (MSA)

• In order to simplify analysis and performance prediction, the patch is generally square,
rectangular, circular, triangular, elliptical or some other common shape as shown in
Fig. 2-27.

Fig. 2-27 Representative shapes of microstrip patch elements.

• For a rectangular patch, the length L of the patch is usually 0.333𝜆0 ≤ ℎ ≤ 0.5𝜆0 , where 𝜆0 is
the free-space wavelength. The patch is selected to be very thin such that << 𝜆0 (where 𝑡 is
the patch thickness). The height h of the dielectric substrate is usually 0.033𝜆0 ≤
ℎ ≤ 0.05𝜆0. The dielectric constant of the substrate (𝜀𝑟) is typically in the range 2.2 ≤ 𝜀𝑟 ≤
12.
• Microstrip patch antennas radiate primarily because of the fringing fields between the patch
edge and the ground plane. For good antenna performance, a thick dielectric substrate
having a low dielectric constant is desirable since this provides better efficiency, larger
bandwidth and better radiation.
• However, such a configuration leads to a larger antenna size. In order to design a compact
microstrip patch antenna, higher dielectric constants must be used which are less efficient
and result in narrower bandwidth. Hence a compromise must be reached between antenna
dimensions and antenna performance.
 28

 Mechanism of radiation:
• Consider a rectangular patch of length 𝐿 and width 𝑊 printed on a dielectric substrate of
height h. The length of the patch is chosen to be around 𝜆𝑔 /2, where 𝜆𝑔 is the guide
wavelength of the microstrip line of width 𝑊 printed on the same dielectric substrate.
• With this choice of the length, the electric field along 𝑥-direction undergoes a 180° phase
reversal (Fig. 2-28) from one edge to the other. It can be shown that the fields near edges 1
and 2 constructively add up producing the radiation with a maximum along the 𝑧-direction.

Fig. 2-28 Electric field distribution in a microstrip patch antenna

• Hence, edges 1 and 2 are known as the radiating edges. Further, it has been shown that the
fields near edges 3 and 4 do not contribute to the radiation. The rectangular microstrip patch
shown in Fig. 4-24 radiates linearly polarized waves, with the electric field oriented along the
𝑥-direction when looking in the direction of maximum radiation.
• The radiation patterns in the two principal planes, viz., the 𝐸-plane (𝑥-𝑧 plane) and the
𝐻-plane (𝑦-𝑧 plane) are shown in Fig. 2-29. The pattern is very broad and has nulls along the
y-direction.

Fig. 2-29 Radiation patterns ofa microstrip patch antenna

• For efficient transfer of power from a transmission line to the patch antenna, we need to
match the input impedance of the antenna to the characteristic impedance of the
transmission line.
• It is observed that the impedance seen by a transmission line attached to the radiating edge
is very high, and also the impedance (ratio of voltage to current) decreases as one moves
towards the centre of the patch. Therefore, depending on the characteristic impedance of the
transmission line, an appropriate point on the patch is chosen as the feed point.
 29

 Feeding Techniques
• Microstrip patch antennas can be fed by a variety of methods. The four most popular feed
techniques used are the microstrip line, coaxial probe, aperture coupling and proximity
coupling.

Microstrip Line Feed

• In this type of feed technique, a conducting strip is connected directly to the edge of the
microstrip patch as shown in Fig. 2-30. The conducting strip is smaller in width as compared
to the patch. This kind of feed arrangement has the advantage that the feed can be etched on
the same substrate to provide a planar structure.
• An inset cut can be incorporated into the patch in order to obtain good impedance matching
without the need for any additional matching element. This is achieved by properly
controlling the inset position. Hence this is an easy feeding technique, since it provides ease
of fabrication and simplicity in modeling as well as impedance matching.
• However as the thickness of the dielectric substrate increases, surface waves and spurious
feed radiation also increases, which hampers the bandwidth of the antenna. This type of
feeding technique results in undesirable cross polarization effects.

Fig. 2-30 Microstrip Line Feed

Coaxial Feed
• The Coaxial feed or probe feed is one of the most common techniques used for feeding
microstrip patch antennas. As seen from Fig. 2-31, the inner conductor of the coaxial
connector extends through the dielectric and is soldered to the radiating patch, while the
outer conductor is connected to the ground plane.

Fig. 2-31 Coaxial feed

 30

• The main advantage of this type of feeding scheme is that the feed can be placed at any
desired position inside the patch in order to obtain impedance matching. This feed method
is easy to fabricate and has low spurious radiation effects. However, its major disadvantage
is that it provides narrow bandwidth and is difficult to model since a hole has to be drilled
into the substrate. Also, for thicker substrates, the increased probe length makes the input
impedance more inductive, leading to matching problems.
• By using a thick dielectric substrate to improve the bandwidth, the microstrip line feed and
the coaxial feed suffer from numerous disadvantages such as spurious feed radiation and
matching problem. The non-contacting feed techniques which have been discussed below,
solve these problems.

Aperture Coupled Feed

• In aperture coupling the radiating microstrip patch element is etched on the top of the
antenna substrate, and the microstrip feed line is etched on the bottom of the feed substrate
in order to obtain aperture coupling. The thickness and dielectric constants of these two
substrates may thus be chosen independently to optimize the distinct electrical functions of
radiation and circuitry.
• The coupling aperture is usually centered under the patch, leading to lower cross
polarization due to symmetry of the configuration. The amount of coupling from the feed
line to the patch is determined by the shape, size and location of the aperture. Since the
ground plane separates the patch and the feed line, spurious radiation is minimized as
shown in Fig. 2-32.

Fig. 2-32 Aperture coupled feed

• Generally, a high dielectric material is used for bottom substrate and a thick, low dielectric
constant material is used for the top substrate to optimize radiation from the patch. This
type of feeding technique can give very high bandwidth of about 21%. Also the effect of
spurious radiation is very less as compared to other feed techniques. The major
disadvantage of this feed technique is that it is difficult to fabricate due to multiple layers,
which also increases the antenna thickness.

Proximity Coupled Feed

• This type of feed technique is also called as the electromagnetic coupling scheme. As shown
in Fig. 2-33, two dielectric substrates are used such that the feed line is between the two
substrates and the radiating patch is on top of the upper substrate.
 31

Fig. 2-33 Proximity coupled feed

• The main advantage of this feed technique is that it eliminates spurious feed radiation and
provides very high bandwidth of about 13%, due to increase in the electrical thickness of
the microstrip patch antenna. This scheme also provides choices between two different
dielectric media, one for the patch and one for the feed line to optimize the individual
performances.
• The major disadvantage of this feed scheme is that it is difficult to fabricate because of the
two dielectric layers that need proper alignment. Also, there is an increase in the overall
thickness of the antenna.
Comparison:

 Advantages and Disadvantages:

• Some of their principal advantages are ;
▪ Light weight and low volume.
▪ Low profile planar configuration which can be easily made conformal to host
surface.
▪ Low fabrication cost, hence can be manufactured in large quantities.
▪ Supports both, linear as well as circular polarization.
▪ Can be easily integrated with microwave integrated circuits (MICs).
▪ Capable of dual and triple frequency operations.
▪ Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces.
 32

• Microstrip patch antennas suffer from a number of disadvantages as compared to

conventional antennas. Some of their major disadvantages are
▪ Narrow bandwidth
▪ Low efficiency
▪ Low gain
▪ Extraneous radiation from feeds and junctions
▪ Poor end fire radiator except tapered slot antennas
▪ Low power handling capacity.

 Applications:
▪ In high-performance aircraft, spacecraft, satellite, and missile applications, where size,
weight, cost, performance, ease of installation, and aerodynamic profile are
constraints,low-profile antennas may be required. To meet these requirements,
microstrip antennas can be used.
▪ Other areas where microstrip antennas widely used are: GPS, Telemetry, Radars,
Altimeters, etc.,

NUMERICAL TOOL FOR ANTENNA ANALYSIS

• The following are the list of numerical tools used for antenna analysis:
Post – MCQ:
1. Aperture antennas are most common at _____________
a.LHF
b.VHF
c.Microwave Frequencies
d.HF
Ans: c

2. Slot antenna is the best suitable radiator at frequencies above _______

a. Above 200MHz
b. Below 200MHz
c. Above 100MHZ
d. Below 100MHz
Ans: a

3. The radiations from the backside of the slot antenna and the complementary antenna are of
_________ polarity
a.Same
b.Opposite
c.Negative
d.Positive
Ans:b

4. The horn is widely used as a ___________ for large radio astronomy, communication dishes.
a.Feed Element
b.Antenna Array
c.Transmission line
d.Matching Element
Ans:a

5. The Horn Antenna used as a feed element in antennas such as _______________

a.Parabolic Reflectors
b.Antenna Array
c.Log periodic Antenna
d.Slot antenna
Ans: a

6. Reflector antenna is used as ______________

a.Primary Antenna
b.Horn Antenna
c.Secondary Antenna
d.Dipole Antenna
Ans:c

7. Cassegrain Feed System reduces the ____________ and thus minor lobe radiations
a.More Radiation
b.Major Lobes
c.Side Lobes
d.Spill Over
Ans: d
8. The _____________ is one of the most common techniques used for feeding microstrip
patch antennas
a.Coaxial Cable or Probe Feed
b.Slot Feed
c.Dipole Feed
d.Horn Feed
Ans: a

9. Microstrip Antennas are easily integrated with __________

a.Microwave integrated circuits (MICs).
b.Integrated Circuits
c.Very Large Integrated Circuits
d.PCB Board
Ans: a

10. The Following is one of the Numerical Tool for Antenna Analysis _________
a.HFSS
b.MatLab
c.DSP Simulator
d.VisSim
Ans: a

11. Aperture antennas are very practical applications in __________

a.spacecraft or aircraft
b.Automotive
c.Instrumentation
d.Agricultural
Ans: a

12. The infinite conducting sheet with slot and the flat strip of the dimension same as of the slot
are said to be _________ antenna
a.Horn
b.Complementary
c.Plain Antenna
d.Cornor Antenna
Ans: b

13. The shape of the slot may be either

a.rectangular or circular
b.Elliptical
c.Triangular
d.Squire
Ans: a
14. The angle at which two plane reflectors are joined is called _______
a.Apex Angle
b. Included Angle
c. Phase Angle
d. Acute Angle
Ans: b

15. When the corner angle is 90°, the corner reflector is called
a.Cornor reflector
b.square corner reflector.
c.proximity coupling.
d.All the above
Ans: b

Conclusion:

At the end of the topic, students will be able –

1) To understand the basic concept of Aperture Antennas and their radiation characteristics.
2) To understand the different feeding structure of aperture antennas
3) To know the applications of Aperture antennas and different tools for antenna analysis.

References:
1. Constantine.A. Balanis “Antenna Theory Analysis and Design”, Wiley Student Edition, 4th Edition
2016.

2. Rajeswari Chatterjee, “Antenna Theory and Practice” Revised Second Edition New Age
International Publishers, 2006.
3. S. Drabowitch, “Modern Antennas” Second Edition, Springer Publications, 2007
4. Robert S. Elliott “Antenna Theory and Design” Wiley Student Edition, 2006.

Assignments:

1. Sketch the various types of Horn Antenna and explain its operation.
2. Describe the principle of operation and applications of parabolic reflectors and derive its
necessary equations.
3. Describe Flat sheet and corner reflectors and derive their field equations.
4. Explain the structure and operation of Slot antenna. Also derive the expression of its
input impedance.
5. Explain in detail the radiation mechanism of a micro-strip patch antenna with diagram.
 Subject Name: Antennas & Propagation

Topic Name: Special Antennas

(Unit – 4)

Syllabus / Special Antennas

1. Principle of frequency independent antennas –Spiral antenna, helical
antenna, Log periodic.
2. Modern antennas- Reconfigurable antenna Active antenna, Dielectric
antennas, Electronic band gap structure and applications
3. Antenna Measurements-Test Ranges, Measurement of Gain, Radiation
pattern, Polarization, VSWR

Aim and Objective:

•To give insight basic Knowledge of Special Antennas

•To give thorough understanding of the radiation characteristics Special Antennas

i.e Spiral antenna, helical antenna, Log periodic.

•To understand the concepts of Different Antenna Measurements and Modern

Antennas.
Pre – Test MCQ:
1.Frequency independent antennas are used in _____________ region
a.𝟏𝟎0 – 𝟏𝟎00 𝑴𝑯𝒛
b.𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑯𝒛
c.𝟏 − 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑯𝒛
d.None of the above
Ans: b

2.Frequency-independent antennas are governed by _________

a.𝑹𝒖𝒎𝒔𝒆𝒚′𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆
b.Friss 𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆
c.Jordon 𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆
d.George 𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆
Ans: a

3.In log periodic array the Inactive stop region is

a.𝒍 ≤ 𝜆/2
b.𝒍 > 𝜆/2
c.𝒍 ∞ 𝜆/2
d.𝒍 ≥ 𝜆/2
Ans: b

4.Helical antenna is a broadband VHF and UHF antenna, which is used to provide
_________ polarization
a.Circular
b.Elliptical
c.Vertical
d.All the above
Ans: a

5.The helical antenna can operate in _______ different modes

a.normal (broadside) modes
b.the axial (end-fire) modes
c.None of the above
d.All the above
Ans: d

6.A reconfigurable antenna is an antenna capable of modifying dynamically

___________ properties in a controlled and reversible manner
a.its frequency and radiation
b.its Phase and Angle
c.It radiation and apex angle
d.Noneof the above
Ans: a
7. Active antenna components may consist of _________
a.amplifiers,
b.low-noise amplifiers (LNAs)
c.power amplifiers
d.All the above
Ans: d

8.slot antenna with a Schottky diode, which can be used for ________
a.frequency doubling (Ans)
b.Amplitude Doubling
c.Phase doubling
d.All the above
Ans: a

9.The dielectric antenna was first proposed in ________

a.1959.
b.1949.
c.1939.
d.1929.
Ans: c

10.The EBG applications are _______

a.GPS and low loss- coplanar lines
b. Bluetooth.
c.mobile telephony and waveguides.
d.All the above
Ans: d

Pre-requisite:
•Basic knowledge of Electromagnetic Fields and Wave guides.

•Basic Knowledge of Special Antennas and Antenna parameters.

 1

UNIT IV SPECIAL ANTENNAS

Principle of frequency independent antennas – Spiral antenna, Helical antenna, Log

periodic. Modern antennas- Reconfigurable antenna, Active antenna, Dielectric
antennas, Electronic band gap structure and applications, Antenna Measurements-Test
Ranges, Measurement of Gain, Radiation pattern, Polarization, VSWR

INTRODUCTION – FREQUENCY INDEPENDENT ANTENNA:

• The numerous applications of the electromagnetics need utilization of most of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The invention of various broadband systems need the design of the
broadband antennas.
• The antennas which are simple, small, light weight, economical and importantly operating over
the entire frequency band are most desirable. Such antennas refered as frequency independent
antenass are used in 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑯𝒛 region for practical applications such as TV, point to
point communication, feeds for reflectors and lenses.
• According to the antenna scale model measurements if the shape of the antenna is specified
completely by angles, then its performance would be independent of frequency.
• To have such practical infinite structures, the current on the structure should decrease with
distance away from the input terminals. After a certain point, the current becomes negligible
and then the structure beyond that point to infinity can be removed.
• Such truncated antenna practically has lower cut-off frequency and beyond this cutoff
frequency the radiation characteristics of the truncated antenna and infinite structure are
identical. The lower cut-off frequency is that for which the current at the point of truncation
becomes negligibly small.
• The biconical antenna can be compltely specified by angles but the current along the structure
does not reduce with distance away from the input terminals. Also its pattern does not have a
form limiting with frequency.
• Rumsey proposed a general shape equation which has frequency independent impedance,
pattern and polarization characteristics and with this shape the current distribution reduces to
zero rapidly.

PRINCIPLE OF FREQUENCY INDEPENDENT ANTENNA - SPIRAL ANTENNA

• Spiral is a geometrical shape found in nature. A spiral can be geometrically described using
polar coordinates. Let (𝑟, 𝜃) be a point in the polar coordinate system. The equation
𝑟 = 𝑟0𝑒𝑎𝜃 -------- (4.1)
where, 𝑟0 and 𝑎 are positive constants, describes a curve known as a logarithmic spiral or an
equiangular spiral. Taking natural logarithm on both sides of Eqn. (4.1) ;
ln 𝑟 = ln 𝑟0 + 𝑎𝜃 -------- (4.2)
Differentiating with respect to ;
1 𝑑𝑟
=𝑎 -------- (4.3)
𝑟 𝑑𝜃
• Spiral is a geometrical shape found in nature. A spiral can be geometrically described using
polar coordinates. Let (𝑟, 𝜃) be a point in the polar coordinate system. The equation
 2

𝑟 = 𝑟0𝑒𝑎𝜃 -------- (4.4)

where, 𝑟0 and 𝑎 are positive constants, describes a curve known as a logarithmic spiral or an
equiangular spiral. Taking natural logarithm on both sides of Eqn. (4.4) ;
ln 𝑟 = ln 𝑟0 + 𝑎𝜃 -------- (4.5)
Differentiating with respect to ;
1 𝑑𝑟
=𝑎 -------- (4.6)
𝑟 𝑑𝜃

Fig. 4-1 Logarithmic spiral

• From ∆ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 in Fig. 4-1 ;

𝐵𝐴 𝑟𝑑𝜃 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 = = = -------- (4.7)
𝐵𝐶 𝑑𝑟 𝑎

• Therefore, the angle between the tangent at any point on the spiral and the radial line from
the origin to that point (designated as 𝛽) is the same for all points on the spiral (𝑎 is a
constant). Hence, the spiral represented by Eqn. (4.1) is also known as an equi-angular spiral.
• Consider a spiral described by
𝑟1 = 𝑟0𝑒𝑎𝜃 -------- (4.8)
• The dimensions of an antenna designed to operate at a frequency, 𝑓0. If the antenna is scaled
by a factor 𝐾, it would have the same radiation and input properties at a frequency 𝑓0/𝐾.
Multiplying Eqn. (4.8) by a factor K we have ;
𝑟2 = 𝐾𝑟0𝑒𝑎𝜃 -------- (4.9)

• Expressing 𝐾 = 𝑒 𝑎𝛿, Eqn. (4.8) reduces to ;

𝑟2 = 𝑒𝑎𝛿𝑟0𝑒𝑎𝜃 = 𝑟0𝑒𝑎(𝜃+𝛿) -------- (4.10)

• This shows that the scaled antenna is obtained by rotating the original antenna structure by
an angle 𝛿. The structure itself is unchanged. Hence, the radiation pattern alone rotates by an
 3

angle 𝛿, keeping all the other properties the same. Such an antenna is known as a frequency-
independent antenna.
• Frequency-independent antennas are governed by 𝑹𝒖𝒎𝒔𝒆𝒚′𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆, which states that
the impedance and pattern properties of an antenna will be frequency independent if the
antenna shape is specified only in terms of angles. The antenna described by Eqn. (4.9)
satisfies this criterion provided the structure is infinite.
• For structures that are finite in size, the frequency invariance property is exhibited over a
limited range of frequencies. The lower end of this band is decided by the largest dimension
of the spiral and the upper end by the smallest dimension.

Fig. 4-2 An antenna based on a logarithmic spiral

• To construct an antenna using a spiral, consider a thin conducting strip of variable width
with the edges defined by the following two equations ;

𝑟1 = 𝑟0𝑒𝑎𝜃 -------- (4.10)

and
𝑟2 = 𝑟0𝑒𝑎(𝜃−𝛿) -------- (4.11)
• These two edges are shown in Fig. 4-2 for 0 ≥ 𝜃 ≤ 2.25𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 ≥ 𝜃 ≤ (2.25𝜋 + 𝛿). A
second conductor can be obtained by rotating the first spiral by 180°. The edges of the
second spiral are given by ;
𝑟3 = 𝑟0𝑒𝑎(𝜃+𝜋) -------- (4.12)
and
𝑟4 = 𝑟0𝑒𝑎(𝜃+𝜋−𝛿) -------- (4.13)
• These edges, edge 𝑟3 and edge 𝑟4 are shown in Fig. 4-2 for −𝜋 ≥ 𝜃 ≤ 1.25𝜋 and (−𝜋 +
𝛿) ≥ 𝜃 ≤ (1.25𝜋 + 𝛿). These two conductors form a balanced structure with feed points
FF'.
• The parameters used to define this structure are ;
𝛿 ∶ determines the width of the arm
𝑟0 ∶ determines the radius of the feed region
 4

𝑎 ∶ rate of growth of the spiral, and

𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∶ determines the maximum radius of the spiral.

• The spiral antenna has a bidirectional main lobe perpendicular to the plane of the antenna.
The radiated field is right circularly polarized on one side and is left circularly polarized on
the other side of the spiral. The axial ratio is used as one of the convenient parameters to
define the acceptable bandwidth of the antenna. Outside the band of operation of the
antenna, the radiation is elliptically polarized.

LOG PERIODIC ANTENNA

• In general, any antenna when defined in terms of angles, then it comes under the category of
the frequency independent antenna. Its charcteristics are found to be frequency
independent. In any frequency independent antenna, the impedance and the radiation
pattern both are independent of frequency.
• In order to be frequency independent, the antenna should expand or contract in proportion
to the wavelength. If the antenna structure is not mechanically adjustable, the size of the
radiating region should be proportional to wavelength.
• The log periodic antenna is a broadband antenna in which the geometry of the antenna
structure is adjusted such that all the electrical properties of the antenna are repeated
periodically with the logarithm of the frequency. Thus, the basic geometric structure is
repeated with the structure size changed.
• For every repetition, the structure size changes by a constant scale factor, with which the
structure can either expand or contract. Thus the principle of the log periodic antenna can be
understood with the help of a array of the log periodic antenna known as Log Periodic
Dipole Array (LPDA).

Fig. 4-3 Log periodic dipole array

• A typical log periodic dipole array (LPDA) consists number of dipoles of different lengths and
spacings and is fed by balanced two wire transmission line as shown in Fig. 4-3. The feed line
is connected at narrow end or apex of the array. The length of the dipoles increases from feed
point towards other end such that the included angle 𝛼 remains constant.
 5

• The increase in the length of the dipole (𝑙) and the spacing in wavelength between two
dipoles (𝑠) are adjusted such that the dimensions of the adjacent dipoles posses certain ratio
with each other.
• The dipole lengths and the spacings between two adjacent dipoles are related through
parameter called design ratio or scale factor which is denoted by 𝜏. Thus the relationship
between 𝑠𝑛 and 𝑠𝑛+1 and 𝑙𝑛 and 𝑙𝑛+1 is given by ;
𝑙𝑛+1 𝑠𝑛+1 1
= =𝑘 = -------- (4.14)
𝑙𝑛 𝑠𝑛 𝜏

• The ends of the dipoles lie along straight lines on both the sides. These two straight line
meet at fixed point or apex giving angle 2𝛼 which is angle included by two straight line.
Depending on the length of the diploles, there are three regions in LPDA, namely inactive
transmission line region, active region and inactive stop region.
• Inactive transmission line region (𝒍 < 𝜆/2): It is the region in which the length of the
dipole is less than 𝝀/𝟐 . The elements in this region provide capacitive impedance. The
element spacing in this region is comparatively smaller. The currents in the region are very
small hence it is considered as inactive region. These currents lead the voltage supplied by
the transmission line.
• Active region (𝒍 ≈ 𝝀/𝟐): In this region, the length of the dipoles are approximately equal to
𝝀/𝟐 i.e., equal to resonant length. This is the central region of the array from where
maximum radiation takes place. In this region, the dipoles offer resistive impedance. Thus
the currents are large value and in phase with the base voltage.
• Inactive stop region (𝒍 > 𝜆/2): In this region, the length of the dipoles are greater than 𝝀/𝟐
i.e., greater than resonant length. The dipoles offer inductive impedance. The currents are
smaller in this region and also lags the base voltage. This is also called reflective region as
small incident wave gets reflected due to the large inductive impedance.
• Thus for a wavelength 𝜆, the radiation occurs from active region which is in the middle of the
array. When the wavelength increases, the radiation zone moves towards right side of the
active region while the wavelength decreases, the radiation zone moves towards left side of
the active region.
• To find the relationship between the apex angle 𝛼, spacing 𝑠, and length 𝑙 , consider part of
the LPDA as shown in Fig. 4-4.

Fig. 4-4 Geometry of LPDA

• From Fig. 4-4 ;
(𝑙𝑛+1 − 𝑙𝑛)/2 𝑙𝑛+1 − 𝑙𝑛
tan 𝛼 = = -------- (4.15)
𝑠 2𝑠
 6

tan 𝛼 = [𝑙𝑛+1(1 − 𝑙𝑛/𝑙𝑛+1)]/2𝑠

𝑙𝑛+1 1
But ; =𝑘=
𝑙𝑛 𝜏
[1 − (1/𝑘)](𝑙𝑛+1/2)
tan 𝛼 = -------- (4.16)
𝑠

For active region: 𝑙𝑛+1 = 𝜆/2

[1 − (1/𝑘)]
tan 𝛼 =
4(𝑠/𝜆)
[1 − (1/𝑘)]
tan 𝛼 = -------- (4.17)
4𝑠𝜆
where 𝛼 = apex angle, 𝑘 = scale factor , 𝑠𝜆 =spacing in wavelength shortward of 𝜆/2
element.
• The length of any element say 𝑛 + 1𝑡ℎ element and length of first element is related as ;
𝑙𝑛+1
= 𝑘𝑛 = 𝐹 -------- (4.18)
𝑙1
• When the length of the first element is 𝑙1 then the length 𝑛 + 1𝑡ℎ element is 𝑘𝑛 time greater
than 𝑙1. This ratio is also termed as frequency ratio 𝐹 or it is called Bandwidth. The relation
between the apex angle 𝛼, scale factor 𝑘 and spacing 𝑠𝜆 with optimum design line and gain
represented in Fig. 4-5.

Fig. 4-5 Design curve of LPDA

• The number of elements in the array (𝑛) can be obtained from upper frequency 𝑓𝑈 and lower
frequency 𝑓𝐿 as ;
1
) ) (𝑛
log(𝑓𝑈 − log(𝑓𝐿 = − 1) log ( ) -------- (4.19)
𝜏
 7

HELICAL ANTENNA:
• Helical antenna is a broadband VHF and UHF antenna, which is used to provide circular
polarization. It consists of a thick copper wire wound in the form of a screw thread forming a
helix.

• In general , helix is used with a ground plane. There are different forms of ground plane such
as flat ground plane, cylindrical cavity. The helix is usually connected to the center conductor
of a coaxial transmission line at the feed point with the outer conductor of the line attached
to the ground plane is as shown in Fig. 4-6.

Fig. 4-6 Helical antenna with ground plane

• The geometrical configuration of a helix consists usually of 𝑁 turns, diameter 𝐷 and spacing 𝑆
between each turn. The total length of the antenna is 𝐿 = 𝑁𝑆 while the total length of the
wire is 𝐿𝑛 = 𝑁𝐿0 = 𝑁√𝑆2 + 𝐶2 , where 𝐿0 = √𝑆2 + 𝐶2 is the length of the wire between each
turn and 𝐶 = 𝜋𝐷 is the circumference of the helix.

• Another important parameter is the pitch angle 𝛼 which is the angle formed by a line
tangent to the helix wire and a plane perpendicular to the helix axis. The pitch angle is
defined by ;

• When 𝛼 = 0° , then the winding is flattened and the helix reduces to a loop antenna of 𝑁
turns. On the other hand, when 𝛼 = 90° then the helix reduces to a linear wire. When 0° <
𝛼 < 90° , then a true helix is formed with a circumference greater than zero but less than the
circumference when the helix is reduced to a loop (𝛼 = 0°).
 8

Modes of operation:
The helical antenna can operate in many modes but the two principal modes are the normal
(broadside) and the axial (end-fire) modes.
• Normal mode: In the normal mode of operation the field radiated by the antenna is
maximum in a plane normal to the helix axis and minimum along its axis, as shown sketched
in Fig. 4-7. To achieve the normal mode of operation, the dimensions of the helix are usually
small compared to the wavelength (i.e., 𝑁𝐿0 ≪ 𝜆0).

Fig. 4-7 Radiation pattern of helix normal mode

• In the normal mode, the helix of Fig. 4-8 (a) can be simulated approximately by 𝑁 small loops
and 𝑁 short dipoles connected together in series as shown in Fig. 4-8 (b). The fields are
obtained by superposition of the fields from these elemental radiators. The planes of the
loops are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the axes of the vertical dipoles. The axes
of the loops and dipoles coincide with the axis of the helix.

Fig. 4-8 Normal (broadside) mode for helical antenna and its equivalent
• Since in the normal mode the helix dimensions are small, the current throughout its length
can be assumed to be constant and its relative far-field pattern to be independent of the
number of loops and short dipoles.
 9

• Thus its operation can be described accurately by the sum of the fields radiated by a small
loop of radius 𝐷 and a short dipole of length 𝑆, with its axis perpendicular to the plane of the
loop, and each with the same constant current distribution.
• The far-zone electric field radiated by a short dipole of length 𝑆 and constant current 𝐼0 is 𝑬𝜽,
and it is given by,
𝑘𝐼0𝑆𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝑬𝜽 = 𝑗𝜂 sin 𝜃 -------- (4.21)
4𝜋𝑟

where 𝑙 is being replaced by 𝑆.

In addition the electric field radiated by a loop is 𝑬𝝓, and it is given by,
𝑘2(𝐷/2)2𝐼0𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝑬𝝓 = 𝜂 sin 𝜃 -------- (4.22)
4𝑟

• The ratio of the magnitudes of the 𝑬𝜽 and 𝑬𝝓 components is defined as the axial ratio (AR),
and it is given by
|𝑬𝜽| 4𝑆 2𝜆𝑆
𝑨𝑹 = = = -------- (4.23)
|𝑬𝝓| 𝜋𝑘𝐷2 (𝜋𝐷)2

• By varying the 𝐷 and/or 𝑆 the axial ratio attains values of 0 ≤ 𝐴𝑅 ≤ ∞. The value of 𝐴𝑅 = 0
is a special case and occurs when 𝑬𝜽 = 0 leading to a linearly polarized wave of horizontal
polarization (the helix is a loop).
• When 𝐴𝑅 = ∞, 𝑬𝝓 = 0 and the radiated wave is linearly polarized with vertical polarization
(the helix is a vertical dipole). Another special case is the one when AR is unity (𝐴𝑅 = 1) ,
radiated wave is circularly polarized.
2𝜆0𝑆
=1 -------- (4.24)
(𝜋𝐷)2
𝐶 = 𝜋𝐷 = √2𝑆𝜆0 -------- (4.25)
𝑆 𝜋𝐷
tan 𝛼 = = -------- (4.26)
𝜋𝐷 2𝜆0

• Practically this mode of operation is limited and it is hardly used because its bandwidth and
radiation efficiency is very small.
• Axial Mode: In this mode of operation, there is only one major lobe and its maximum
radiation intensity is along the axis of the helix, as shown in Fig. 4-9. The minor lobes are at
oblique angles to the axis. To excite this mode, the diameter 𝐷 and spacing 𝑆 must be large
fractions of the wavelength.
 10

Fig. 4-9 Radiation pattern of helix axial mode

• Most often the antenna is used in conjunction with a ground plane, whose diameter is at
least 𝜆0/2, and it is fed by a coaxial line. However, other types of feeds (such as waveguides
and dielectric rods) are possible, especially at microwave frequencies. The dimensions of
the helix for this mode of operation are not as critical, thus resulting in a greater bandwidth.
 Design Procedure:
• The terminal impedance of a helix radiating in the axial mode is nearly resistive with values
between 100 and 200 ohms.
• The input impedance (purely resistive) is obtained by ;
𝐶
𝑅 ≈ 140 ( ) -------- (4.27)
𝜆0

which is accurate to about ±20%, the half-power beamwidth by ;

52 𝜆03/2
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 (𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠) ≈ -------- (4.28)
𝐶√𝑁𝑆
• The beamwidth between nulls ;
115 𝜆03/2
𝐹𝑁𝐵𝑊 (𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠) ≈ -------- (4.29)
𝐶√𝑁𝑆

• The directivity by
𝐶2𝑆
𝐷0 (𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠) ≈ 15 𝑁 -------- (4.30)
𝜆 30
• The axial ratio (for the condition of increased directivity) by
2𝑁 + 1
𝐴𝑅 = -------- (4.31)
2𝑁
• The normalized far-field pattern is given by
𝜋 sin[(𝑁/2)𝜓]
𝐸 = sin ( ) cos 𝜃 -------- (4.32)
2𝑁 sin[𝜓/2]
where 𝑆 1
𝜓 = 2𝜋 [ (1 − cos 𝜃) + ]
𝜆0 2𝑁 -------- (4.33)

3 𝐶 4
• The above formula valid for , 12° < 𝛼 < 15° , 𝑁 ≥ 3 and < < .
4 𝜆0 3
 11

MODERN ANTENNAS – THE RECONFIGURABLE ANTENNA

• A reconfigurable antenna is an antenna capable of modifying dynamically its frequency and
radiation properties in a controlled and reversible manner. In order to provide a dynamical
response, reconfigurable antennas integrate an inner mechanism (such as RF
switches, varactors, mechanical actuators or tunable materials) that enable the intentional
redistribution of the RF currents over the antenna surface and produce reversible
modifications over its properties.
• Reconfigurable antennas differ from smart antennas because the reconfiguration mechanism
lies inside the antenna rather than in an external beamforming network. The reconfiguration
capability of reconfigurable antennas is used to maximize the antenna performance in a
changing scenario or to satisfy changing operating requirements.
• Reconfigurable antennas come in a large variety of different shapes and forms. Their
operation can largely be analyzed through existing design principles by utilizing well defined
antennas as the base design and a point of reference for the desired operation.
• By considering the properties of a base design, reconfigurable antennas can be classified
according to three categories that describe their operation: (1) the reconfigurable antenna
parameters of interest, (2) the proximity of reconfiguration, and (3) the continuity of
reconfiguration (e.g., having reconfigurable antenna parameters over a continuous range of
values).
• Reconfigurable antennas are typically described by the first of these categories, including
reconfigurable radiation (pattern or polarization) and reconfigurable impedance (frequency
or bandwidth).
• The proximity of reconfiguration describes physical properties inherent to the base antenna
design—either direct (alteration of a driven element) or parasitic (alteration of a parasitic
component).
• The continuity of the reconfiguration is defined by the nature and capabilities of the
reconfiguration mechanism, either discrete (a finite number of reconfigured states) or
continuous (reconfiguration within a range of states).

Frequency Reconfigurable Dipole:

• A generic wireless communication link shown in Fig. 4-10. , illustrates a basic application of
reconfigurable antenna. This scenario involves a transmitter 𝑻 that broadcasts to two sets of
wireless receivers 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐. These receivers operate at two different frequency bands 𝑩𝟏
and 𝑩𝟐, centered at 𝒇𝟏and 𝒇𝟐, respectively (with𝒇𝟏 < 𝒇𝟐).
 12

• The scenario assumes that all receiving antennas are coincidentally polarized, the
transmitter broadcasts at the frequency bands centered at 𝒇𝟏and 𝒇𝟐, at times 𝒕𝟏and 𝒕𝟐,,
respectively, and the radios require isolation between the bands such that a dual-band
antenna is undesirable. Thus the reconfigurable antenna serves to allow communication with
both sets of receivers using a single antenna.
ACTIVE ANTENNA
• The term active antenna implies an antenna integrated intimately with an active circuit,
including the DC bias circuit, and without an isolator or circulator between them. The
absence of isolator/ circulator implies that neither the antenna nor the circuit needs to be
designed in a 50-Ω environment.
• Fig. 4-11 shows block diagrams of several types of active antennas, classified according to
their functionality.
 13

 A Classification of Active Antennas

• Antennas are normally classified in terms of operational bandwidth (broadband and
narrowband), implementation (e.g. printed, wire, or aperture), etc. In this chapter, it is
appropriate to classify active antennas by the function of the active circuit.
• Frequency-agile antennas :
▪ A two- or three-terminal active device can be designed into the antenna to enable the
antenna impedance to tune with frequency.
▪ Fig. 4-12 (a) shows an example of this type of active antenna: a slot microstrip feedline
contains a varactor diode tuning element.
▪ When the capacitance of the diode changes, the electrical length of the antenna, which
in turn depends on the antenna reactance, changes and the antenna becomes resonant
at a different frequency.
▪ In this case, DC power is used to provide increased bandwidth of an antenna element.
These antennas find applications in multifunctional systems with multiple
nonsimultaneous carriers.

• Oscillator antennas :
▪ A two- or three-terminal negative-resistance device can be connected directly to the
terminals of a single antenna element or an array of elements.
▪ In this case, DC power is converted to radiated RF power. An example of a patch
antenna in the feedback loop of a transistor, shown in
▪ Fig. 4-12 (b). Oscillator antennas have been discussed for applications such as low-cost
sensors, power combining, and synchronized scanning antenna arrays.

• Amplifier antennas:
▪ An active device is connected to the terminals of an antenna element to provide
amplification in receive mode or transmit mode.
▪ In the former case, the matching between the antenna and active element usually
optimizes noise, while in the latter case, the matching optimizes power and/or
efficiency.
▪ Fig. 4-12 (c) shows an example of a repeater element with two slot antennas and a
prematched amplifier chip. In this case, increase in gain is enabled by adding DC power
to the antenna, and it becomes difficult to separate antenna gain from circuit gain.
▪ Amplifier antennas find applications in transmitters where spatial power combining
can be achieved with an array, and in receivers where the feedline loss, which
contributes to the total noise figure, can be eliminated by directly connecting an LNA to
the receiving antenna.
 14

• Frequency-conversion antennas:
▪ A two- or three-terminal active device integrated with an antenna can provide direct
down or up conversion of a radiated signal, at frequencies that are direct harmonics or
subharmonics of a fundamental frequency (multipliers, dividers), or at frequencies
with a given offset from the operating frequency (mixers).
▪ Fig. 4-12 (d) shows an example of a slot antenna with a Schottky diode, which can be
used for frequency doubling since the slot is matched to the diode impedance at both
the input frequency and its harmonic.
▪ Such antennas have applications in receivers, mixers with high dynamic range,
detectors for millimeter-wave and THz receivers, phase conjugating RFID type
antennas, and high-frequency generation.
▪ A special case of frequency-conversion antennas is when a two- or three-terminal
rectifying device is connected directly to the terminals of a receiving antenna in such a
way that the received RF power is converted with optimal efficiency to DC power,
while harmonic production and re-radiation is minimized.
▪ This type of active antenna is referred to as a rectenna. Such antennas have been
applied to RFID tags, sensor powering for cases when there is no solar power and
where it is difficult to replace batteries, directed narrow-beam array power beaming,
and for energy recycling and/or scavenging.
 15

DIELECTRIC ANTENNAS
• The travelling wave antenna in which the travelling wave is guided by a dielectric is called
dielectric antenna (Fig. 4-13).
• In dielectric antenna, near cut-off, the phase velocity rquals the velocity of light. The fields
produced extend outside a dielectric guide.
• These outward fields excite the desired radiation in free-space. Such travelling wave
antennas are useful for broad band signals.
 16

Fig. 4-13 Dielectric antenna

 A dielectric resonator antenna :

• A dielectric resonator antenna (DRA) is a radio antenna mostly used
at microwave frequencies and higher, that consists of a block of ceramic material of various
shapes, the dielectric resonator, mounted on a metal surface, a ground plane.
• Radio waves are introduced into the inside of the resonator material from
thetransmitter circuit and bounce back and forth between the resonator walls,
forming standing waves. The walls of the resonator are partially transparent to radio waves,
allowing the radio power to radiate into space.
• An advantage of dielectric resonator antennas is they lack metal parts, which become lossy at
high frequencies, dissipating energy. So these antennas can have lower losses and be more
efficient than metal antennas at high microwave and millimeter wave frequencies.
• Dielectric waveguide antennas are used in some compact portable wireless devices, and
military millimeter-wave radar equipment. The antenna was first proposed by Robert
Richtmyer in 1939.
• In 1982, Long et al. did the first design and test of dielectric resonator antennas considering a
leaky waveguide model assuming magnetic conductor model of the dielectric surface . Thus,
they argued that the dielectric antenna behaved like a magnetic dipole antenna.
• The magnetic conductor model does not explain how current in the dielectric medium is
transformed into electromagnetic waves which results in radiation. The electric field from
oscillation of polarized dipole fall off inversely with cube of distance and cannot be
responsible for far field radiation.

ELECTRONIC BAND GAP STRUCTURE (EBG) AND APPLICATIONS

• EBG definition : Periodic structures are abundant in nature, which have fascinated artists
and scientists alike. When they interact with electromagnetic waves, exciting phenomena
appear and amazing features result.
• In particular, characteristics such as frequency stop bands, pass bands, and band gaps could
be identified. Reviewing the literature, one observes that various terminologies have been
used depending on the domain of the applications.
• These applications are seen in filter designs, gratings, frequency selective surfaces (FSS),
photonic crystals and photonic band gaps (PBG), etc. Generally speaking, electromagnetic
band gap structures are defined as artificial periodic (or sometimes non-periodic) objects
that prevent/assist the propagation of electromagnetic waves in a specified band of
frequency for all incident angles and all polarization states.
 17

• EBG structures are usually realized by periodic arrangement of dielectric materials and
metallic conductors. In general, they can be categorized into three groups according to their
geometric configuration: (1) three-dimensional volumetric structures, (2) two-dimensional
planar surfaces, and (3) one-dimensional transmission lines.
• Different EBG structures : 3-D EBG structures (a woodpile structure consisting of square
dielectric bars and a multi-layer metallic tripod array) , 2-D EBG surfaces (mushroom-like
surface and a uni-planar design without vertical vias), one-dimensional EBG transmission
line designs as in Fig. 4-14
• 2-D EBG surfaces has the advantages of low profile, light weight, and low fabrication cost,
and are widely considered in antenna engineering.
• The planar electromagnetic band gap (EBG) surfaces exhibit distinctive electromagnetic
properties with respect to incident electromagnetic waves:

Fig. 4-14 Different EBG structures

 Applications:
• A multitude of basic EBG applications exists especially within the microwave and low
millimeter wave region. For example, In electronically scanned phased arrays, high-precision
GPS, Bluetooth, mobile telephony, waveguides, antennas, low loss- coplanar lines, and
compact integrated filters.

ANTENNA TEST RANGES

 18

• Basically, there are two methods of antenna measurements: indoor and outdoor. Both the
methods have their own limitations; the outdoor measurements are not protected from the
environmental conditions whereas indoor measurements suffer space restrictions. In
general, for the accurate measurements uniform plane waves should incident on the antenna
and this is possible only if measurements are carried out in far-field region.
• The region in which antenna measurements are performed effectively is termed antenna
ranges (separation between antennas) and it is basically of two types: reflection ranges and
free-space ranges.
• Reflection ranges: This is outdoor type test range, where ground is a reflecting surface. The
reflection ranges create constructive interference in the region surrounding AUT which is
referred as quit zone. In order to have effective communication height of Tx antenna is
adjusted while that of Rx antenna is maintained constant. These testing ranges are found
suitable for the antenna systems operating in frequency range from UHF to 16 GHz.
• Free-space ranges: This is indoor type test range and is designed mainly to minimize
environmental effects. This is most popular test range where the antennas are mounted over
tall towers. The main problem of this method is reflection from the ground, which is
reduced by
▪ Selecting the directivity and SLL of the Tx antenna
▪ Making LOS between antennas obstacle-free
▪ Redirecting or absorbing reflected.

• Free-space ranges are further classified into elevated ranges, slant ranges, anechoic
chambers and compact test ranges. Special indoor test ranges are near-field ranges, and they
have several limitations compared to outdoor ranges.

 Anechoic Chamber Measurement:

• Anechoic chamber is an indoor chamber. The chamber walls, celing and floor are filled with
absorbing material except at the location of transmitting antenna and antenna under test
(AUT).
• It simulates a reflection-less free space and allows all-weather antenna measurements in a
controlled environment.
• As compared with outdoor ranges, in anechoic chamber, the area where test antenna
situated is isolated from all types of interfering signals in better way. To improve isolation of
test area, many times shielding is done which also allows Electromagnetic Compatibility
(EMC) measurements.
• In case of small antennas, far field measurements is possible using anechoic chamber with
one end wall opened and the chamber is combined with an outdoor range. But in case of
large antennas, compact antenna test ranges and rear field ranges are installed in anechoic
chambers itself. For such measurements a complete lining of absorbers is not essential.
• The absorbing materials are not only the integral part of measurement ranges but are the
important components of antennas used to reduce the side lobe and back lobe radiations.
Basically the typical broadband absorber used is carbon-loaded polyurethane foam. An ideal
 19

absorber can provide an impedance match for the incoming waves at all frequencies and
angles of incidence.
• By shaping absorber or by gradually varying resistivity of material, a tapered transition in
impedance from free space to back of the absorber can be achieved. The most widely used
geometrical shapers are pyramids and wedges as shown in Fig. 4-15 (a) and (b) respectively.

Fig. 4-15 Absorbing materials

• For normal incidence the pyramid type absorber is the best option as they scatter as a
random rough surface when large compared with wavelength. At higher frequencies, the
reflection coefficient is larger and at lower frequencies, the thickness of the absorber should
be larger. Near gazing angler the pyramidal absorbers show large backscattered field.
• While the wedge shaped absorbers, with wedge direction along the plane of incidence, work
perfectly at large angles of incidences but for normal incidence they cannot work
satisfactorily compared with pyramidal absorbers.

 Rectangular chambers:
• Fig. 4-16 shows a longitudinal sectional view of a rectangular chamber in which the source
antenna is located at the centre of one of the end walls. The location of the test antenna is at a
point approximately equidistant from the side and back walls along the centre line of the
chamber at the other end of the chamber with respect to the source antenna.
• The chamber is completely lined with microwave absorbing material. Still there will be
reflections from the walls, floor and ceiling and the specular reflections reaching .the test
antenna are the cause of concern. These arise from the regions midway between the source
and test antennas on the side walls, floor, ceiling and also from the centre region of the back
wall.
 20

Fig. 4-16 A longitudinal sectional view of a rectangular anechoic chamber

• For good absorption by the lining materials, the chamber width and height is designed such
that the angle of incidence 𝜃𝑖 < 60°. However, this requirement puts the restriction that the
length to width ratio of the chamber be about 2 : 1 which is extended to 3 : 1 sometimes at
the expense of higher levels of reflections.
• The space in which the test antenna is located is termed the quiet zone. The volume of the
quiet zone for a given chamber depends on the specified or allowable deviation of the
incident field from a uniform plane wave. Rectangular chambers need bigger absorbing
materials for frequencies below 1 𝐺𝐻𝑧.
• Also at these frequencies it is difficult to obtain accurate measurements in these chambers
mainly because it is usually not possible to obtain a source antenna with a sufficiently
narrow beam width of these frequencies, to avoid illumination of the walls, floor and ceiling
with the main beam.

 Tapered chambers:
• The tapered anechoic chamber got introduced to overcome some of the limitations of the
rectangular chamber, mentioned above. It consists of a tapered section opening into a
rectangular section. The taper is shaped like a pyramidal horn that tapers from a small
source end to a large rectangular test region. This construction is shown in Fig. 4-17.

Fig. 4-17 A longitudinal sectional view of a tapered anechoic chamber

• The rectangular section is approximately which and the tapered section is usually twice as
long as the rectangular section. This geometry inherently requires less absorbing material
which helps in substantially reducing the cost. In the tapered chamber, the specular
reflections that reach the test region occur close to the source antenna as shown in Fig. 4-35.
 21

• However the path lengths of the reflected signals are not very different, electrically, from that
of the direct signal which produces a slowly varying amplitude pattern which is beneficial
since a constructive interference results. Also this allows use of thinner absorbing materials
over the walls. The concept is illustrated in Fig. 4-18.

Fig. 4-18 Specular reflections that reach the quiet zone of a tapered anechoic chamber

MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION PATTERN OF ANTENNA:

• The radiation patterns (amplitude and phase), polarization, and gain of an antenna, which
are used to characterize its radiationcapabilities, are measured onthe surface of a constant
radius sphere.
• All these quantities are measured on the surface of a sphere with constant radius. Any point
′𝑃′ on such sphere can be described using spherical co-ordinate system as shown in
Fig. 4-19.

Fig. 4-19 Spherical co-ordinate system representation

for radiation pattern measurement.

• Basically for representation of a point on the surface, only 𝜽 and 𝝓 specifications are
sufficient because sphere with constant radius is considered. Thus the radiation
characteristics of the antenna as a function of 𝜽 and 𝝓 for constant radius and frequency is
called radiation pattern of an antenna.
• Basically it is a three dimensional representation. But due to the practical difficulty, number
of two dimensional patterns are measured and from that the three dimensional pattern is
constructed.
 22

• In general, the minimum number of patterns required to construct a three dimensional

pattern is 2 and they are selected as principle 𝑬-plane and 𝑯-plane patterns. The two
dimensional pattern is generally called pattern cut.
• Generally the pattern cuts can be obtained for one of the angles (𝜽 or 𝝓) constant and
varying the other. In most of the cases, the required patterns are horizontal plane i.e. 𝑥-𝑦
plane and vertical pattern in 𝑥-𝑧 plane. (Refer Fig. 4-19.)

• For horizontal antenna following patterns are required.

▪ The 𝝓 component of electric field as a function of 𝝓 is measured in 𝑥-𝑦 plane (𝜽 =
90°). The field component can be then represented as 𝑬𝝓(𝜽 = 90°, 𝝓) and it is called
𝑬-plane pattern.
▪ The 𝝓 component of electric field as a function of 𝜽 is measured in 𝑥-𝑧 plane (𝝓 =
0°). It is represented as 𝑬𝝓(𝜽 , 𝝓 = 0°) and it is called 𝑯-plane pattern.

• The two patterns bisect the major lobe in mutually perpendicular planes providing sufficient
information for the measurement.
• For vertical antenna following patterns are required.
▪ The 𝜽 component of electric field as a function of 𝝓 is measured in 𝑥-𝑦 plane (𝜽 =
90°). The field component can be then represented as 𝑬𝝓(𝜽 = 90°, 𝝓) and it is called
𝑯-plane pattern.
▪ The 𝜽 component of electric field as a function of 𝜽 is measured in 𝑥-𝑧 plane (𝝓 =
90°). It is represented as 𝑬𝝓(𝜽 , 𝝓 = 90°) and it is called 𝑬-plane pattern.

• For the antennas which are circularly or elliptically polarized, the measurement of all these
four patterns is necessary. However the patterns in one plane provides sufficient
information for the measurement.

• For example, for broadcasting applications and earth to earth communications, the
horizontal plane patterns are sufficient. While for earth to space communications such as
radar, radio astronomy etc., the vertical plane patterns are sufficient.

• The radiation pattern of an antenna can be measured either in transmitting mode or

receiving mode. For reciprocal antennas, even any mode is sufficient, receiving mode is
selected.

 Basic Procedure for Radiation Pattern Measurement

• For the measurement of radiation pattern of antenna, two antennas are required. One of the
antennas in the system is the antenna under test, while the other illuminates the antenna
under test and it is located away from the antenna under test.

• Thus one antenna is used in the transmitting mode, while other in the receiving mode. But
according to the reciprocity principle, the radiation pattern will be same irrespective of the
mode in which antenna is used. The antenna under test is usually referred as primary
antenna, while the other one as secondary antenna. Note that these are called primary or
secondary antennas irrespective of the antenna mode i.e. either transmitting or receiving.
 23

• The procedures for measuring the radiation pattern in a particular plane are as follows.

▪ In the first procedure, the antenna under test i.e. primary antenna is kept stationary,
while the secondary antenna is moved around the primary antenna along a circular
path with uniform radius. If the secondary antenna is directional one, it is always aimed
at the primary antenna. In this procedure, usually the primary antenna is transmitting.
At different points, along the circular path, the readings of the field strength and
direction with respect to the primary antenna are recorded. Then from these readings
a plot of the radiation pattern of a primary antenna is plotted either as rectangular plot
or polar plot.

▪ In the second procedure, both the antennas are kept stationary with a suitable spacing
between them. The secondary antenna is aimed at the primary antenna. The primary
antenna is rotated about a vertical axis. In this procedure, the secondary antenna is
used in the transmitting mode, so that the field strength reading and direction of the
primary antenna with respect to the secondary antenna is made. The continuous
readings at different points during rotation can be made using pattern recorder.

▪ Generally at low frequency, first procedure is used while at high frequency second one
is preferred.

 Set up for Measurement of Radiation Pattern of an Antenna

• The simple arrangement for the radiation pattern measurement consists primary antenna is
transmitting mode, secondary antenna as antenna under test. The secondary antenna is
coupled with the rotating shaft and it is rotated using antenna rotator mechanism. To
measure the relative amplitude of the received field an indicator is used along with the
receiver as shown in Fig. 4-20.

Fig. 4-20 Measurement setup for radiation pattern

• Usually the antenna under test is used in the receiving mode. It is properly illuminated by
the stationary primary antenna. The secondary antenna is rotated about vertical axis. For E-
plane pattern measurement, the antenna support shaft is rotated with both the antennas
horizontal. While for H-plane pattern measurement, the shaft is rotated with both the
antennas vertical.
 24

GAIN MEASUREMENT:
• The gain and the directivity are usually measured in the direction of the pattern maximum.
Their values in any other direction can be calculated from the radiation pattern. There are
two techniques used for measuring the gain of an antenna-absolute gain measurement and
gain transfer measurement.
• For the absolute gain measurement it is not necessary to have a prior knowledge of the gains
of the antennas used in the measurement. The more commonly used gain transfer method,
requires the use of a gain standard with which the gain of the antenna under test is
compared.

 Absolute Gain Measurement

• Friis transmission formula forms the basis for absolute gain measurement. The Friis
transmission formula expressed in decibels is ;
𝜆
𝑃𝑟𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 𝑃𝑡𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 𝐺𝑡𝑑𝐵 + 𝐺𝑟 𝑑𝐵 + 20 log10 ( ) -------- (4.34)
4𝜋𝑅

• Consider two identical antennas placed in an elevated range or inside a rectangular anechoic
chamber which are properly oriented and aligned such that (i) they are polarization
matched and (ii) main beams of the two antennas are aligned with each other. With this
arrangement, the gain in the direction of the maximum can be measured. The gain in any
other direction can be computed from the radiation pattern.
• Let 𝑅 be the separation between the two antennas chosen such that the antennas operate in
the far-field region. Let 𝜆 be the wavelength corresponding to the operating frequency. A
calibrated coupling network and a matched receiver unit, as shown in Fig. 4-21, are used to
measure the transmit and the receive powers 𝑃𝑡𝑑𝐵𝑚 and 𝑃𝑟𝑑𝐵𝑚 respectively. All the
components are impedance matched using tuners.

Fig. 4-21 Measurement of transmit and receive powers

• If the two antennas are identical, their gains are identical and Eqn. (4.34) can be written as
1 𝜆
𝐺𝑡𝑑𝐵 = 𝐺𝑟 𝑑𝐵 = [𝑃𝑟𝑑𝐵𝑚 − 𝑃𝑡𝑑𝐵𝑚 − 20 log10 ( )]
2 4𝜋𝑅 -------- (4.35)

and hence the gain of the antennas can be calculated. Since this method uses two antennas, it
is known as two-antenna method for gain measurement.
 25

• In the absence of two identical antennas, a third antenna is required to measure the gain.
This is known as a three-antenna method of gain measurement.
• Let 𝐺𝐴 𝑑𝐵, 𝐺𝐵 𝑑𝐵, and 𝐺𝐶 𝑑𝐵 be the gains of the three antennas. Transmitted and received
powers are recorded by taking two antennas at a time. Let 𝑃𝑟𝑑𝐵𝑚 𝐴𝐵 , 𝑃𝑟𝑑𝐵𝑚
𝐵𝐶 and 𝑃𝑟𝑑𝐵𝑚
𝐶𝐴 be the
received powers.
• The superscripts represent the antenna combinations used in the measurement. Similarly, let
𝑃𝐴𝐵 , 𝑃𝐵𝐶 and 𝑃𝐶𝐴 be the transmitted powers in each measurement. Now we have three
𝑡𝑑𝐵𝑚 𝑡𝑑𝐵𝑚 𝑡𝑑𝐵𝑚
linear equations corresponding to these three measurements.

which can be solved simultaneously to calculate the gains of each of the antennas.

 Gain Transfer Method

• The gain of the test antenna is measured by comparing it with a standard gain antenna, of
which the gain is known accurately. The test antenna is illuminated by a plane wave with its
polarization matched to the test antenna. The received power into a matched load, 𝑃𝑟𝑑𝐵𝑚
𝑇 , is

then measured. Let 𝐺𝑑𝐵

𝑇 be the gain of the test antenna. From Friis formula ;
 26

and hence the gain of the test antenna can be calculated.

• It is important to note that the polarization of the test antenna and the standard gain antenna
need to be identical to each other and this should be matched with the polarization of the
transmitter. Both antennas should be impedance matched to the receiver. This method is
used to measure the gain of a linearly polarized antenna.
• The gain of a circularly polarized antenna can also be measured using a linearly polarized
standard gain antenna. Since a circularly polarized wave can be decomposed into two
orthogonal linear components, we can use a linearly polarized antenna to measure the gains
of each of these components and then the total gain is obtained by combining the two.
 27

• For this, we take a linearly polarized transmit antenna and orient it so that it produces
vertically polarized waves. Now, the power received by a standard gain antenna oriented to
receive vertical polarization and the power received by the circularly polarized test antenna
is measured.
• The gain of the test antenna for the vertically polarized wave is computed using Eqn. (4.46).
Let this gain be denoted by 𝐺𝑇𝑉
𝑑𝐵. Now, rotate the transmit antenna by 90°, so that it radiates
horizontally polarized waves.
• Measure the powers received by the test antenna and by the standard gain antenna oriented
to receive horizontally c-arized waves (rotating it by 90°). Once again, using Eqn. (4.46)
compute the gain, 𝐺𝑑𝐵𝑇𝐻 , of the test antenna for the horizontally polarized wave. The total gain

of the test antenna is given by ;

𝐺𝑇 = 10 log10(𝐺𝑇𝑉 + 𝐺𝑇𝐻)
𝑑𝐵 -------- (4.42)

• In the above equation, 𝐺𝑇𝑉 and 𝐺𝑇𝐻 are the gains expressed as ratios and not in decibels.

DIRECTIVITY MEASUREMENT
• Sometimes it is found that the directivity of the antenna cannot be calculated using the
analytical techniques alone. So the directivity can be obtained from the radiation pattern of
the antenna. The following procedure is considered ;
▪ Measure the two principal 𝐸- and 𝐻-plane patterns of the test antenna.
▪ Determine the half-power beamwidths (in degrees) of the 𝐸- and 𝐻-plane patterns.
▪ Compute the directivity using the formula ;
4𝜋
𝐷0 = -------- (4.43)
Ω𝐴
Ω𝐴 = 𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝜙𝐻𝑃 -------- (4.44)
where 𝜃𝐻𝑃 and 𝜙𝐻𝑃 are the half-power beamwidths (HPBW) in the two principal planes,.
• Directivity can also be computed using the formula ;
4𝜋𝑈
𝐷=
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 -------- (4.45)

where ; 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = Total power radiated in the direction (𝜃, 𝜙)

𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) = Radiation intensity in the direction (𝜃, 𝜙)

• The total power radiated by the antenna is obtained by integrating the radiation intensity
over the entire solid angle of 4𝜋. Thus,
2𝜋 𝜋

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∯ 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑑Ω = ∫ ∫ 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑 -------- (4.46)

Ω 0 0
 28

POLARIZATION MEASUREMENT
• Polarization Pattern Method : This method can be used to measure the AR and the tilt
angle 𝜏 of the polarization ellipse but not the sense of polarization (Fig. 4-22). The test
antenna is connected as the source antenna while a linearly polarized antenna such as a
dipole antenna is used to receive the power at different rotation angles.
• The square root of the received power plotted against the rotation angle ψ indicate the AR
and title 𝜏.

Fig. 4-22 Polarization Pattern Method

INPUT IMPEDANCE, REFLECTION COEFFICIENT, VSWR MEASUREMENT

• The input characteristics of an antenna such as the input impedance 𝑍𝐴 can be measured
by a network analyser. The advantage of a network analyser is its ability to measure both
the magnitude and the phase of the power received.
• Reflection Coefficient Measurement: The reflection coefficient 𝜌(or 𝑆11) of an antenna can be
obtained from its input impedance measurement.

• VSWR Measurement: The VSWR of an antenna can be obtained from its reflection coefficient
measurement.
Post – MCQs:
1. 𝑹𝒖𝒎𝒔𝒆𝒚′𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆,
a. which states that the impedance and pattern properties of an antenna will be
frequency independent if the antenna shape is specified only in terms of angles.
b. which states that the capacitance and pattern properties of an antenna will be
frequency independent if the antenna shape is specified only in terms of angles.
c. which states that the inductance and pattern properties of an antenna will be
frequency independent if the antenna shape is specified only in terms of angles.
d. None of the above

Ans: a

2. __________________ is a broadband antenna in which the geometry of the antenna

structure is adjusted such that all the electrical properties of the antenna are repeated
periodically with the logarithm of the frequency
a. Helical Antenna
b. Spiral Antenna
c. Log periodic antenna
d. Parabolic antenna

Ans: c

3. the relationship between the apex angle 𝛼, spacing 𝑠, and length 𝑙 is

1
a. tan α = (1 − ) /4𝑆 λ
𝑘
1
b. tan α = (1 − ) /4𝑁𝑌
𝑡
1
c. tan α = (1 − ) /4𝑅𝑚
𝑘
d. None of the above

Ans: a

4. In the normal mode of operation of Helical Antenna, the dimensions of the helix should
be _______
a. 𝑁𝐿0 ≪ 𝜆0
b. 𝑁𝐿1 ≪ 𝜆0
c. 𝑁𝐿0 ≪ 𝜆1
d. 𝑁𝐿0 ≪ N0

Ans: a
 5. The Oscillator antenna is defined as
a. A two- or three-terminal negative-resistance device can be connected directly to the
terminals of a single antenna element or an array of elements.
b. A two- or three-terminal active device can be designed into the antenna to enable
the antenna impedance to tune with frequency.
c. An active device is connected to the terminals of an antenna element to provide
amplification in receive mode or transmit mode
d. None of the above

Ans: a

6. is a radio antenna mostly used at microwave frequencies and higher, that consists of a
block of ceramic material of various shapes, the dielectric resonator, mounted on a
metal surface, a ground plane.

a. A resonator antenna
b. A dielectric resonator antenna
c. A dielectric antenna
d. A active antenna
Ans: b
7. Friis transmission formula is ______________

a. 𝑃𝑟𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 𝑃𝑡𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 𝐺𝑡𝑑𝐵 + 𝐺𝑟 𝑑𝐵 + 20 log10 ( 𝜆/ 4𝜋𝑅)

b. 𝑃𝑟𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 𝑃r𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 𝐺𝑡𝑑𝐵 + 𝐺t 𝑑𝐵 + 20 log10 ( 𝜆/ 4𝜋r)
c. 𝑃𝑟𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 𝑃𝑡𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 𝐺𝑡𝑑𝐵 + 𝐺𝑟 𝑑𝐵 + 20 log10 ( 𝜆/ 4𝜋z)
d. 𝑃t𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 𝑃𝑡𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 𝐺r𝑑𝐵 + 𝐺𝑟 𝑑𝐵 + 20 log10 ( 𝜆/ 4𝜋𝑅)
Ans: a

8. The total gain of the test antenna in gain transfer method is ________
a. 𝐺𝑑𝐵 𝑇 = 10 log10(𝐺𝑇𝑉 + 𝐺𝑇𝐻)
b. 𝐺𝑑𝐵 𝑇 = 10 log10(𝐺𝑇H + 𝐺𝑇V)
c. 𝐺𝑑𝐵 𝑇 = 10 log10(D𝑇𝑉 + D𝑇𝐻)
d. 𝐺𝑑𝐵 𝑇 = 10 log10(𝐺𝑇𝑉 + D𝑇𝐻)
Ans: a
9. The directivity of the antenna is measured by
a. Ω𝐴 = 𝜃𝐻𝑃𝜙𝐻𝑃
b. 𝐷 = 4𝜋𝑈 /𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
c. All the above
d. None of the above
Ans: c
 10. The reflection coefficient 𝜌(or 𝑆11) of an antenna is __________
a. 𝜌 = (𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝑜 ) ∗ (𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝑜)
b. 𝜌 = (𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝑜)/(𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝑜)
c. 𝜌 = (𝑍𝑜 − 𝑍𝐴)/(𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝑜)
d. 𝜌 = (𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝑜)/(𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝑜)

Ans: b

11. The antenna measurement ranges are ________

a. Reflection ranges
b. Free space ranges
c. Refraction ranges
d. Both A and B
Ans: d

12. _____________ is a room designed to completely absorb reflections of either sound or

electromagnetic waves.
a. Anechoic chamber (Ans)
b. AUT
c. EMC Measurement
d. None of the above
Ans: a

13. In the radiation pattern measurement consists primary antenna is transmitting mode,
secondary antenna as ______________
a. Receiving mode
b. Transmitting mode
c. AUT (Ans)
d. All the above.
Ans: c

14. In absolute gain measurement the Calibrated coupling network has following
a. Coupler
b. Attenuator
c. Tuner
d. All the above (Ans)
Ans:d

15. The advantage of a network analyser is its ability to measure both

a. the magnitude and the phase of the power received (Ans)
b. the amplitude and the frequency of the power received
c. the magnitude and the frequency of the power received
d. None of the above
Ans: a
Conclusion:
At the end of the topic, students will be able –

1) To understand the basic concept of Special Antennas and their radiation

characteristics.

2) To understand the principle operation of Special Antennas and their applications.

3) To get exposure to different types Antenna Measurements

References:
1. Constantine.A. Balanis “Antenna Theory Analysis and Design”, Wiley Student Edition,
4th Edition 2016.
2. Rajeswari Chatterjee, “Antenna Theory and Practice” Revised Second Edition New Age
International Publishers, 2006.
3. S. Drabowitch, “Modern Antennas” Second Edition, Springer Publications, 2007
4.Robert S. Elliott “Antenna Theory and Design” Wiley Student Edition, 2006.

Assignments:
1. Develop the condition for frequency independence, construction, analysis and
characteristics features of frequency independent antennas.
2. Explain about Helical Antenna and Spiral Antennas.
3. With neat schematic diagram, discuss the construction, principle and operation of a log
periodic antenna.
4. Demonstrate the compact antenna test ranges and near field ranges with neat
diagrams.
5. Explain in detail about – (i) Radiation Pattern Measurement (ii) Gain Measurement
 Subject Name: Antennas & Propagation
Topic Name: Propagation of Radio Waves
(Unit – 5)

Syllabus / Propagation of Radio Waves:

1. Modes of propagation , Structure of atmosphere
2. Ground wave propagation, Tropospheric propagation , Duct
propagation, Troposcatter propagation
3. Virtual height, critical frequency , Maximum usable frequency –
Skip distance, Fading , Multi hop propagation

Aim and Objective:

 To give insight of basic Knowledge of Structure of Atmosphere
 To understand the concepts of Ground wave propagation,
Tropospheric propagation , Duct propagation, Troposcatter propagation
 To study the basics of Virtual height, critical frequency , Maximum

usable frequency – Skip distance, Fading , Multi hop propagation

Pre – Test MCQs:
1.Free space may be divided in to the following
a.Line of sight (LOS) propagation
b.Ground wave propagation
c.Sky wave propagation
d.All the above
Ans: d
2. The Stratosphere distance _______
A) 50 to 90 KM
B) 100 to 120km
C) 40 to 80 km
D) 100 -150 Km
Ans:a
3. The outer atmosphere G region is above ____
A) 500km
B) 400km
C) 350km
D) 300km
Ans: b
4. This region between the top of troposphere and the beginning of the
stratosphere is called
A) inospause
B) Statospasue
C) tropopause.
D) None of the above
Ans: c
5) The region between ( ___ km to ___ km) above the earth's surface is
called region of calm or stratosphere,
A) 10 𝑘𝑚 to 40 𝑘𝑚
B) 20 𝑘𝑚 to 50 𝑘𝑚
C) 05 𝑘𝑚 to 50 𝑘𝑚
D) 20 𝑘𝑚 to 80 𝑘𝑚
Ans: b

6) 𝐹 layer is also called as _______

A) Appleton layer
B) Rough Layer
C) both a &b
D) Concentrated layer
Ans: a
7) The waves, which while traveling, glide over the earth's surface are
called _____
A) ground wave
 B) scattered wave
C) reflected wave
D) direct wave
Ans: a
8) ___________ is very important from the point of view of long distance
radio communication
A) Space wave propagation
B) The sky wave propagation
C) ground wave propagation
D) None of the above
Ans: b
9) In sky wave propagation the signals are affected by _____
A) Interferences
B) Fading
C) Absorption
D) all the above
Ans: b

10. Fading is minimized by using the technique

a. Space diversity
b. Frequency diversity
c. both a and b
d. Phase diversity
Ans: c

Pre-requisite
• Basic knowledge of Atmospheric Structure.
• Basic Knowledge of different antennas and their characteristics.
 1

UNIT V: PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES

Modes of propagation , Structure of atmosphere , Ground wave propagation ,
Tropospheric propagation , Duct propagation, Troposcatter propagation , Flat
earth and Curved earth concept Sky wave propagation –Virtual height,
critical frequency, Maximum usable frequency – Skip distance, Fading , Multi
hop propagation.

INTRODUCTION – MODES OF PROPAGATION:

 The energy radiated from a transmitting antenna may reach the receiving antenna over any of
many possible propagation paths, some of which are illustrated in Fig. 5-1.

Fig. 5-1 Some possible propagation paths.

 Wavesthat arrive at the receiver after reflection or scattering in the ionosphere are known as
sky waves, oralternatively, as ionospherically reflected and ionospherically scattered waves.
 Waves that are reflected or scattered in the troposphere (that region of the atmosphere
within 10 kilometers of the earth's surface) are termed tropospheric waves.
 Energy propagated over other paths near the earth's surface is considered to be ground-wave.
It is convenient to divide the ground-wave signal into the space wave and surface wave.
 The space wave is made up of the direct wave, the signal that travels the direct path from
transmitter to receiver, and the ground-reflected wave, which is the signal arriving at the
receiver after being reflected from the surface of the earth.
 The space wave also includes that portion of the energy received as a result of diffraction
around the earth's surface and refraction in the upper atmosphere.
 The surface wave is a wave that is guided along the earth's surface, much as an
electromagnetic wave is guided by a transmission line.
 Energy is abstracted from the surface wave to supply the losses in the ground; so the
attenuation of this wave is directly affected by the constants of the earth along which it
travels.
 When both antennas are located right at the earth's surface, the direct and ground-reflected
terms in the space wave cancel each other, and transmission is entirely by means of this
surface wave(assuming no sky wave or tropospheric wave).
 2

FACTORS INVOLVED IN RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

Radio wave or electromagnetic wave when travels from transmitter to receiver, many factors
influence the propagation of wave. Some of the important factors are as follows:

 Characteristics of earth such as conductivity, permittivity, permeability.

 Curvature of the earth, magnetic field of the earth, roughness of the earth.
 Frequency of operation.
 Height and polarization of transmitting antenna and transmitter power.
 Characteristics of ionospheric regions.
 Distance between transmitter and receiver.
 Refractive index and permittivity of troposphere and ionospheric regions.

STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
 In the radio wave propagation, the earth's environment between the transmitting and
receiving antennas play very important role. The atmosphere of the earth mainly consists of
three regions namely (as in Fig. 5-2), i. Troposphere ii. Stratosphere and
iii. Ionosphere
 In 1925, Sir Edward Appleton showed that propagation of the radio waves at high
frequencies is greatly supported by the upper part of the atmosphere of the earth.

Fig. 5-2 Region in the earth’s atmosphere

 Structure of Troposphere:
 This is the nearest region in the atmosphere from the earth's surface and it is around 10 𝑘𝑚
to 20 𝑘𝑚 above the earth's surface. But the height of the troposphere region slightly varies at
the poles and the equators. Its height is least at the poles while maximum at the equators.
 The gas components in the troposphere remain almost constant in percentage with increase
in height. But the water vapour components drastically decrease with increasing height.
 3

 The significant property of the tropospheric region is that temperature decreases with
increase in the height. The troposphere is also called region of change. At a certain height
called critical height above troposphere, the temperature remains constant for narrow
region and then increases afterwards. This region between the top of troposphere and the
begining of the stratosphere is called tropopause.

 Structure of stratosphere:
 The region between 20 𝑘𝑚 to 50 𝑘𝑚 above the earth's surface is called region of calm or
stratosphere. It is dense part of the atmosphere. It absorbs UV rays because of the presence
of Ozone layer. The stratosphere has relatively little effect on radio waves because it is calm
region with little or no temperature changes.

 Structure of Ionosphere:
 The radiation from the space, in particular that from the sun, ionizes the gas molecules
present in the atmosphere. The ionized layer that extends from about 50 𝑘𝑚 above the
surface of the earth to several thousand kilometers is known as the ionosphere.
 At great heights from the surface of the earth the intensity of the ionizing radiation is very
high, but there are very few molecules to be ionized. Therefore, in this region the ionization
density (number of electrons or ions per unit volume) is low.
 As the height is decreased, atmospheric pressure increases, which implies that more
molecules are present in the atmosphere. Therefore, the ionization density increases closer
to the surface of the earth.
 With further reduction in height, though the number of molecules keeps increasing, the
ionization density reduces because the energy in the ionizing radiation has been used up or
absorbed to create ions.
 Therefore, the ionization density has a maximum that exists neither at the surface of the
earth nor at the outer periphery of the ionosphere, but somewhere in the middle i.e.,
between 50 𝑘𝑚 to 400 𝑘𝑚.
 It has been observed that the electron density profile (electron density versus height), has
regions of maxima as well as regions of constant density (Fig. 5-3). These regions are known
as layers of the ionosphere.
 There are mainly three layers in the ionosphere designated by the letters 𝐷, 𝐸, and 𝐹. The 𝐹
layer splits into separate layers 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 during day time. The 𝐹 layer is also called as
Appleton layer and it is ionized during day time as well as night time. The 𝐸 layer is also
called as Kennelly-Heaviside layer.
 The 𝐷 layer, which is present only during the day time, does not reflect high frequency
electromagnetic waves (2 − 30 𝑀𝐻𝑧), but attenuates the waves passing through it. Even
though the 𝐷 layer reflects lower frequency waves (< 1 𝑀𝐻𝑧), due to the high absorption of
the electromagnetic energy by the 𝐷 layer, the utility of the reflected waves is limited.
 The 𝐸 and 𝐹 layers, which are present during both day and night times, make long distance
communication possible by reflecting radio waves in the frequency range of 2−30 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
Radio waves above 30 𝑀𝐻𝑧 pass through the ionosphere.
 4

Fig. 5-3 Electron density profiles of ionosphere

 Along with the E layer, there exists the 𝐸𝑠 layer which has very high ionization density. This
is known as sporadic E layer and it exists during night time also. It is not important layer
from the point of view of long distance communication. But it provides sometime better
reception during night.
 The region lower to D region, where peak of the electron density is called C layer.
 The region at height 400 𝑘𝑚 above the earth's surface is called 𝐺 region. Eventhough the
upper limit of the ionosphere is not exactly known, the outer atmosphere is nothing but
𝐺 region which consists of the charge particles trapped by the terrestrial magnetic field
having shape similar to that of the magnetic lines of force. This region is occupied by the
radiation belts girdling the earth.
 The number of layers in the ionosphere, their heights and the amount of sky wave that can
bend by them will vary from day to day, month to month and year to year. For each layer
there is a critical frequency, above which if radio wave is sent vertically upward, will not
return back to the earth, but will penetrate it.

GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION

 The waves, which while traveling, glide over the earth's surface are called ground waves. The
ground wave is also called surface wave as the wave passes over the surface of the earth.
Ground waves are always vertically polarized (produced by vertical antennas) .
 The vertical antennas are the antennas in which the electromagnetic waves are vertically
polarized i.e., electric field vectors of electromagnetic waves are vertical with respect to
ground.
 Any horizontal component of the electric field vectors in contact with the ground gets short
circuited.
 When the ground waves propagate along the surface of the earth, the charges are induced on
the earth's surface.The number and polarity of these charges keep on changing with the
intensity and location of the wave field. This variation causes the constitution of a current.
 5

 In carrying this current, the earth behaves like a leaky capacitor. As the wave travels over the
surface, it gets weakened due to absorption of some of its energy. This absorption, in fact, is
the power loss in the earth's resistance due to the flow of current.
 This energy loss is partly replenished by the diffractionof energy, downward, from the
portion of the wave present some what above the immediate surface of the earth. This
process is shown in Fig. 5-4.

Fig. 5-4 Front and side view of the gliding wave and a leaky capacitor

 The earth’s attenuation increases as frequency increases. So this mode of propagation is

suitable for low and medium frequency i.e., upto 2 𝑀𝐻𝑧 only. It is also called as medium
wave propagation. All the broadcast signals received during day time is due to ground wave
propagation.
 Along with the ground attenuation, the ground waves or surface waves are suffered due to
the diffraction and tilt in the wavefront. As the ground wave propagates over a surface of the
earth, the wavefront gradually tilts more and more. As the wave front tilts more and more,
the more electric field componentgets short circuited.
 Hence the strength of the signal gradually decreases with increase in the tilt. At a particular
distance from the transmitter, the ground wave completely dies due to the attenuation as a
result of more and more tilt of the wavefront.
 The phenomenon of wave tilting in successive wave front is shown in Fig. 5-5, in which
𝑇1, 𝑇2, 𝑇3, 𝑇4 and 𝑇5 are the tilting angles in increasing order and 𝑊1, 𝑊2, 𝑊3, 𝑊4 and 𝑊5
wavefronts.

Fig. 5-5 Tilting wave fonts in ground wave propagation

 In general, surface of the earth is considered to be a plane if the distance between the
transmitters and the receiver is less than the minimum barrier distance 𝑑 given by
expression ;
 6

50
𝑑= 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 -------- (5.1)
(𝑓𝑀𝐻𝑧)3

 Salient Features of Ground Wave Propagation

Thesalient features of ground wave propagation are as given below:
 The ground waves propagate along the surface of the earth.
 When the ground waves propagate along the surface of the earth, the charges are induced
on the surface of the earth. These charges travel along the wave and hence the current
gets induced.
 While carrying induced current, the earth acts as a leaky capacitor.
 The ground waves are produced in vertically polarized antennas which are placedvery
close to surface of the earth.
 The ground waves are important at broadcast and lower frequencies. These can beused
upto 2 MHz.
 According to the characteristics of the earth, the strength of ground wave varies.These
waves are not affected by the changes in the atmospheric conditions.
 The variations in surface or type of the earth affect propagation losses considerably.
 The maximum range of ground wave propagation depends -on the frequency andpower
of the transmitter.

FREE SPACE PROPAGATION

 Free space implies an infinite space without any medium or objects that can interact with
the electromagnetic waves.
 When electromagnetic waves are radiated by an antenna kept in free space, at large
distances from the antenna the radiated fields are in the form of spherical waves with
angular powerdistribution given by the antenna pattern.
 The power received, 𝑃𝑟, at a distance 𝑅 is given by the Friis formula;
𝑃𝑡𝐺𝑡𝐺𝑟𝜆2
𝑃𝑟 = -------- (5.2)
(4𝜋𝑅)2
where𝑃𝑡is the transmit power and 𝐺𝑡 and 𝐺𝑟 are the transmit and receiveantenna gains,
respectively.
 The transfer of electromagnetic energy from the transmit antenna to the receive antenna
takes place in a straight-line path and, hence, such a communication link is called a line-of-
sight (LOS) link.
 The factor [𝜆/4𝜋𝑅]2 is due to the propagation and is called the free space path loss. It
represents the attenuation of the signal due to the spreadingof the power as a function of
distance, 𝑅. In decibel units, the path loss is expressed as ;
4𝜋𝑅 2
𝑃𝐿 = 10 log10 ( ) -------- (5.3)
𝜆
 7

CALCULATION OF FIELD STRENGTH OF GROUND WAVE AT A DISTANCE

 The electric field strength, 𝐸 at a distance from transmitting antenna due to ground wave can
be obtained by solving Maxwell’s equation and it is given ;
𝜂 ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟𝐼𝑠
𝐸= -------- (5.4)
𝜆𝑑
where ; 𝜂 = Intrinsic impedance of free space ; ℎ𝑡 , ℎ𝑟 = Effective heights of transmitting and
receiving antennas ; 𝐼𝑠 = Antenna current and 𝑑 =distance at a point from the transmitter.
 If 𝑑 is large, the reduction in the field strength due to the ground attenuation and
atmospheric absorption increases and thus actual voltage received at receiving point
decreases.

SURFACE WAVE:
 Since the ground wave is guided along the surface of the earth, it is otherwise called as
surface wave. Surface waves constitute the primary mode of propagation for frequencies in
the range of a few kilohertz to several megahertz. Surface wave propagation exists when the
transmitting and receiving antennas are close to the surface of the earth.
 For example, in the AM broadcast application, a vertical monopole above the ground is used
to radiate power in the microwave frequency band. The receivers are generally placed very
close to the surface of the earth and hence they receive the broadcast signals via surface
waves. It is possible to achieve effective propagation over several hundred kilometers using
the surface wave mode.
 The attenuation factor of the surface wave depends on the distance between the transmitter
and the receiver, the frequency and the electrical properties of the ground (relative
permittivity 𝜖𝑟, and conductivity 𝜎) over which the wave is propagating. At the surface of the
earth, the attenuation factor is also known as the ground wave attenuation factor and is
designated by 𝐴.

ATTENUATION CHARACTERISTICS FOR GROUND WAVE PROPAGTION

 According to Sommerfield, for a flat earth, the field strength for a ground wave propagation
is given by ;
𝐸0𝐴
𝐸𝐺 = -------- (5.5)
𝑑
where ; 𝐸0 =Ground wave field strength at the earth’s surface at unit distance (from the
transmitting antenna) without considering earth losses ; 𝐸𝐺 =Ground wave field strength ;
𝐴 = Attenuation factor accounting for earth losses and 𝑑 =distance from the transmitting
antenna.
 The unit distance field strength 𝐸0, depends on two factors, namely, power radiation of
transmitting antenna and the diversity in the vertical and horizontal planes.
 For a vertical antenna which is non-directional in the horizontal plane, the radiation field
produced is proportional to the cosine of angle of elevation. Then the field at unit distance is
given by,
300√𝑃 -------- (5.6)
𝐸0 =
𝑑
where ; 𝑃 =Radiated power in 𝑘𝑊
 8

 The attenuation factor 𝐴 depends on:

i. Frequency, ii. Dielectric constant , iii. Conductivity of the earth
 For analysis purpose it is expressed interms of two auxillary variables such as, numerical
distance 𝑝 and phase constant 𝑏. These two variables are determined by frequency, distance
and dielectric characteristics of the ground considered as conductor for radio frequency and
are given as follows.
 The numerical distance 𝑝 and phase constant 𝑏, are given by ;

𝜋𝑑 𝜖𝑟 − 1
𝑝= cos 𝑏 ; 𝑏 = tan−1 ( )
𝜆𝑥 𝑥

𝜎 18 × 103𝜎
𝑥= =
𝜔𝜖𝑣 𝑓𝑀𝐻𝑧

 The relationship between the ground wave attenuation factor 𝐴 and numerical distance 𝑝
and phase constant 𝑏 is shown in Fig. 5-6.

Fig. 5-6 Variation of 𝑨 with numerical distance 𝒑 for different values

of the phase constant 𝒃.

 Note that the numerical distance 𝑝 depends not only on frequency and ground constants but
also on the actual distance to transmitter. It varies inversely with the ground conductivity,
while it is proportional to the distance and square of frequency. Another parameter i.e. phase
constant 𝑏 is the measure of the power factor angle of the earth.
 The attenuation factor 𝐴 may be approximately represented by following empirical formulae.
For 𝑏 < 5° ;
2 + 0.3 𝑝 -------- (5.7)
𝐴≈
2 + 𝑝 + 0.6 𝑝 2

 Similarly for all values of 𝑏, the attenuation factor 𝐴 is approximately given by,
2 + 0.3 𝑝 𝑝 −(5/8)𝑝
𝐴≅[ ] − sin 𝑏 𝑒 -------- (5.8)
√
2 + 𝑝 + 0.6 𝑝2 2
 For 𝑥 ≫ 𝜖𝑟, the power factor angle is nearly zero and the ground is mostly resistive. This is
the case for average or better-than-average earth at broadcast frequencies.
 At very high frequencies and over poor earths the condition 𝜖𝑟 ≫ 𝑥 may be obtained, and the
earth impedance will then be reactive.
 9

 It will be noticed that the same earth which acts as a conductor at very low frequencies, will
act as a dielectric that has a small loss at very high frequencies.
 From Fig. 5-6, the conclusions are ;
 For 𝑝 < 1: The ground attenuation factor 𝐴 almost remains constant at unity and
slowly reduces with increasing 𝑝. Then the ground losses are not significant for 𝑝 < 1.
 For 𝑝 > 1: As the numerical distance 𝑝 becomes greater than unity, the attenuation
factor decreases rapidly.
 For 𝑝 > 10 : For larger 𝑝 , the ground attenuation factor is almost inversely
proportional to the square of the distance.

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

 The sky wave propagation is very important from the point of view of long distance radio
communication.
 In this mode of propagation, the electromagnetic waves reaching the destination point first get
reflected by the region of ionized gases in the upper atmosphere region which is situated
between 50 𝑘𝑚 to 400 𝑘𝑚 above earth's surface. Hence, this mode of wave propagation is
called ionospheric propagation.
 The ionosphere acts like a reflecting surface and reflect back the electromagnetic waves of
frequencies between 2 𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 30 𝑀𝐻𝑧. Electromagnetic waves of frequency more than 30 𝑀𝐻𝑧
are not reflected back from ionosphere but they penetrate it. This mode is most effective from
the frequencies between 2 𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 30 𝑀𝐻𝑧 , hence this mode is also commonly called short
wave propagation.
 With the sky wave propagation, a long distance point to point communication is possible. The
main advantage of the sky wave propagation is that the long distance communication is
possible with the help of multiple reflections of the sky waves. But these signals are affected by
fading in which the strength of the signal varies with time.

 Characteristics of Ionosphere
1. Characteristics of 𝑫 layer
 It is the lowest layer of the ionosphere and located at a height of 50 𝑘𝑚 to 90 𝑘𝑚.
 Its thickness is about 10 𝑘𝑚.
 It exists only in day-time and disappears in night time.
 Its ionisation properties depend on the altitude of the sun above the horizon.
 It is not useful layer for HF communication.
 It reflects some VLF and LF waves.
 It absorbs MF and HF waves to some extent.
 Its electron density is 400 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑐𝑐.
 Crictical frequency of the layer is 100 𝑘𝐻𝑧.

2. Characteristics of 𝑬 layer
 It exists next to 𝐷 layer at an average height of 100 𝑘𝑚.
 Its thickness is about 25 𝑘𝑚.
 10

 It reflects some HF waves in day-time.

 Its electron density is 5 × 105𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑐𝑐.
 Its critical frequency is 4 𝑀𝐻𝑧.

3. Characteristics of 𝑬𝒔 layer
 It is a sporadic E-Layer.
 Its appearance is sporadic in nature.
 It exists in both day and night.
 It is a thin layer and its ionisation density is high.
 It appears close to E-Layer.
 If it appears, it provides good reception.
 It is not a dependable layer for communication.

4. Characteristics of 𝑭𝟏 layer
 It exists at a height of about 180 𝑘𝑚 in day-time.
 Its thickness is about 20 km.
 It combines with 𝐹2 layer during nights.
 HF waves are reflected to some extent.
 It absorbs HF to a considerable extent.
 It passes on some HF waves towards 𝐹2 layer.
 Its critical frequency is 5 𝑀𝐻𝑧.

5. Characteristics of 𝑭𝟐 layer
 It is the most import layer for HF communication.
 Its average height is about 325 𝑘𝑚 in day-time.
 Its thickness is about 200 𝑘𝑚.
 It falls to a height of 300 km at nights as it combines with the 𝐹1 layer.
 It is the topmost layer of the ionosphere.
 It is highly ionized and offers better HF reflection.
 Electron density of 𝐹2 layer is 2 × 106 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑐𝑐.
 Its critical frequency is 8 𝑀𝐻𝑧 in day time and 6 𝑀𝐻𝑧 at nights.

IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION (Propagation of Radio Waves through Ionosphere)

 The sky wave propagation or ionospheric wave propagation is important as it assists global
short wave communication. Due to the existence of the different ionized layers in the
ionosphere, the long distance communication is possible.
 In ionosphere, the composition of the layers and heights of the layers vary with time, but the
𝐸 and 𝐹 layer persists permanently. These layers are mainly useful in long distance
communication.
 The 𝐷-Iayer exists during day time. It cannot reflect high frequency waves back to the earth.
Instead the intensity of the waves reflected back from the E or F layers decrease during day
time due to the presence of the 𝐷-layer.
 The layers which exist permanently act as a radio mirror to bounce back the sky waves to the
earth. The waves which return back to the earth appear to be the waves reflected by the layers
of the ionosphere.
 11

 But practically the ionized layers refract or bend the waves back towards the earth in much the
same way as the refraction of the light waves travelling through media of different densities.
 The refraction mechanism can be explained in this fashion. When the wave approaches the
ionized layer at an angle, the refractive index decreases as the ionization density increases.

Fig. 5-7 Propagtion through ionosphere

 Hence the incident wave bends gradually further and further away from the normal as shown in
the Fig. 5-7 (a). If the rate of change of the refractive index is sufficient, the refracted wave
becomes parallel to the layer first, then it bends downward and then comes out of the ionized
layer at an angle of incidence. The propagation of radio waves through ionosphere is as shown
in the Fig. 5-7 (b).

CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETER OF IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION

 Critical Frequency
 The critical frequency for the ionized layer of the ionosphere is defined as the highest frequency
that can be reflected back to the earth by a particular layer for a vertical incidence. It is
denoted by 𝑓𝑐𝑟. Note that the critical frequency is different for different layers.
 Let us assume that the ionosphere is lossless, has a relative permeability of unity and can be
modeled as plane stratified media (Fig. 5-8).

Fig. 5-12 Ray path through a plane stratified ionosphere

 12

 The wavepath can be predicted using Snell's law

√𝜖𝑟0 sin 𝜃0 = √𝜖𝑟1 sin 𝜃1 = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ = √𝜖𝑟𝑛 sin 𝜃𝑛 -------- (5.9)

where 𝜃0 is the angle of incidence with respect to the normal and 𝜃1is the angle of refraction
at the lower edge of the ionosphere.
 At the next interface between layers having dielectric constants 𝜖𝑟1 and 𝜖𝑟2, the angle of
incidence is 𝜃1and the angle of refraction is 𝜃2. At the lower edge of the ionosphere the
electron density is zero and hence 𝜖𝑟0=1. Therefore, the equation representing Snell's law
reduces to ;
sin 𝜃0 = √𝜖𝑟𝑛 sin 𝜃𝑛 -------- (5.10)

 The relative dielectric constant is a function of the electron density 𝑁. As the electromagnetic
wave propagates deeper into the ionosphere, it passes through a region of higher 𝑁 into a
region of lower N.
 For a given angle of incidence 𝜃0 = 𝜃𝑖, if 𝑁 increases to a level such that the angle of
refraction, 𝜃𝑛 = 90°, the wave becomes horizontal. Under this condition Eqn. (5.10) reduces
to
sin 𝜃𝑖 = √𝜖𝑟𝑛 -------- (5.11)

 Let the dielectric constant of the nth layer be 𝜖𝑟𝑛 = 𝜖𝑟. Therefore , the refractive index of
ionosphere can be defined by

1
81N 2
n = √𝜖𝑟 = [1 − ( )]
𝑓2 -------- (5.12)
Substituting the value of 𝜖𝑟 from Eqn.(5.12)

81N
sin 𝜃𝑖 = √1 − -------- (5.13)
𝑓2

 If the incidence angle is greater than 𝜃𝑖, the wave returns to the earth. For a given angle of
incidence, higher frequency electromagnetic waves are reflected from the region having a
higher value of 𝑁.
 Consider an electromagnetic wave launched vertically into the ionosphere having a
maximum electron density 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥. Substituting 𝜃𝑖 = 0 in Eqn. (5.13), the highest frequency
that gets reflected is given by
𝑓𝑐𝑟 = √81𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 -------- (5.14)

which is known as the critical frequency.

 Virtual Height
 Consider an electromagnetic wave from a transmitter reaching the receiver after being
reflected by the ionosphere as shown in Fig. 5-13. Let the wave enter the ionosphere at 𝐿,
and take a curved path 𝐿𝑀𝑁 before it emerges out of the ionosphere.
 13

 The height at a point above the surface at which the wave bends down to the earth is called
actual height or true height.
 If the incident and the reflected rays are extended, they meet at point 𝑂 as shown in
Fig. 5-13, i.e., it is more convenient to think of the wave being reflected rather than refracted.
So the path can be assumed to be straight lines.
 The vertical height from the ground to the point 𝑂 is known as the virtual height of the
ionized layer and it is not true height.
 An ionosonde is the instrument used to measure the virtual height of the ionosphere. This
instrument transmits an 𝑅𝐹 pulse vertically into the ionosphere from the ground. This pulse
is reflected from the ionosphere and is received by the ionosonde. The time delay between
the transmit and the receive pulse is measured and plotted as a function frequency of the
electromagnetic wave.
 The time 𝑇 duration required for the round trip is noted and then virtual height is
determined by using ;
𝑐𝑇
ℎ= -------- (5.15)
2
where ; ℎ = virtual height , 𝑐 = velocity of light (𝑚/𝑠) and 𝑇 = time period (𝑠).

Fig. 5-13 Propagation path in the ionosphere and the depiction of virtual height

 The time delay is a measure of the virtual height of the ionosphere. A plot of the virtual
height as a function of frequency is known as an ionogram. A typical ionogram for daytime is
shown in Fig. 5-14.
 As the frequency of the electromagnetic wave increases, the virtual height also increases
slightly, indicating that the waves of higher frequencies are returned from higher levels
within the layer.
 As the frequency approaches the critical frequency (5 𝑀𝐻𝑧 for the 𝐹1layer), the virtual height
steeply increases. Once the critical frequency is crossed, the virtual height drops back to a
steady value (350 𝑘𝑚 for 5.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧) which is higher than that for a lower frequency
(200 𝑘𝑚 for 4 MHz).
 14

Fig. 5-14 A typical ionogram recorded during daytime

 Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)

 The critical frequency is the maximum frequency that can be reflected back to the earth by
the ionosphere for the vertical incidence. But if the frequency of the radio wave exceeds the
critical frequency 𝑓𝑐𝑟 , then the path of propagation in the ionosphere layer depends on the
angle of incidence.
 Hence the maximum usable frequency is defined as the limiting maximum frequency that can
be reflected back to the earth by the ionospheric layer for a specific angle of incidence other
than the angle of incidence for vertical incidence. It is denoted by 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹.
 The maximum usable frequency 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 can also be defined as the maximum frequency that can
be used for the sky wave propagation for specific distance between two points on the earth.
 Thus 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 is the highest frequency used for the sky wave communication and for each pair of
points on the globe, the value of 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 will be different. Generally the value of 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 ranges
between 8 𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 35 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
 For any other angle of incidence, the highest frequency that can be reflected from the
ionosphere will be greater than the critical frequency. The highest frequency that gets
reflected by the ionosphere for a given value of angle of critical incidence (say 𝜃𝑚), is known
as the maximum usable frequency, 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹.

Substituting 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑚 and 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 in Eqn. (5.13) ;

81𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 -------- (5.16)

sin 𝜃𝑚 = √1 − 2
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹

 From Eqn. (5.14), 81𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓2 .𝑐𝑟Substituting this in Eqn. (5.16);

𝑓𝑐𝑟2 -------- (5.17)
sin 𝜃𝑚 = √1 −
2
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹

which can be written as ;

 15

2
1 − sin2𝜃𝑚 = 𝑓
𝑐𝑟
-------- (5.18)
2
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹

2
cos2𝜃 = 𝑓
𝑐𝑟
𝑚
-------- (5.19)
2
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹

 The expression that relates the critical frequency and the angle of incidence to the maximum
usable frequency ;
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 = 𝑓𝑐𝑟 sec 𝜃𝑚 -------- (5.20)

 For example, if the critical frequency is 9 𝑀𝐻𝑧 ,the maximum usable frequency
corresponding to an angle of incidence of 45° is 12.73 𝑀𝐻𝑧.

 Skip Distance
 The skip distance is the shortest distance from the transmitter, measured along the surface of
the earth, at which a sky wave of fixed frequency will return back to the earth.
 The angle of incidence for which the wave returns back to the earth at minimum distance
from the transmitter , i.e., at the skip distance is called angle of critical incidence.
 Assume that the ionosphere can be modeled as a flat reflecting surface at a height ℎ (virtual
height) from the surface of the flat earth.

Fig. 5-15 Ray paths for different amgles of incidence, illustrating skip distance

 Consider the frequency of the transmitted wave is kept constant and the angle of critical
incidence, 𝜃𝑚 ,.
 For launch angles, 𝜃𝑖 < 𝜃𝑚 , the waves are received beyond point 𝑅. For 𝜃𝑖 > 𝜃𝑚, the
ionosphere cannot reflect the waves back .
 Let the wave launched at 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑚 reach the surface of the earth at 𝑅, at a distance of 𝐷𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝
from the transmitter. The distance 𝐷𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝 is known as the skip distance.
 In the region of radius less than 𝐷𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝, it is not possible to establish a communication link by
the waves reflected from the ionosphere.
 16

 To derive an expression for the skip distance in terms of the critical frequency and the
maximum usable frequency by considering the ∆𝐷𝑂𝑇 in Fig. 5.15.

 Optimum Working Frequency (OWF)

 For the ionospheric propagation, it is desirable to use as high a frequency as possible. This
clearly points out that the frequency used for the ionospheric transmission should be the
maximum usable frequency i.e. MUF.
 But MUF depends upon the distance between the transmitter and the receiver and also upon
the state of ionosphere. It is observed that due to the daily continuous changes and
irregularities in the ionosphere, the MUF varies about 15% of its maximum value. Hence
practically the frequency used should be 15% less than the value of MUF.
 Thus the frequency normally used for the ionospheric propagation is known as optimum
working frequency. The optimum working frequency between the transmitter and the
receiver for the ionospheric transmission is defined as the frequency laying between 50% to
85 % of the predicted MUF between the transmission and the reception points.
 It is observed that the maximum usable frequency at a particular location varies considerably
with time of the day, from season to season and from months to months.
 17

Fig. 5-16 Illustration of increase in vertical height and skip distance during night time.

 As the optimum working frequency is selected as the fraction of the maximum usable
frequency, the OWF also varies in the similar way as the maximum usable frequency varies.
 18

 Practically it is not at all possible to change the frequency of the signal propagated from hour
to hour. Hence for the propagation ofwave, two frequencies are used namely one for the day
time, while other for the night time.
 Sometimes it is preferred to have a third frequency even during the transition period from
the day time to night time. It is observed that in the night time vertical height of the
ionospheric layer increases as compared to that during the day time. Thus the skip distance
also increases. It is illustrated in the Fig. 5-16.
 As we have studied that, the wave with lower frequency is bent more quickly as compared to
the wave with higher frequency. Hence the increase in the skip distance during night time is
cancelled by using lower frequency during night time.

MULTI-HOP PROPAGATION
 Let us now consider the transmit and receive antennas located on the surface of the spherical
earth. The ionosphere is modelled as a spherical reflecting surface at a virtual height ℎ from
the surface of the earth [Fig. 5.17 (a)].
 A wave launched at a grazing angle 𝜓 from point A gets reflected by the ionosphere
(provided 𝜃𝑖 > 𝜃𝑚) and reaches the surface of the earth at C.
 If the earth is a good reflector, the wave can undergo multi-hops and thus can establish
communication between the points A and E in addition to that between A and C.

Fig. 5-17 Propagation of sky waves above the spherical earth

 The single-hop distance AC is a function of the grazing angle, 𝜓. The maximum value of the
single hop distance occurs for 𝜓 = 0 or horizontal launch as shown in Fig. 5.17 (b). The
incidence angle at P is given by ;
𝑟0
𝜃 = sin−1 ( ) -------- (5.23)
𝑟0 + ℎ
 Therefore the maximum single hop distance is

𝜋
𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑟0 ( − 𝜃) -------- (5.24)
2
 19

 Similarly, for the F layer, with a virtual height of 300 𝑘𝑚, the maximum angle of incidence is
72.75° and the maximum single-hop distance is 3836 𝑘𝑚.

FADING
 Fading is basically the undesirable variation in the intensity of the signal received at the
receiver. Hence the fading is defined as the fluctuations in the received signal strength
caused due to variations in height and density of the ionization in different layers.
 Basically the fading is the common characteristic of the high frequency short wave
propagation i.e. sky wave propagation. At receiver, the strength of the signal received is the
vector sum of the waves received.
 Because the waves leave from transmitter at same time but reach at the receiver through
different paths. So the fading is caused due to interference between two waves of different
path lengths.
 Various types of fading are as follows.
1. Selective Fading :
 It is more dominant at high frequencies for which sky propagation is used.
 The selective fading produces serious distortion of modulated signal.
 Due to the selective fading, the amplitude modulated signals are seriously affected.
 The AM signal are more distorted due to the selective fading rather than SSB signals.
Hence to reduce the selective fading Exalted carrier reception and single side band
system can be used.

2. Interference Fading:
 As name indicates, it is the fading produced because of upper and lower rays of the
sky wave interfering with each other. This is the most serious fading.
 It is also produced due to the interference between a ground wave and a sky wave or
between sky waves reaching receiver by different paths or different number of hops.
 For a single sky wave frequency, interference fading takes place due to the
fluctuations in the height of the ionospheric layer or due to the variation in the ionic
 20

density of the layer.

 As ionosphere is subjected to the continuous small variations. Because of this, the
length of the path that the reflected wave follows also undergoes small variations.
Thus the relative phase of the wave reaching receiver varies randomly. Because of
these conditions, the amplitude of the resultant also varies continously which is
nothing but the interference fading.
This can be minimized by using space diversity or frequency diversity reception.
 21

3. Absorption Fading:
 This type of fading occurs due to the variations of single strength with the different
amount of absorption of waves absorbed by the transmitting medium.
4. Polarization Fading:
 When the sky wave reaches after the reflection, the state of polarization is constantly
changing.
 The polarization of the sky wave coming down changes because of the superposition
of the ordinary and extra ordinary waves (which are having random amplitudes and
phases) which are oppositely polarized.
 Thus the polarization of the wave changes continuously with respect to antenna,
which gives rise to the variations in the amplitude at the receiver. Such type of fading
is called polarization fading.

5. Skip Fading:
 At distances near the skip range or skip zone, the fading occurs which is called skip
fading.
 Due to the variations in the height and the density of the ionized layer, the point at
which the wave can be received moves in or out of the skip zone.
 Thus due to this the amplitude at the receiver also varies producing skip fading near
the skip range.
 The minimize the fading, the most common method is to use automatic volume
control (AVC or AGC), in the receiver.

Note: Fading is the fluctuation in the received signal strength at the receiver or a random
variation in the received signal. Can beminimized by Space diversity or frequency diversity.

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

 Space waves are useful in the frequency range of 30 𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 300 𝑀𝐻𝑧. It is used in FM, TV
and radar applications. In this propagation, wave propagates within the troposphere. It is
the lowest portion of the atmosphere.
 Space wave consists of two components i.e. direct wave (line-of-sight, LOS) and indirect
wave. Even though, both the wave namely direct wave and indirect wave are transmitted at
the same time, with same phase, at the receiving end they may reach in phase or out of
phase depending on the different path lengths.
 Thus at the receiving end, the signal strength is the vector addition of the strengths of the
direct and indirect waves. When the two waves are in phase, the strength of the signal at the
 22

receiver will be stronger. Similarly if the two waves are out of phase, the strength of the
signal at the receiver will be weaker.
 The space wave propagation is mainly used in VHF (Very High Frequency) band as both
previous modes namely ground wave propagation and sky wave propagation both fail at
very high frequencies.

TROPOSPHERIC PROPAGATION:
 The tropospheric region extends from the surface of the earth to a height of about 10 𝑘𝑚 at
the poles and 18 𝑘𝑚 at the equator. The temperature of this region decreases with height at
the rate of about 6.5°C per 𝑘𝑚 and falls a minimum value about −52°C at its upper boundary.
 In this region, the cloudes are formed. Next to the troposphere, stratosphere exists. The
propgation through the troposphere takes place due to mechanisms such as diffraction,
normal refraction, abnormal reflection and refraction and tropospheric scattering.
 In troposphere, slight bending of radio waves occurs and causes signals to return to earth
beyond the geometric horizon. Troposphere bending is evident over a wide range of
frequencies, although it is most useful in the VHF and UHF regions. Radio signals can be
trapped in the troposphere, travelling a longer distance than normal before coming back to
the earth surface.
 Instead of gradual changes in the atmospheric conditions, sometimes distinct regions are
formed and regions that have significantly different densities try to bend radio waves
passing between regions. However, in a non-homogeneous atmosphere whose index of
refraction decreases with height, rays of sufficiently small initial elevation angle are refracted
downward with a curvature proportional to the rate of decrease of the index of refraction
with height.
 Out of different mechanism of troposphere wave propagation diffraction, abnormal reflection
and refraction, and troposphere scattering, the normal refraction is the main mechanism for
most of troposphere propagation phenomenon.
 The dielectric constant (hence refractive index) of the atmosphere which varies above the
earth and set mostly by the moisture contains is a primary factor in the troposphere
refraction. When the wave passes between mediums of different densities, its path bends by
an amount proportional to the difference in densities. Especially, at UHF and microwaves two
cases of tropospheric propagation are observed.

 Index of refraction:
 In troposphere, the relative dielectric constant is slightly higher than unity due to the
prescence of the atmosphere and in particular water vapour. The relative dielectric constant
is a function of the temperature, pressure and humidity (water vapour). The typical value of
𝜖𝑟 at the surface of the earth is found to be 1.00579.
 The value decreases as a function of height above the surface of the earth. We know that the
velocity of the electromagnetic wave in a medium depends on the dielectric constant of the
medium.
 23

𝑐 𝑐
𝑣= = -------- (5.25)
𝑛 √𝜖𝑟
where 𝑐 is the velocity in vaccum and 𝑛 = √𝜖𝑟 is the refractive index of the medium.
 At the surface of the earth (mean sea level), the refractive index of air is 1.000289. Therefore,
it is common practice to work with a parameter known as the refractivity 𝑁. The refractivity
is related to refractive index by the following equation.
𝑁 = (𝑛 − 1) × 106 -------- (5.26)

TROPOSCATTER PROPAGATION:
 Troposcatter is a mechanism by which propagation is possible by the scatter and diffracted
rays. The scattering takes place in the tropospheric region. This mode of propagation occurs
in VHF, UHF and microwave band.
 UHF and microwaves signals were found to be propagated much beyond the line of sight
propagation through the forward scattering in the tropospheric irregularities.
 This mechanism helps to get unexpectedly large field strengths at the receivers even when
they are is shadow zone. It is possible to achieve a very reliable communication over a range
of 160 km ato 1600 km by using high power transmitter and high gain antennas.
 The tropospheric scattering phenomenon can be used to establish a communication link
over a distance much beyond the radio horizon. The troposphere can scatter
electromagnetic waves due to its inhomogenous nature. The tropospheric scattering has
been attributed to the blobs of refractive index changes and turbulence. These could be due
to sudden changes in the temperature or humidity or the presence of dust particles.
 Waves passing through such turbulent regions get scattered. When 𝝀 is large compared to
the size of the turbulent eddies, waves scatter in all the directions. When 𝝀 is small
compared to these irregularities then most of the scattering takes place within a narrow
cone surrounding the forward direction of propagation of the incident radiation.

Fig. 5-18 Illustration of a troposcatter link.

 When the wavelength is small (frequency is high) than the eddies, forward scattering
dominates into the cone of angle 𝜶. The angle 𝜶 should be very small.
 To receive scattered signal at a point well beyond the horizon, the transmitting and
receiving antennas must be of high gain and must be so oriented that their beams overlap in
 24

a region where forward scattering is taking place. The scattering angle should also be as
small as possible. This process is shown in Fig. 5-18. Since the scattering process is of
random nature, the scattered signals continuously fluctuate in amplitude and phase over a
wide range.
 Troposcatter can be used to establish communication links in the UHF and microwave
frequency bands. These links typically have a range of up to a thousand kilometers and can
have bandwidths of a few 𝑀𝐻𝑧. Troposcatter links can be used in multi-channel telephony
and television applications.
Features of troposcatter propagation:

 It is useful for propagation in the range of 100 𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 10 𝐺𝐻𝑧.

 It produces undesirable noise and fading which may be minimized to certain extent by
diversity reception.
 The field strength received is usually on the order of 𝑑1/7 or 𝑑1/8 where d is the distance
between the transmitter and receiver.
 Since the signal strength is very weak, high gain antennas are required for reception.
 The propagation exhibits seasonal variation.
 The forward scatter propagation is useful for point to point communications and radio or
television relay links.

DUCT PROPAGATION:
 The VHF, UHF and microwave frequencies are the frequencies which are neither propagated
along the surface of the earth nor reflected by ionosphere. But in the troposphere region, the
high frequency waves are refracted and transmission takes far beyond line-of-sight (LOS)
distance.
 An atmosphere where the dielectric constant is assumed to decrease uniformly with height
to value equal to unity at which air density is supposed to be zero is commonly called normal
atmosphere or standard atmosphere.
 There are different air regions or layers one above other with different temperatures and
water vapour contents. In one of the regions, there is a region where 𝑑𝑁/𝑑ℎ is negative. In
this region, the curvature along which the radio waves pass is slightly greater than that of the
earth.
 Due to this, the wave originally directed almost parallel to the surface of the earth gets
trapped in such regions. The energy originating in this region propagates around curved
surfaces in the form of series of hops with successive reflections from the earth as shown in
the Fig. 5-19. This phenomenon is called super refraction or duct propagation. Two
boundaries of surfaces between two air layers form a duct which guide the radio waves
between walls i.e. boundries.
 The concepts like line of sight and diffraction cannot be applied when the wave propagates
through duct and it is found that the energy travels high distances round the earth without
much attenuation.
 25

Fig. 5-19 Duct propagation

 The concept of wave trapping can be considered as a phenomenon similar to wave guide. But
the main difference between waveguide and duct propagation is that in wave guide all the
modes are confined within guide only. But in case of duct propagation, part of energy within
duct may escape to the space as shown in the Fig. 5-20. There is a limit on the wavelength of
the signal of maximum value 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 to be trapped in duct. It is the maximum wavelength for
which the duct propagation holds good. If the wavelength of the signal exceeds the value
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥, then duct effect vanishes almost completely. The value of 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 is given by,

𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2.5 ℎ𝑑√∆𝑁 × 10−6 -------- (5.27)

where ∆𝑁 = change in 𝑁 value across height of duct
ℎ𝑑 = height of duct

Fig. 5-20 Duct propagation as leaky wave guide

 In general, the duct height ℎ𝑑 ranges from 10 to hundreds of meters. While the ∆𝑁 value is
typically 50 units. So considering these values, the phenomenon of duct propagation is found
mostly in UHF (ultra high frequency) and microwave frequency regions.
 Moreover the duct propagation is possible only if height of transmitting antenna is less than
that of duct height. If the transmitting antenna exists considerably above duct, there is
comparatively less effect of presence of duct on the signal either inside or above duct.
Post – Test MCQs:

1. The portion of the atmosphere which extends up to 20 Km from the earth surface is
called
a. Traposphere
b. Statosphere
c. Inosphere
d. none of the above
Ans: a

2. The ionized layer that extends from about 50 𝑘𝑚 above the surface of the earth to
several thousand kilometers is known as.

a. Troposphere
b. Ground wave
c. Surface wave
d. ionosphere
Ans: d
3. The ground waves are produced in ____________ which are placed very close to surface
of the earth speed of sound
a. An Antenna
b. Vertical polarized antenna
c. Horizontal polarized antenna
d. Vertical antenna
Ans: b

4. the frequency which can be reflected back to earth for some specific angle of incidence
a. TUF
b. MUF
c. Gyro Frequency
d. All the above
Ans:b
5. The following one is type of fading
a. Abnormal Fading
b. Selective and Absorption fading
c. Normal Fading
d. All the above
Ans: b
6. the frequency normally used for the ionospheric propagation is known as
a. optimum working frequency
b. Maximum usable frequency
c. Duct propagation
d. Optimum frequency
Ans: a
7. The Characteristics of E layer is
a. It exists next to 𝐷 layer at an average height of 100 𝑘𝑚.
b. Its thickness is about 25 𝑘𝑚.
c. Its critical frequency is 4 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
d. All the above
Ans:d
8. The Characteristics of F1 layer is
a. It exists at a height of about 180 𝑘𝑚 in day-time.
b. Its thickness is about 20 km.
c. Its critical frequency is 5 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
d. All the above.
Ans: d
9. The critical frequency is defined as
a. the lowest frequency that can be reflected back to the earth by a particular layer for
a vertical incidence. It is denoted by 𝑓𝑐𝑟
b. the highest frequency that can be reflected back to the earth by a particular layer for
a vertical incidence. It is denoted by 𝑓𝑐𝑟
c. the highest frequency that can be reflected back to the earth by a particular layer for
a horizontal incidence. It is denoted by 𝑓𝑐𝑟
d. the lowest frequency that can be reflected back to the earth by a particular layer for
a horizontal incidence. It is denoted by 𝑓𝑐𝑟
Ans: b
10. In selective fading the following singal is seriously affected
a. Amplitude modulated signal
b. Freauency modulated signal
c. Phase modulated signal
d. None of the above
Ans: a

11. The F1-Layer critical frequency is

A) 1Mhz
B) 10Mhz
C) 3Mhz
D) 5Mhz

Ans: d
12. Waves that arrive at the receiver after reflection in the ionosphere is called _______
a. Sky Wave
b. Ground Wave
c. Scattering wave
d. none of the above

Ans: a
 13. The critical frequency of the D layer is
a. 5Khz
b. 100Khz
c. 250 Hz
d. 500 Mhz
Ans: b
14. The height at a point above the surface at which the wave bends down to the earth is
called
a. actual height
b. true height.
c. both a and b
d. None of the above
Ans: c

14. MUF is usually ______ times of critical frequency.

a. 2 to 4
b. 5 to 6
c. 6 to 7
d. 3 to 4
Ans: d
Conclusion:
At the end of the topic, students will be able to

 understand the basic concept of various types of propagation

 get exposure to sky wave propagation characteristics

References:

1. John D Kraus,” Antennas for all Applications”, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2010.
2. Edward C. Jordan and Keith G. Balmain” Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems”
Prentice Hall of India, 2nd Edition 2011.
3. R.E. Collin,” Antennas and Radio wave Propagation”, McGraw Hill 1985.
4. Constantine.A. Balanis “Antenna Theory Analysis and Design”, Wiley Student Edition,
4th Edition 2016.
5. Rajeswari Chatterjee, “Antenna Theory and Practice” Revised Second Edition New Age
International Publishers, 2006.
6. S. Drabowitch, “Modern Antennas” Second Edition, Springer Publications, 2007
7. Robert S. Elliott “Antenna Theory and Design” Wiley Student Edition, 2006.

Assignments:

1. Explain about the Structure of Atmosphere with neat diagram

2. Write short notes on Ground wave propagation and Troposcatter propagation
3. Explain the following. A. Skip distance B. Virtual Height C. MUF D. Critical Frequency
4. Explain about Duct propagation and Multi hop propagation