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1. What is multiplexing ?explain its need and basic format of multiplexing.

Multiplexing is the set of techniques
that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.

As data and telecommunications use increases, so does traffic. We can accommodate

this increase by continuing to add individual links each time a new channel is needed;
or we can install higher-bandwidth links and use each to carry multiple signals. today's
technology includes high-bandwidth media such as
optical fiber and terrestrial and satellite microwaves. Each has a bandwidth far in excess
of that needed for the average transmission signal. If the bandwidth of a link is greater
than the bandwidth needs of the devices connected to it, the bandwidth is wasted. An
efficient system maximizes the utilization of all resources; bandwidth is one of the
most precious resources we have in data communications.

Figure

In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link. Above figure shows
the basic format of a multiplexed system. The lines on the left direct their transmission
streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which combines them into a single stream (many-to one).
At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which
separates the stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and
directs them to their corresponding lines. In the figure, the word link refers to the
physical path. The word channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission
between a given pair of lines. One link can have many (n) channels.

2. List and explain different multiplexing techniques.

There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-division multiplexing(FDM),
wavelength-division multiplexing(WDM), and time-division multiplexing(TDM). The
first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital signals

frequency-division multiplexing(FDM)

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied

when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of
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the signals to be transmitted. In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate
different carrier frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single
composite signal that can be transported by the link. Carrier frequencies are separated by
sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are
the channels through which the various signals travel. Channels can be separated by
strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent signals from overlapping. In
addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.

The following Figure gives a conceptual view of FDM. In this illustration, the transmission path
is divided into three parts, each representing a channel that carries one transmission.

Multiplexing Process
The following is a conceptual illustration of the multiplexing process. Each source generates
a signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals
modulates different carrier frequencies (f1,f2 and f3). The resulting modulated signals
are then combined into a single composite signal that is sent out over a media link that
has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.

Demultiplexing Process
The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its
constituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator
that separates them from their carriers and passes them to the output lines. The following Figure
is
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a conceptual illustration of demultiplexing process.

Applications of FDM
A common application of FDM is AM and FM radio broadcasting.
Radio uses the air as the transmission medium. A special band from 530 to 1700 kHz is assigned
to AM radio.
FM has a wider band of 88 to 108 MHz because each station needs a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
Another common use of FDM is in television broadcasting. Each TV channel has
its own bandwidth of 6 MHz.
The first generation of cellular telephones (still in operation) also uses FDM. Each
user is assigned two 30-kHz channels, one for sending voice and the other for receiving.

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate
capability of fiber-optic cable. The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of
metallic transmission cable.

WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing
involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels(light carries a data in optical
fiber). The idea is the
same: We are combining different signals of different frequencies. The difference is
that the frequencies are very high.
The following Figures shows a conceptual view of a WDM multiplexer and demultiplexer.
Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider band
of light. At the receiver, the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.
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Figure 1: Wavelength-division multiplexing

Figure 2: Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing

in WDM technology We want to combine multiple light sources into one single light at the
multiplexer and at the demultiplexer combined single light splitting into small light source
based on frequency and wavelength.
The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism. from basic physics
that a prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the frequency. Using this
technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of light, each containing a
narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a wider band of frequencies.
A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process.

One application of WDM is the SONET network in which multiple optical

fiber lines are multiplexed and demultiplexed

Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections
to share the high bandwidth of a linle Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in
FDM, time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link. The following
Figure
gives a conceptual view of TDM. Note that the same link is used as in FDM; here, however,
the link is shown sectioned by time rather than by frequency. In the figure, portions
of signals 1,2,3, and 4 occupy the link sequentially.
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We can divide TDM into two different schemes: synchronous and statistical. We first
discuss synchronous TDM and then show how statistical TDM differs. In synchronous
TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it is not sending data.

synchronous TDM

In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units, where
each input occupies one input time slot. A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of
data. Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot. However,
the duration of an output time slot is n times shorter than the duration of an input
time slot. If an input time slot is T s, the output time slot is T/n s, where n is the number
of connections. The following Figure shows an example of synchronous TDM where n is 3.

In synchronous TDM, data units from each input connection is collected

into a frame. If we have n connections, a frame is divided into n time slots and one slot is
allocated for each unit, one for each input line. If the duration of the input unit is T, the duration
of each slot is T/n and the duration of each frame is T

Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing

in synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved slot in the output frame. This can be inefficient
if some input lines have no data to send. In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are
dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency. Only when an input line has a slot's
worth of data to send is it given a slot in the output frame. In statistical multiplexing, the number
of slots in each frame is
less than the number of input lines. The multiplexer checks each input line in round robin
fashion; it allocates a slot for an input line if the line has data to send; otherwise,
it skips the line and checks the next line.
The following Figure shows a synchronous and a statistical TDM example. In the former,
some slots are empty because the corresponding line does not have data to send. In
the latter, however, no slot is left empty as long as there are data to be sent by any
input line.
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statistical TDM, a slot needs to carry data as well as the address of the destination.
In synchronous TDM, there is no need for addressing; synchronization and preassigned
relationships between the inputs and outputs serve as an address.

3. List the goals of spread sprectrum.

To give safety to original data and security.

4. Explain spread spectrum.

The main intention of Multiplexing is to provide bandwidth efficiency. spread spectrum also
provides bandwidth efficiency but its goals to give safety to original data and security.

Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless applications (LANs and WANs). . In wireless
applications, all stations use air (or a vacuum) as the
medium for communication. Stations must be able to share this medium without disturbing by
other station and also without jamming from a malicious intruder(in military operations, for
example).
To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy; they spread
the original spectrum needed for each station. If the required bandwidth for each station is B,
spread spectrum expands it to Bss' such that Bss » B. The expanded bandwidth allows the source
to wrap its message in a protective envelope for a more secure transmission. An analogy is the
sending of a delicate, expensive gift. We can insert the gift in a special box to prevent it from
being damaged during transportation, and we can use a superior delivery service to guarantee the
safety of the package.
The following Figure shows the idea of spread spectrum.
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There are two techniques to spread the bandwidth: frequency hopping spread spectrum
(FHSS) and direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

The frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) technique uses M different carrier
frequencies that are modulated by the source signal. At one moment, the signal modulates
one carrier frequency; at the next moment, the signal modulates another carrier frequency.
Although the modulation is done using one carrier frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in
the long run. The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is BpHSS »B.
the following figure shows the general layout for FHSS. A pseudorandom code generator,
called pseudorandom noise (PN), creates a k-bit pattern for every hopping period Th•
The frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency to be used for this hopping
period and passes it to the frequency synthesizer. The frequency synthesizer creates a
carrier signal of that frequency, and the source signal modulates the carrier signal.
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Suppose we have decided to have eight hopping frequencies. This is extremely low
for real applications and is just for illustration. In this case, Mis 8 and k is 3. The pseudorandom
code generator will create eight different 3-bit patterns. These are mapped to
eight different frequencies in the frequency table .

The pattern for this station is 101, 111, 001, 000, 010, all, 100. Note that the pattern
is pseudorandom it is repeated after eight hoppings. This means that at hopping
period 1, the pattern is 101. The frequency selected is 700 kHz;

5. Explain DSSS.

The direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) technique also expands the bandwidth
of the original signal, but the process is different. In DSSS, we replace each data bit
with 11 bits using a spreading code. In other words, each bit is assigned a code of 11 bits,
called chips, where the chip rate is 11 times that of the data bit. The following Figure shows the
concept of DSSS.

As an example, let us consider the sequence used in a wireless LAN, the famous
Barker sequence where 11 is 11. We assume that the original signal and the chips in the
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chip generator use polar NRZ encoding. The following Figure shows the chips and the result of
multiplying the original data by the chips to get the spread signal.
In Figure , the spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern 10110111000 (in this case). If the
original signal rate is N, the rate of the spread signal is lIN. This means that the required
bandwidth for the spread signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the original signal. The
spread signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know the code. It can also provide
immunity against interference if each station uses a different code.