ARTICLES

Mentoring and Leader Identity

Development: A Case Study

Douglas Muir

This study explored the influence of a formal mentoring program on the

leader identity development of participants and how they developed
their leader identity during their participation in a nondegree leadership
development certification program. The central research question of this
study was: How does a participant’s identity as a leader develop over
time and what influence does a formal mentoring program have on the
formation of a leader identity. A qualitative case-study approach with
in-depth semi-structured interviews was used to gather the perspectives
of participants and mentors. The study included 25 research participants
including 11 mentor dyads. Three themes emerged from the data: (a)
the mentor partnership–leader identity discovery, (b) leader identity
development through critical learning moments, and (c) leader identity
development through self-knowledge. Findings of this research suggest
that adult learning principles are instrumental components to the leader
identity development process. The participants believed that their formal
mentoring experience was pivotal to the discovery and development of
their leader identity. Additionally, critical reflection on the critical learning
moments was another of the key factors that led to their development of
their identity as a leader. Suggestions for future research include: (a) the
effects of adult learning approaches on leader identity development,
and (b) the effect mentoring may have on the different stages of identity
development.

Key Words: mentoring, leader identity, leadership development

Introduction and Background

Much has been written about the characteristics of leaders and general lead-
ership development over the last 30 years. Many researchers have tried to
tackle the complex issue of what leadership development should encompass
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350 Muir

(Ayman, Adams, Fisher, & Hartman, 2003; Barker, 1997; Bass, 1990; Bennis,
1984; Day, 2001; Klenke, 1993; McCauley, Moxley, and Van Veslor, 1998;
Reiner & Morris, 1987; Yukl, 2002). Yet there have been very few attempts to
track an individual’s leadership development process. This lack of attention is
somewhat surprising given statements such as the following by Bass (1990),
who indicated, “Leadership development is a continuing process. Thus, peers,
superiors, as well as family and friends, shape one’s subsequent performance
as a leader” (p. 911). According to Hernez-Broome and Hughes (2004), there
has been a proliferation of new leadership development methods and pro-
cesses, while little research has been done to learn about the process of leader-
ship development (Day & O’Conner, 2003).
Leadership development scholarship predominantly focuses on skill
building or short-term interventions rather than on the creation or devel-
opment of a leader’s identity. A leader identity refers to how one thinks of
oneself as a leader (Day, 2001). This aspect is extremely important for lead-
ers because it grounds them in an understanding of who they are. Day and
Harrison (2007) point out that incorporating an “identity lens into leadership
development efforts is long overdue” (p. 371). Additionally, Petriglieri (2011)
conceptualizes leadership learning as an identity workspace in which it is
important to work within three areas: the participants’ experiences of leading
and following, making sense of their life stories as part of their identities, and
their emotions and the unconscious.
Therefore, although looking at leadership development through the lens
of the participant is a subjective approach, it focuses on how people reason
and how they develop in response to their experiences. This development or
growth is manifested in who they are or, in other words, their identity. Day
and Harrison (2007) argued that if leadership development is to be effective
it needs to be focused on leaders’ sense of identity. Identity, they posited,
is the source of meaning from which leaders operate. Avolio and Gardner
(2005) highlighted this concept when they suggested that leaders need to
be anchored in a sense of self. This then allows leaders to organize and give
meaning to their behavior.
“Self-awareness is not a destination point, but rather an emerging pro-
cess where one continually comes to understand his or her unique talents,
strengths, sense of purpose, core values, beliefs and desires. It can include
having a basic and fundamental awareness of one’s knowledge, experience,
and capabilities” (Avolio & Gardner, 2005, p. 324). Focusing on how a leader
identity develops, beyond simply learning a set of tools and skills, may add
more understanding to the leadership development process.
Leadership development programs often include formal mentoring as
part of the overall program (Hegstad, 1999; Hegstad & Wentling, 2004). Day
(2001) reported that in a survey of over 350 companies involved in lead-
ership development, the efforts that reported the most success included
a formal mentoring program. Mentoring may be considered to be an

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Mentoring and Leader Identity Development: A Case Study 351

effective component of development. “A mentoring relationship is a one-to-one

relationship between a more experienced member (mentor) and a less expe-
rienced member (protégé) of the organization or profession. The relationship
is developed to promote the professional growth and personal growth of the
protégé through coaching, support, and guidance” (Mullen, 1994, p. 259).
Formal mentoring is any type of a mentoring process that is in some way
sponsored by the organization. In a mentoring relationship, protégés are given
the opportunity to observe and interact with members of the organization in
leadership positions. This part of mentoring is vital because it helps partici-
pants develop a more mature and strategic perspective of the organization.
Literature on leadership development that includes mentoring commonly has
been positioned in workplaces or in higher educational settings and has been
focused on how well the mentor transfers the knowledge of a leadership the-
ory (i.e., transformational leadership) (Blass & Ferris, 2007; Camplin, 2009;
Sosik, Godshalk, & Yammarino, 2004) to the protégé. There is a gap in the
literature regarding the interaction of leadership development programs and
the influence a mentor has on a protégé’s view of himself or herself as a leader.
An in-depth case study in an organizational context with clearly articulated
roles will provide an opportunity to explore how this intervention influences
the formation of leader identity.
Furthermore, existing research has explored the dimensions of men-
toring, and mentoring has been shown to have a positive effect on learn-
ing elements. However, questions remain about how individuals can use this
component of a leadership development program to develop their leader iden-
tity. Questions remain regarding how individuals seek cues for becoming a
leader, evaluate those cues, and translate them into a working system that
allows them to understand, negotiate, survive, and even thrive as an effective
leader. Exploring the answers to this complex process of leader identity devel-
opment and salience will not only help organizations but will also help human
resource professionals as they design and implement processes and programs
to facilitate the development of a leader identity in organizations.
The purpose of this study was to understand, from the participant’s
perspective, elements that contributed to the development of his/her leader
identity and how this identity became salient. The questions that guided this
research were: (a) How does a participant’s identity as a leader develop over
time? And, consequently, how does a leader’s identity become salient?; and
(b) How do individuals, in a leadership development program, perceive the
effect(s) of the mentoring component on the development of their leader iden-
tity? What does mentoring contribute to identity development?

Review of Literature
Day (2001) makes a distinction when he wrote about two different types of
development: leader and leadership. He explained that leader development is

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often focused on the individual’s acquisition of knowledge, skills, self-aware-

ness, and identity development, which are typically considered to be part of a
leadership role. This leader development process then would help the person
perform effectively in any number of roles. In leadership development, the
emphasis is placed on the social aspects: building relationships, networking,
and social skills. Day contended that an effective model of leadership develop-
ment would be one that links it to leader development.
To focus on the individual in the hopes that leadership will improve in
an organization and to ignore the social context is what happens in most
development programs (Day & Halpin, 2004). Day and Halpin perceived
leadership as a function of relationships: “Leadership is a complex interac-
tion involving leaders, followers, and situations” (p. 6). In order for a leader
to be effective, he or she must know how to attend to the social context and
build interpersonal relationships. Day and Halpin posited that one way we
can help leadership develop is by helping people learn from their experiences.
Therefore, leadership can be seen as the natural outcome of the building up
of social capital.
Identity
Identity research sheds light on various issues, which have tremendous impact
on our understanding of the leadership process. Luhrmann and Eberl (2007)
explored the dynamics of identity building and suggest four issues that are
related to leader identity: (a) identity is about motivation, (b) identity is about
conformity and authenticity, (c) identity is about power, and (d) identity is
about relationships. Furthermore, Luhrmann and Eberl posited that identity
theory draws us to the fact that leadership is relational. They suggested a four-
phase process of a leader identity development—identity negotiation, identity
balance, task interaction, and identity conflict—back to negotiation.
Van Knippenberg, van Knippenberg, De Cremer, and Hogg (2005), in
their review of research in leadership, self, and identity, believed that at the
core of the identity approach to leadership effectiveness was an understanding
that the way that we perceive ourselves, our self-concept, or identity strongly
informs our feelings, beliefs, attitudes, goals, and behavior. Lord and Hall
(2005) reported that an individual’s self-conception as a leader is an essen-
tial part of advanced leadership development. They viewed this creation of
a leader identity to be central to the process and gave three reasons for the
critical nature of this identity:

1. Creation of this identity gives a structure around which to organize the

new knowledge of leadership and its skill development.
2. Leader identity creation becomes the source of motivation for a leader to
extend him- or herself to new developmental opportunities.
3. This leader identity also becomes the source of personal strength from
which to motivate others.

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Mentoring and Leader Identity Development: A Case Study 353

The centrality and the development of a leader identity is critical to

effective leadership development. Lord and Hall suggested that the effective-
ness of leadership development depends on the successful integration of this
identity into the self. Based on their research, they assert that the acquisition
or improvement of leadership skills is solely dependent on how well a new
leader develops his or her leader identity.
One group of researchers tried to identify potential stages in the develop-
ment of a leader identity. Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, and Osteen
(2005) is an exception in the literature in that it is one of the few empirical
research studies on leader identity development. They proposed a leadership
identity model (LID) that is useful for exploring the experiences of partici-
pants in a leadership development program. The model included six stages
of leadership identity. As an individual moves through the stages, he or she
comes to an increasingly complex, deeper understanding of leadership and
self in relation to others in the organization.
Komives et al. (2005) found that in addition to the six stages, the stu-
dents’ own leadership identity moved from a “hierarchical, leader-centric
view to one that embraced leadership as a collaborative, relational process”
(p. 609). They also found that the students talked about having multiple
social identities and that these were pivotal to developing a leadership iden-
tity. The developmental importance of the shift between stages 3 and 4 is
pivotal. When a person shifts his or her view from “I am leader” to “I do
leadership,” it shows a completely transformational view of the concept of
leadership.
In expanding and furthering the development of a theory of leadership
development as a social construct, Day and Harrison (2007) emphasized
involving participants in developing a collective leader identity. Furthermore,
Day and Lance (2004) envisioned this as a subidentity that grows and
becomes more complex, ultimately being integrated into the global identity.
Day and Harrison (2007) maintained that a leader development program is
effective only when the participant leader identity becomes integrated and
salient within the global identity. According to identity theory, identities can
be constructed and not be made manifest to the self. A leader identity is
seen as a strategic identity, since it serves a strategic purpose in interaction
(Luhrmann & Eberl, 2007).
Leadership Development and Mentoring
Leadership development is conceptually distinct from managerial education/
training and has been defined by McCauley, Moxley, and Van Veslor (1998)
as “expanding the collective capacity of organizational members to engage
effectively in leadership roles and processes.” DeGeest and Brown (2011) pos-
ited that this meant the process of developing leaders with or without “formal
roles” would prepare persons with “the capacity for solving unforeseen prob-
lems” (p. 159).

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The themes of assessment, challenges, and support as addressed by

McCauley, as a necessary part of any leadership development program seemed
to be consistent in the literature. Other authors added content knowledge and
the concept that development needs to take place over an extended period of
time. Assessment provides an awareness of an individual’s performance at a
given time. It also can provide knowledge of one’s strengths and weaknesses.
Self-awareness and reflection are also part of assessment. Certain strategies that
can be useful in this area are the 360-degree feedback and multisource rating
(Johnson, 2008). McCauley, Moxley, and Van Veslor, (1998) defined challenges
as experiences that force people out of their comfort zones, and he found chal-
lenges to be an important aspect of leadership development. A challenge can
be a difficult goal or a range of experiences to which the person has not been
exposed previously and, hopefully, will increase his or her knowledge in a par-
ticular area that is needed for a leadership position. Finally, researchers (e.g.,
Blass & Ferris, 2007; Daresh, Conran, & Playko, 1989; Hill, Del Favero, &
Ropers-Huilman, 2005; Ladyshewsky, 2007) agreed that leadership develop-
ment couldn’t occur without support. Support systems need to be developed to
help the person to grow into his or her leadership role. Such support systems
would include mentoring, executive coaching, and networking.
McCauley and Van Velsor (2004) identified three areas necessary for
the process of leadership development: (a) self-management capabilities, (b)
social capabilities, and (c) work facilitation capabilities. The first element of
self-management capabilities allows people to develop more effective ways to
manage themselves. This occurs through growth in self-awareness, an ability
to balance conflicting demands, the ability to learn, and leadership values
such as honesty and integrity. The second element in the process of develop-
ment is that of social capabilities. Leadership by its very nature is a social act;
therefore, the ability to build and maintain relationships in work groups and
to develop communication skills are all examples of social capabilities. The
third element, work facilitation capabilities, includes “management skills, the
ability to think and act strategically, the ability to think creatively, and the abil-
ity to initiate and implement change” (p. 14).
Levinson, Darrow, Levinson, and McKee (1978) posited that mentoring
is not a simple, all-or-nothing process. It operates along a continuum of effec-
tiveness. Mentoring has many variables. When all of these variables fall into
place, mentoring has many benefits for both the protégé and the mentor.
Noe (1988) conducted one of the first studies on formal mentoring.
Protégés reported (a) feelings of acceptance, (b) affirmation, (c) a safe place to
discuss personal and professional problems, and (d) valuable feedback from
their mentors. Higher levels of perceived procedural justice in the workplace
(Scandura, 1997) are also reported as a benefit of the mentor relationship.
Protégés reported feeling that they had a better chance for advancement and
were more committed to and satisfied with their organization than those who
were not in mentoring relationships.

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Mentoring and Leader Identity Development: A Case Study 355

Enhanced managerial skills were another benefit to protégés that Meyer

(1996) reported. These skills were enhanced through the practice of reflection
(Schön, 1983). By reflecting on work situations during sessions with their
mentors, they were helped to see things from another person’s point of view.
The use of reflection and journaling, techniques to increase the productive-
ness of the mentor/protégé session, seem to be common activities in formal
mentoring programs. Mentor training has been added to many mentoring
programs, and as a result protégés report an increase in the mentorship qual-
ity. Allen, Eby, and Lentz (2006) reported that when training was perceived
to have been of high quality, the protégés report receiving a high quality of
mentorship, career mentoring, role modeling, and psychosocial mentoring.
Additionally, Thurston, D’Abate, and Eddy (2012) reported that organizations
could have a direct impact on effectiveness of managers’ outcomes through a
well-run mentoring program.
Learning is another benefit that has been reported. Finkelstein, Allen,
and Rhoton (2003), using a mixed-methods research design and a two-phase
study, found that in mentor–protégé relationships in which the protégé was
older than the mentor, more mutual learning was reported. They suggested
that this configuration might lead to bidirectional learning. Henriques and
Curado (2009) found that a mentor functioned as a knowledge-accessing tool.
This function facilitated the transfer of organizational knowledge to the pro-
tégé. This transfer of knowledge benefits the organization, and this finding is
especially relevant as baby boomers begin retiring and strategies are needed
to ensure that organizational knowledge is not lost. In addition, this function
also expands the social network of the protégé, a psychosocial aspect.
The effects that mentoring has on managerial improvement has been the
primary focus of research to date. Little attention has been paid to the effect
of mentoring on leadership development. There have been some exceptions
to the literature. Sosik et al. (2004) explored the interaction between trans-
formational leadership theory and mentoring. Camplin (2009) explored the
application of the leader–member exchange theory to mentoring of volun-
teers who lead other volunteers. Blass and Ferris (2007) examined the role
mentoring can play in the politics of leadership development in the mili-
tary. Stead (2005) used a case study approach to examine the effects men-
toring had on the development of nurse leadership in a health care setting.
And Green and King (2001) examined the effects of mentoring of African
American women moving into the business world. All of these studies found
positive effects that mentoring can have on the development of new leaders.
Protégés learned core values and experienced a safe haven from which to
explore difficult situations. These researchers conveyed how, because of a
mentor relationship, a protégé can “think bigger” built on the social capital
of the mentor.
Studies on mentoring and leadership development have frequently exam-
ined the mentoring relationship through the lens of a particular leadership

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theory by looking at how well a mentor is using a particular leadership theory

to develop the protégé (as noted earlier). Although this is one way to look at
the relationship, it seems to be missing several significant/important compo-
nents. How does mentoring develop leaders? Do mentors contribute to the
identity development of the new leader?

Theoretical Framework
Two major theories or constructs informed and shaped the framework for this
study: (a) the constructivist paradigm and (b) identity theory.

Constructivism
Learning generates from a person’s own experience. Learning is a process of
constructing meaning out of experience. Constructivism draws heavily on
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner,
2007). Constructivism encompasses two seemingly divergent views of learn-
ing: personal, where meaning is made by the individual, and social, where
knowledge is constructed when the individual interacts socially. Candy (1991)
described constructivism as “a cluster of related perspectives that are united
in their underlying view of the world” (p. 254). Constructivism includes the
following tenets: (a) knowledge can be known subjectively, (b) knowledge
is the meaning that people make out of their experiences, and (c) individ-
uals construct meanings, but cultures are also socially constructed realities
(Baumgartner, 2001).
Social constructivism is a branch of constructivism that has influenced
adult education. Vygotsky (1978) posited that knowledge was constructed
when an individual enters into a dialogue with others and actively shares
problems or tasks. Candy’s (1991) work on self-directed learning flows from
this perspective. Candy wrote:

Learning is an active process of constructing a system of meanings and

then using these to construe or interpret events, ideas, or circumstances. As
such, the constructivist view of learning is particularly compatible with the
notion of self-direction, since it emphasizes the combined characteristics
of active inquiry, independence, and individuality in the learning task.
(p. 278)

According to Merriam et al. (2007), constructivism has had an influential

impact on the field of adult learning. The concepts of apprenticeship, situated
learning, reflective practice, and communities of practice are common to adult
learning theory and HRD literature bases. Additionally, they pointed out that
the ideas stemming from constructivism have a growing impact on the fields
of continuing professional education and HRD.

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Identity Theory
Identity theory is a micro-sociological theory, that is, the sociological study of
small groups and units within a larger society that links our attitudes of self,
or our identities, to the role relationships and role-related behaviors in which
we engage. Identity theorists argued that the self is not a distinct psychologi-
cal entity; it is a social construct, which is based on occupying a particular
role (Stryker, 1968; Stryker & Burke, 2000). Identities can be defined as one’s
answer to the question “Who am I?” (Stryker & Serpe, 1994). Many of the
“answers” (e.g., “I am a father”) are linked to the roles we occupy, so they are
often referred to as role identities or simply identities.
According to Stryker (1980), the hierarchy in which identities are orga-
nized is based on identity salience. Stryker and Serpe (1994) defined identity
salience as “the readiness to act out an identity as a consequence of the iden-
tity’s properties as a cognitive structure or schema” (p. 17).
In broad terms, the literature distinguishes between two types of self-
identity: independent and interdependent (Banaji & Prentice, 1994; Markus
& Kitayama, 1991; Turner, Oakes, Haslam, & McGarty, 1994). The indepen-
dent type of self-identity is based on an individual’s sense of uniqueness, self-
sufficiency, or independence from others (Banaji & Prentice, 1994; Brewer &
Gardner, 1996). In direct contrast, the interdependent self-identity is based on
the extent to which one defines oneself in relation to others or by membership
in social groups (Banaji & Prentice, 1994). In this view of the self, one sees
oneself connected to the social context in which one is involved (Markus &
Kitayama, 1991).
Findings from researchers have suggested that multiple self-identities can
coexist within the same individual (Banaji & Prentice, 1994; Deaux, 1996;
Singelis, 1994). These researchers viewed the self more as a collection of semi-
related self-identities that have been derived from past social experiences and
are triggered by the varied contexts in which one finds oneself. Lord and
Brown (2004) argued that individuals have trouble activating more than one
self-identity at a time.

Application of the Conceptual Framework to This Study

The personal experiences of participants who were involved in a leadership
development program with mentoring as a part of their program were exam-
ined in this research. The primary research inquiry was initiated to explore
stories of how these leaders began to “identify” themselves as a leader and
what occurrences aided that development. The research was expanded fur-
ther to explore the impact mentoring had on that development. Study par-
ticipants reflected on personal experiences that led to their identity discovery
and what impact mentoring and/or other experiences had on that develop-
ment. Participants recounted their experiences and their reflection on those
experiences. The use of a constructivist approach allowed me to see how

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participants were learning from the experiences and how they were able to
construct a leader identity. Participants had different approaches to how they
interpreted their experiences from the program. However, as noted earlier in
Candy’s (1991) work, they all included some degree of self-direction, active
inquiry, and independence.
This study focused on how a person identifies herself or himself as a
leader and how that identity becomes salient; therefore, I needed to under-
stand the theory behind the “interdependent” identity development. As partic-
ipants answered the question of “Who am I?” with “I am a leader,” I wanted to
know what allowed them to come to that answer. And furthermore, I wanted
to know what helped or hindered that identity’s salience. Thus, both theories
set the stage for how participants were selected, how the interview protocols
were constructed, and how data were interpreted.

Methodology
A case study methodology is a common approach used by those in the “social
sciences … as well as those in practice-oriented fields” (Yin, 2009, p. xiii).
By definition, according to Yin (2009), a case study has two main parts: (a) it
is an empirical study that investigates a phenomenon in a real-life situation,
especially when the boundaries between the “phenomenon and the context
are not clearly evident” (p. 13); and (b) it has many variables of interest, it has
multiple sources of data, and it benefits from prior theoretical propositions.
Therefore, a case study is a comprehensive research strategy.
Research Case Study Site
Leadership is constructed through social interactions within social environ-
ments (Day, 2001); therefore, consideration of the organizational context is
important and can provide insights into the various influences that devel-
oping leaders encounter in a particular setting. This study was conducted
in a Roman Catholic diocese (a district overseen by a bishop) located in a
Midwest metropolitan area. The diocese covers about 4,000 square miles in
area, with 120 parishes, and a total Catholic population of over 600,000.
This site was chosen since it provided a leadership-training program, called
the Lay Ecclesial Ministry Leadership Program (LEMLP) for members, which
contained a formal mentoring program. It is important to note here that the
leadership development that was taking place here was not for the organiza-
tion’s employees. This program was specifically designed for the members
of the organization so that they, after completion, could then provide addi-
tional services to other members of the organization. It is a leadership-training
program for volunteers who want a basic foundation in collaborative leader-
ship models, communication skills, and theology, and who seek to be leaders
in a not-for-profit volunteer organization. The program required approxi-
mately a 3.5-year time commitment. The training process employed adult

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education methods, critical reflection evenings, a practicum, and a formal

mentoring program. The program consisted of 10 courses (the courses are
Human Development & Communication, Leadership I, Hebrew Scriptures,
Christian Scriptures, Church History, Sacraments, Leadership II, Ministry and
the Minister, Creed, Prayer & Spirituality, Morality, and Leadership III). Each
course was 6 to 10 sessions that were 2.5 hours long. There are seven eve-
nings for critical reflection and two weekend overnight retreats. The goals for
participants’ in the 3-year process were: “deepen their belief system, develop
a vision and skills for a leadership role, and enhance their understanding
of foundational leadership theories for greater effectiveness in a collaborative
situation” (Center for Pastoral Life & Ministry, 1995, p. xxxi).
Sample Selection
Three cohorts participated in this research, each with an average of 14 to 16
emerging leaders coming from clusters of six parishes that were in a regional
area. To maximize internal variety in subjects, I invited all accessible partici-
pants and their mentors from the three different cohorts to participate in the
study: those who had recently graduated from the program (cohort 1), those
who were within a month of completing the program (cohort 2), and those
who were beginning the third year of the program (cohort 3). My position-
ality was one of an “insider” in that I helped design and deliver part of the
program.
Interviews, archival data, and observations were used. A total of 25 semi-
structured interviews took place, with 15 emerging leaders and 10 of their
mentors (some mentors chose not to participate in the study). The reason for
including mentors of the emerging leaders is that the mentors’ observations
could provide a perspective of the evolving leader identity as demonstrated
outwardly by the emerging leaders, in addition to the emerging leaders’ self-
reflected perspective of their evolving identity. Verification and deeper under-
standing could be achieved by having both perspectives.
The emerging leaders interviewed (n = 15) ranged from 31 to 66 years
of age, with a mean age of 52.6. There are no significant differences between
participating and nonparticipating emerging leaders in terms of age, years
associated with the organization, and years volunteering in the organization.
The mentors interviewed (n = 10) ranged in age from 50 to 72, with a
mean age of 57.5. There were 12 female protégés and three male protégés.
Nine of the mentors were female, and one was male. See the Appendix for
demographics of participants.
All interviews were conducted at a local Catholic church and were
recorded digitally and then transcribed verbatim. The interview protocol for
the emerging leaders was developed to capture their views of their identity
as a leader, how they had grown in their identity as a leader, and what had
affected the development of their identity as a leader. The interview protocol
for the mentors captured the mentors’ perspective on these three components.

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Archival data consisted of reflections and course evaluations provided by the

emerging leaders and their mentors. Nonparticipant observations were con-
ducted at two critical reflection evenings of cohort 2. The researcher’s notes
on these observations then became part of the data to be analyzed. Taken
together, these secondary sources of data provided a rich context that helped
my understanding of the emerging leaders’ development.
Data Analysis
After reviewing all the data sources, I then began to identify data in open
codes. This open coding is a “process of assigning a designation to various
aspects of your data. The designations can be single words, phrases, or a
concept from the literature” (Merriam, 2009, p. 173). A total of 24 codes
ultimately emerged from the data. Examples of the codes are as follows: (a)
protégé view of leadership, (b) protégé view of leader identity, (c) protégés’
discovery of leader identity, (d) positive experience of mentoring, (e) mentor
influence, (f) critical reflection, (g) awareness of leadership, (h) synthesis of
leadership, and (i) mentor’s view of leader identity.
A thorough reading of each code allowed me to become more familiar
with the data. This process is known as inductive data analysis. I then began
to systematically group codes together. These groups of codes allowed me to
see a “picture” begin to emerge from the data. The original 24 codes ultimately
resulted in 3 “code groups.” It was from the analysis of these reports that pre-
liminary conclusions were drawn and ultimately themes were developed. As
outlined by Miles and Huberman (1984), the data analysis proceeded from
noting patterns and themes to arriving at comparisons, contrasts, and trying
to determine theoretical explanations.
Researcher Positionality
I approached this study as an “insider.” “Insider-researchers are those who
choose to study a group to which they belong, while outsider researchers do
not belong to the group under study” (Unluer, 2012, p. 1). I was a member of
the steering committee of the program and was a facilitator for the leadership
course. My interest in conducting this study was stimulated by participants in
the session I was leading on “leadership skills” as they explained to me how
important this program had been in their development. I become very curious
as to “how” this development was taking place.
Therefore, the potential effect of insider bias was relevant to the methods
of this study. Some scholars (e.g., Kvale, 1996) believe that insider research is
an approach that allows for understanding through a rational discourse and
reciprocal critique among those identifying and interpreting a phenomenon.
Gunasekaia (2007) warned that the “informed perspective” of the inter-
viewer may influence both observations and interpretations. In terms of
“influencing,” it was important for me to be aware of the participant’s comfort
level with me. Since a rapport existed between the participants and myself,

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some things were assumed knowledge and therefore we needed to make them
explicit. Hellawell (2006) advised the researcher to reflect on his or her own
beliefs and values. Over-rapport between researcher and informant can be one
potential drawback with insider research. Insider status can be more of a help
than a hindrance when the knowledge base needed to understand the infor-
mation processes of certain organizational cultures is sufficiently extensive.
This was true of this case study. Because ministerial life in the Catholic Church
is complex, my knowledge of the institution helped in knowing where to get
information and who to contact to set up the interviews and observations.
A reflective journal was used, immediately after conducting interviews,
and it enabled me to make my opinions, experiences, thoughts, and feelings
a visible part of the research design. Ortlipp (2008) described the purpose
of a reflective journal in qualitative research as “a strategy that can facilitate
reflexivity, whereby researchers use their journals to examine the personal
assumptions and goals and clarify individual belief systems and subjectivities”
(p. 695).
Integrity Measures
Constructivist integrity measures were used (Rocco, 2003) to ensure data
trustworthiness: (a) triangulation, (b) member checks, and (c) peer debrief-
ing. Triangulation of data sources (participant interviews, mentor interviews,
direct observation, participant archives, and program materials) was built into
the data collection process and analysis for the purpose of achieving trustwor-
thiness. A member check, also known as informant feedback or respondent
validation, is a technique used by researchers to help improve the accuracy,
credibility, validity, and transferability. A peer debriefer allows a peer to review
and evaluate transcripts, emerging categories from those transcripts, and the
final report; he or she also acts as an auditor.

Findings
This case study used an inductive analysis of the perceptions of participants of
a leadership development program and their mentors. Participants provided
perspectives regarding their identity development as a leader in a not-for-
profit volunteer organization. The formal mentoring program was a major
component of this leadership development program. Participants described
their perceptions of leadership, the mentor relationship, and their own
leader identity development, including aspects that helped or hindered this
development.
Emergent Theme 1: The Mentor Partnership—Leader
Identity Discovery
The leader identity discovery involves the ability of the participant to fully
realize that he or she is a leader. This discovery was a common thread

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throughout the interviews. Those involved in the mentor–protégé dyad iden-

tified this realization as the same experience; that is, they noted the moment
of the protégés’ discovery of their leader identity. The theme is distinctive in
that of the 10 mentor dyads interviewed, 8 of the mentors identified the same
experience as their protégé, even though they had been interviewed separately
on different days. Analysis of these data revealed that these mentor dyads
could pinpoint the critical moment when and where the protégé identified
themselves as a leader. Furthermore, the mentor was depicted as an active
partner in this discovery.
Catherine, a dental hygienist and mother of two, recalled the time when
she first identified herself as a leader in the parish and the role her mentor
played in the discovery. She said:

I first identified myself as a leader in the parish when I had to do my

practicum. My original idea was to present a video presentation and open
it up to everyone in the parish. I had to deal with the staff having other
ideas because our dates were not coordinating. I had to work with the staff
and actually change the program. Because I got everybody really talking
and listening to one another, it became a very good program. I thought,
“This must be what a leader does,” and I was very pleased with how it
turned out—even though it did turn out differently that I had originally
anticipated.

Catherine relates how she had to make adjustments to her original plan
as she brought in more stakeholders. The stakeholders had ideas that needed
to be accommodated and at first she was taken aback by these additional
requests. It was only after the initial meeting that she was able to step back
and with the help of her mentor sort through all the new demands. From this
juncture, she created a program that was in line with her original concept and
still incorporated the other demands. By facing this challenge with her men-
tor, she recognized herself as a leader.
Her mentor, Jackie, a life coach and parish leader, recalled the impact
the practicum had on her protégé’s leader identity. She talked about how, as a
member of the committee that Catherine had put together, she saw firsthand
the challenge that she had undertaken and wondered what impact this would
have on Catherine. She related the experience as follows:

I think this was a little bit of a challenge for her. It suddenly became
whoa—what is this? I can’t remember specifically what happened, but
I remember her being challenged… I see her as a leader in both ways.
When given something to do in a leadership role, she takes it and runs
with it. One of the strongest leadership qualities that I see in her came from
discussions of how she was leading the committee that she put together for
her practicum, listening to the way that she was challenged, and the way

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that she challenged everybody to listen. When I look at her and how she
led the committee, it was amazing. She really was a leader.

Jackie was amazed at the leader that Catherine had become. She indi-
cated that at first she seemed somewhat protective of Catherine. She saw
how the committee seemed to have a different vision than Catherine. It was
only after Catherine let everyone have a voice that she watched as Catherine
weaved together a cohesive vision of the program they were going to create.
Keith described his transformation into a leader as an awakening when
he discussed what happened:

I had been an RCIA [Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults—a process that

adults go through to become members of the Roman Catholic Church]
catechist [a volunteer teacher] for 10 or 15 years and before that I had been
a Eucharistic minister. I went through the training and became a minister of
care. Suddenly, Nathan (the leader of the Ministry of Care) left. They asked
me to fill the vacant role of leader of the Ministry of Care. My very, very,
very first inclination was, “No way. I don’t want any part of that. I’m doing
LEMLP.” And, as a matter of fact, I had just gotten involved with the Ministry
of Care. They said, “Well, okay, you’ve only been a minister for a couple of
months, but we need a leader.” So Beth said, “Keith, I’m here. I’ll help and
support you. So you can take over the leadership of the group.” So I did. It
went fine. This was the beginning of my transformation into a leader.

Keith’s mentor, Beth, a retired parish staff member, related a similar trans-
formation in Keith. Although she believed that Keith’s leadership came over
time, she pointed out that the pivotal moment was when he took over the
leadership role with the ministers of care:

Part of the process was to spend time beyond our parish, primarily in the
nursing homes. Keith has a tremendous resistance to doing this, and would
always try to get out of doing his turn. When he began LEMLP, I saw this
as a step to accepting the real challenge of speaking publicly in large groups
and eventually coming to the nursing home and presiding at a communion
service. After two years in LEMLP, Keith did it. He eventually was sitting
and talking with people, touching and embracing them. Keith is now
responsible for the pastoral care ministry at the parish.

The preceding descriptions from the mentors and protégés are examples
of how closely linked the mentor dyads were in this case study. These mentor
relationships were primary in helping the protégés’ leader identity become
salient. Mentors were more than confidants—they were the people from
whom protégés sought advice as they grew in their leader identity. Each of the
dyads reported how the mentor was part of the identity discovery moment.

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In that moment we see how Jackie tries to protect her protégé, and how Beth
in a way gently prods Keith into the leadership role. The mentors in this case
study were an integral part of the leader identity development.
These mentor relationships were primary in helping the protégés’ leader
identity become salient. Mentors were more than confidants—they were the
people from whom protégés sought advice as they grew in their leader iden-
tity. Each of the dyads reported how the mentor was part of the identity dis-
covery moment.
Emergent Theme 2: Mentoring Leader Identity Development: Through
Critical Learning Moments
In addition to the mentoring partnership described above, participants
believed that the mentoring they had received fit into their learning as adults.
They believed that unlike other learning situations, they were experiencing a
learning environment that was unique. Protégés were developing their leader
identity as their mentors guided them through critical learning moments.
Self-Direction as a Process of Growth
Self-direction commonly sets adults apart from children in terms of learning.
All of the study participants felt that their learning was taking place because
they directed it. They described how their mentors accepted and supported
their interest. Jane stated:

I became involved in RCIA through Charlene, my mentor, and the LEMLP

program. When we studied the RCIA program, I thought, “Wow, this is
so cool. I have got to get involved,” so I became a sponsor. Charlene kept
asking me to do other things. I led the Bible session with all of the RCIA
candidates even though I don’t know much about the Bible. I saw that as
an opportunity to have a teacher or leader role and it spurred me to want
to learn more about the Bible.

Jane became involved in the RCIA program at the invitation of her men-
tor. Then as she became involved, her mentor challenged her to lead a presen-
tation. After she led the presentation, her interest was piqued and she took it
upon herself to learn more about the Bible. Jane took the initiative to expand
her knowledge because of the experience that her mentor had set up for her.
Learning from Experience
Alongside the feeling of being self-directed are explanations of how partici-
pants learned through their experiences. Similar to the self-directed moments,
these experiences were also part of the mentoring that the protégés were
undergoing. Karen described her mentor as drawing out the knowledge that
Karen had because of her experience. It was from that encounter that Karen
was able to grow as a learner. She explained this encounter:

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… Diane’s faith in the church, her personal experience, and seeing that she
has survived. Since she has survived then there’s no reason that I can’t. I
wouldn’t have gotten where I am without her support since I haven’t really
gotten a lot of support from my family in the last 3 years.

Karen believes that her mentor had fostered experiences that were help-
ing Karen grow into a leader. Since her mentor had grown in her faith through
her struggle to overcome breast cancer, she felt that she could grow as she
struggled with her disability.
Readiness to Learn
The protégés also expressed a readiness to learn. As the protégés needed cer-
tain skills or knowledge to fulfill a role, they then embarked on a learning
journey. Eight of the protégés described a similar revelation when they sud-
denly saw themselves in leadership roles, and the realization that the skills or
activities in which they were involved were a result of their mentors’ gentle
prodding. They then recognized skills that they needed to learn as a result of
these encounters. Keith described his uneasiness in the beginning but that his
mentor, Beth, had prepared him, and he suddenly had to learn how to facili-
tate a prayer gathering at the nursing home. He explained his course of action:

Tomorrow I’m going to be at the nursing home. We’re going to have a

communion service there with probably 25 or 30 people in attendance.
During the communion service, we go through the readings and give a
reflection on the scripture readings. I really wasn’t comfortable doing that
a few years ago. Now, I’m going to facilitate or lead the communion service
tomorrow.

Had it not been for Keith’s openness, or readiness to learn, he would not
have been getting ready to lead a prayer service. This readiness allowed Keith
to further develop his leader identity. Here again we see the mentor (Beth)
serving as an integral catalyst to Keith taking this step.
The Relevance of Problem-Centered Learning
The majority of the protégés tended to learn better through problem-centered
learning rather than in a theoretical setting. All the study participants shared
the belief that their success was enhanced by the immediate application of the
principles that they were learning. When Keith was asked about any detri-
mental experiences that he had with his mentor, he stated:

As a matter of fact, it ended up being beneficial. Sometimes you have to

be pushed over that edge. Anytime I’ve gotten involved in the church’s
ministry, I’ve been pretty much 100 percent resistant. But after I said yes,
sometimes after being pushed to get involved, I did it. Then I looked back

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and thought, “Wow, that was pretty cool. That was a good experience. That
wasn’t what I thought. The fears or anxiety that I had going into it were no
big deal.” So from that perspective, any kind of pushing was ultimately the
opposite of detrimental.

Motivation Driven by a Hunger to Learn

The protégés all had a deep motivation to learn. All the protégés expressed
this desire to learn more about their faith and theology. They expressed this as
a hunger for wanting to know more. Rachel, a nurse educator, expressed how
she had a deep desire to learn more about prayer. She expressed this desire
to her new mentor, and he led her to a way in which she could deepen her
prayer life. She described this encounter with her mentor as follows:

Barry is very gentle, open, and easy to talk to. I felt that I could open my
heart to him. He would address what he thought my needs were. When I
spoke to him about prayer, he said that he went through the same stuff. He
recommended a book by Thomas Keating. He [Barry] is very warm, and
has a sense of humor. Whenever I needed him, I’d call him. I see him as
joyful. He’s been great.

Renita, a pharmacist, had as her mentor a retired schoolteacher who is 20

years her senior. One would think that this pairing would not have worked.
However, what Renita learned has been overwhelming to her. Her mentor
was active in prison ministry and had taken numerous trips abroad to go on
mission. This sense of active ministry was something that has greatly affected
Renita. She cared deeply for her mentor and she developed a huge apprecia-
tion for prison ministry that emerged from this relationship. When speaking
about her mentor relationship, she said:

I think I’m relationship driven. When she [her mentor] and I are talking
and she shares something that is personal or something she’s struggling
with, I think that opens up the relationship. I feel that there’s a real
relationship not just checking something off of a checklist.

Not only did Renita express this motivation, but Tanya explained some-
thing similar in her evaluation. She wrote:

I’m developing an inner awareness that I must use as a guide in practicing

leadership. There is a balance between our own goals and the goals of those
we choose to lead, and [it] is not always easy. As a result, I want to learn more
about the spirituality of leadership. I think that this can help me as a leader.

Tanya felt that the more that she learned about leadership, the more she
wanted to know. The last course on leadership had piqued her interest in the

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idea of a spirituality of leadership. Her goal became to learn more about this
idea and determine how it could be incorporated into her view of leadership.
Emergent Theme 3: Leader Identity Development Through
Self-Knowledge
When discussing the LEMLP program, participants reported that it had posi-
tively affected their development as a leader, and as a result, they had grown
in confidence and self-knowledge. The structure of the program had many
components and participants even spoke about the effect of components
that they did not like. The components most frequently mentioned were the
courses, their cohort or group, the critical reflection evenings, mentoring, and
the facilitators. The structure of the program and the feedback that partici-
pants received from mentors, facilitators, and others helped them to build
their confidence as a leader and led to a deeper awareness of self. Keith under-
stood how components of the LEMLP process worked in tandem. He talked
about the process in this way:

There are the leadership skills. I think mine were developed over time
more through my professional career rather than the Leadership Program,
no doubt, filled a huge void in relation to me being able to step and assume
leadership within the church ministry. I don’t have that kind of personality.
If I’m going to do something, I don’t want to be groping in the dark—I
want a good foundation in theology.

Keith makes a distinction between being a leader and leadership skills;

however, the process of the program gave him the confidence to step up and
refine his sense of identity as a leader.
Ted also described how aspects of the program flowed together and
worked as well. He stated that his leadership ability was a direct result of the
experience of the program:

It gave me confidence—a lot of confidence. I never in my life could have

spoken in front of large groups, spoken with small groups, and gotten up
and lead a prayer service. Never! These are some of the things that have
given me confidence in my ability to lead.

Ted avoided the aforementioned speaking and leading functions in the

past because he had not envisioned himself as a leader. When he began to
visualize himself as a leader, he gained the confidence to lead a prayer service
and/or speak in front of a group.

Discussion
The mentor partnership—leader identity discovery was a major theme of
this research study. The research participants, both mentors and protégés,

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provided a thick description of their discovery of their leader identity. The

participants described in detail how the mentoring experience was an invalu-
able part of their development. An interesting point is that all participants had
experiences with their mentors outside of the “formal mentoring” encoun-
ter. However, it was not until reflection on these experiences that they real-
ized that they actually were being mentored during those experiences. They
seemed to have relegated the mentoring to only scheduled discussions. The
role that mentors played in that experience was one of support and inspired
them with confidence. Mentors reported the same transformational event as
the protégé evolved into his/her role as a leader.
This current study reveals a strong relationship to the stage-based lead-
ership identity development (LID) model (Komives, Longerbeam, Owen,
Mainella, & Osteen, 2006). This model includes six stages of leadership iden-
tity, which they defined as a “personal and social identity incorporating an
awareness that [one] can make a difference and can work effectively with oth-
ers to accomplish changes” (Komives et al., 2006, p. 401). As a person moves
through the stages, he or she comes to a deeper understanding of leadership,
community, and self in relation to others.
The protégés all expressed notions that indicated movement through
stages of the LID model as their leader identity became more salient. The
protégés offered their personal experiences as examples of how they saw
themselves developing as leaders. The protégés all acknowledged the impor-
tance that their mentors played in their development as leaders. Komives et
al. (2005) related the important role that mentors play as protégés transition
into new stages of identity development. This current research highlighted
the critical role that mentors play in this transition. The mentors expressed
concern over the lack of preparation for this important role. The mentoring
role was not the focus of the study in Komives et al. (2005). However, from
the comments of the participants in this study, the mentoring component was
an integral part of the leader identity development process. Mentors played an
essential part in the protégés’ identity development.
This “discovery of the leader identity” cannot be overemphasized.
Leadership starts with self-discovery. Zaleznik (1963) stated: “The exercise of
leadership requires a strong sense of identity—knowing who one is and who
one is not—a sense of autonomy, separateness, or identity, permits a freedom
of action and thinking that is necessary for leadership” (p. 68). It is from pin-
pointing this moment that the protégé now becomes free to be a leader. Day,
Harrison, and Halpin (2009) continued this concept that thinking of oneself
as a leader is an important impetus for acting as a leader. They broadened
this idea by suggesting that leaders who have integrated their perception
of themselves as leaders more readily will take on leadership roles. All of
the protégés in this study progressed in assuming leadership roles as their
leader identity became more salient. The mentors played an active role in
this development because they allowed the protégés to feel safe, encouraged

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them, and built up their self-confidence as they assumed more demanding

leadership roles.
Critical Learning Moments
As individual protégés described the experiences that they were having or had
had with their mentor, they described adult learning strategies and character-
istics. The participants described adult learning characteristics and how their
mentors had helped to guide them. The protégés described these character-
istics as they reflected on both the formal mentoring and informal mentoring
experiences. Protégés also reflected on how their mentors had used reflec-
tive listening and questioning during their mentoring sessions and how this
communication process had helped them to articulate exactly what they were
learning and to guide them toward helpful resources. The adult learning strat-
egies used by their mentors and articulated in this study aided the protégés in
their discovery and development of their leader identity in building self-con-
fidence, increasing knowledge, and enhancing their leadership skills. This sec-
ond theme, leader identity development through critical learning moments, is
related to an area of the literature that was not anticipated. The principles of
andragogy, which were popularized through the research of Malcolm Knowles
(1980), relate to how adults learn. Adults learn best when they have control
over their learning. Protégés clearly identified how their mentors had used
these principles without articulating them. As mentioned earlier, the adult
learning strategies not only helped in the facilitation of the development of
the leader identity but also aided in the building of self-confidence, increasing
knowledge, and enhancing leadership skills.
The use of critical learning moments is prominent in the critical reflec-
tion literature. Transformative or transformational learning, as Merriam et al.
(2007) described, “is about change—dramatic, fundamental change in the
way we see ourselves and the world in which we live” (p. 130). In other
words, this type of learning caused a radical shift in the protégés’ worldview.
They no longer used the lenses that they had used earlier to view their lead-
ership. This radical type of learning took place as they reflected deeply and
searched for meaning from the critical learning moments. Additionally, one of
the key concepts of Knowles’s theory is that adult learners bring a wealth of
experience to the table. In a corporate world where mentors may be younger
than their protégés, it would be extremely beneficial in the development of the
protégés if this “knowledge and experience” were not only recognized but also
effectively utilized by the mentors. These critical learning moments allowed
the protégés to create a shift in the perceptions of themselves and furthered
the development of their leader identity.
The third theme of leader identity development through self-knowledge
relates to the influence the components of the leadership development pro-
gram had on the participant’s leader identity development. Leadership devel-
opment typically has involved a mix of behavioral, intellectual, and social

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skills that are required for leadership in a particular organization (Lord &
Hall, 2005). Lord and Hall posited that for leadership to be sustained over
time it must become part of one’s identity. These different components must
be combined to form an effective leadership development program. Lord and
Hall suggested that critical to leadership development is the integration of
leadership skills with the identity of a leader. The protégés in this study dis-
cussed how the varying aspects of the program seemed to work “hand in
hand” as each one developed his or her leader identity.
Study participants did not always understand why they were being asked
to study certain subjects. In hindsight, they recognized value in courses that
initially did not seem to relate to their reasons for participating in the program.
Additionally, a majority of the participants described concerns about teaching
and facilitation methods that were unfamiliar to them. Most protégés described
course experiences that closely resembled a college seminar structure.
Another aspect that helped in the development of self-knowledge was
the experience of and the influence through the group or cohort. Cohorts in
academia are defined as a group of students who begin a program of study
together and progress together through the program. According to Dinsmore
and Wenger (2006), cohort building requires an environment that fosters
a community of learners. Constructing a cohort creates an environment in
which participants develop long-term professional relationships that are
viewed as more meaningful than a random assembling of students for course-
work (Eifler, Potthoff, & Dinsmore, 2004).
The protégés in this study all reported how they had formed a mean-
ingful bond with the members of their cohort. The program completers
reported that they had continued to maintain their relationships with each
other throughout the past year. Adams and Hambright (2004) contended
that cohort building develops students’ leadership skills and provides a lens
through which students can examine educational issues and concerns through
their own lived experiences. In this current study, protégés discussed how the
group or cohort allowed them to build their leadership skills and gave them
a safe place in which to exercise this leadership role. Protégés also discussed
how they had never been in a diverse group before and that the cohort had
allowed them to expand their understandings of other socioeconomic groups.
One participant was able to bring an awareness of racial inequality to her
cohort members that none of them had recognized previously.
Another of the pieces that contributed to the protégés’ self-knowledge
and furthered their identity development was the synthesis of critical reflec-
tion events. Protégés believed that the critical reflection evenings and the two
weekend retreats were very beneficial. With a few exceptions, the protégés
described their initial difficulty in understanding the purpose of the critical
reflection evenings. Many felt that the evening would have been better utilized
by having an additional course session. However, once they understood the
purpose was to help them reflect on what they had just learned and to discern

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how it could be applied to their lives, they were able to ease into an apprecia-
tion of the evenings. Some began to look forward to the evenings. All the pro-
tégés concluded that the weekend retreats were pivotal in their development.
They described how the prolonged reflection period allowed them to let go of
the noise of their busy worlds and focus on themselves.
Many adult educators such as Brookfield (1986), Marsick (1987),
Watkins (1991), and Mezirow (1991), have emphasized the importance of
fostering critical thinking and critical reflection strategies in the workplace.
Everyone needs to take time out of his or her busy schedules to “stop and
think.” When we take that time to “stop and think,” are we learning? If not,
could we? And if we are learning, can there be a structured way to this?
Can this “thinking” be done as a group, so that as we process our thinking
together, we all learn and see how we learn more about ourselves? In the field
of adult continuing education, this process of “stop and think” is called reflec-
tion. This study shows how these critical reflection events were used to bring
about a transformation in the protégés’ self-identity.
Authors such as Schön (1983), D. Kolb (1984), Moon (2004), Brookfield
(1987), and Boud (1985) generally are credited with bringing reflection to
prominence in the field of adult education. This process of reflection left the
protégés with a sense of vulnerability in two ways: (a) protégés reexperienced
the experience, that is, the feelings of fear, anger, and joy; and (b) protégés
opened themselves to reinterpret their most dearly held beliefs, biases, and
convictions.
Critical reflection enabled the protégés to gain new perspectives. These
new perspectives developed on a personal level and on an organizational level.
The focus on critical reflection allowed for a concentration on a trait that
is exclusive to adult learners: the ability to reflect critically on experiences,
integrate this reflection into existing structures, and develop new approaches
and assumptions based on these reflections. The adaptation of this type of an
outlook drastically helped the protégés evaluate the events in their world and
shape their leader identity.
All of these components contributed to the building of the protégés’ self-
confidence. Yukl (2002) and Bass (1990) considered self-confidence to be
especially important and relevant to successful leadership. Bass also noted
that in order for a leader to be a “transformational leader,” he or she must
have self-confidence. J. Kolb (1999) and Mowday (1979) found that a leader’s
self-confidence was a predictor of leader emergence. Although no one can give
others self-confidence, protégés in this current study were able to cultivate
their self-confidence and integrate that growth into their leader identity.

Practical Implications
This study demonstrated the important role that mentors play in the
development of leader identity of protégés in a leadership development

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program. In the area of continuity of identity discovery, a number of recom-

mendations could be drawn from this study. First, the results of this study
added to the literature of identity and mentoring by demonstrating that men-
toring has a vast impact on development of a protégé’s leader identity. Further,
this study delineated how mentoring relationships are long-term investments,
and therefore they require people who will be dedicated to the relationship.
As a result, the organization must be mindful of these factors when design-
ing and implementing a formal mentor program for leadership development.
Mentors need to understand the critical role that they play in the development
of their protégés’ leader identity, and they themselves need to have structures
that support their continued development. Some of the mentors in this study
related a feeling of not knowing what to do as a mentor. Most of the mentor–
protégé dyads concurred that the formal mentoring occurred only during their
formal sharing times. A support structure needs to be in place that will con-
tinually guide mentors through the duration of the program.
Mentors in this study helped their protégés’ leader identity become more
salient. This task was accomplished as mentors sought out challenging assign-
ments or encouraged their protégés to “push the envelope” and expand their
comfort levels. Mentors can become important motivators for their protégés
to act as leaders. This type of a leadership development approach bridges the
gap between leader development and leadership development and, as a result,
adds to the social capital of the organization. Human resource developers
need to make use of this type of capital since it is vital to maintaining effective
organizations.
The study participants had varying degrees of insecurities. They ranged
from Tanya and Keith, who both recognized they had some leadership abil-
ity early in their lives, to Marylou, who, even after participating in the LMEP,
was still insecure in her leader identity. We can learn from these study partici-
pants is that they were allowed to practice skills in “safe environments” and then
received feedback from their mentors. Both Catherine and Madonna voiced how
their mentors gave support, didn’t interfere but allowed the participants to make
mistakes and also to be reaffirmed in the skills that they had acquired building
up their confidences. This is a “best practice” that can be transferred from this
study to other programs that involve mentors in leadership development. The
mentors need to be actively engaged in the protégés’ attempts to be a leader.
Hamel and LaBarre (2013) writing about “The Leadership Challenge”
call upon corporations to “dramatically enlarge the leadership capacity of the
organization” (p. 1). They posit that organizations can do this if they redis-
tribute power allowing employees the freedom to lead and equip employees
to lead even though they don’t have the official title. This was seen by Jane, a
CEO of another company, that originally did not feel confident of leading in
a nonbusiness setting and once she was given the tools, the freedom to lead,
and the gentle guidance of her mentor, she had the confidence to facilitate a
group Bible study.

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Mentoring and Leader Identity Development: A Case Study 373

Another important implication of this study for both research and prac-
tice is the connection that was made between mentoring and adult learn-
ing principles. The results of this study position adult learning principles
as instrumental components to the leader identity development process.
Knowles (1980) offered five assumptions of adult learning:

1. Adults are self-directed—this principle aligns with the subtheme “self-

direction as a process for growth.”
2. Adult experiences are a rich reservoir of learning—this idea is aligned with
the subtheme “learning from experience.”
3. The readiness of adults to learn is related to social role and development—
this suggestion is aligned with the subtheme “readiness to learn.”
4. Adults want immediate application of their learning—this notion is aligned
with the subtheme “relevance of problem-centered learning.”
5. Adults are motivated by internal rather that external factors—this belief is
aligned with the subtheme “motivation driven by a hunger to learn.”

Participants in the current study used language and described examples

that were consistent with principles of andragogy. Although mentors and pro-
tégés had not studied the principles of andragogy and they did not name
what they had experienced as andragogy, they unintentionally described the
principles.
Knowles (1980) discerned that learning was a lifelong adventure for
adults. A particular skill might be taught once; however, within a supportive
environment, learners might learn new approaches or methodologies from
their fellow learners over time. Even though the emphasis is on the self-
directed learner, this person’s meaning making does not occur in a vacuum.
People benefit from sharing their interpretations of learning experiences with
others. They benefit from hearing about new perspectives from learners with
different but applicable experiences. This phenomenon was evident when
protégés described their experiences with their mentors. The mentors encour-
aged protégés to use critical reflection skills to interpret course content and
then provided a safe environment for applying their new skills. These findings
have implications for the design and implementation of both leadership edu-
cational programs and formal mentoring programs.
As mentors and protégés interacted, they unknowingly created an atmo-
sphere that was conducive to adult learning. The adult learning was predi-
cated on mutual respect as the mentoring partnership was formed. This
unexpected theme is important to adult educators and human resource devel-
opers. These professionals need to listen to the stories that learners bring to
them. Based on these stories, the mentors of this study challenged their pro-
tégés to explore different narratives of self. When this step was present in
the mentoring relationship, protégés stepped into the unknown and learned
more about themselves and their identity as a leader. This is the “identity

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374 Muir

workspace” that Petriglieri (2011) talks about as emerging leaders transition

into a salient leader identity. It is important, therefore, that those who develop
formal mentoring programs become familiar with the principles of adult edu-
cation. As protégés are exposed to more challenging assignments, they will
become more confident and successful in their roles as leaders.

Limitations of the Study

A few limitations of this study are worth noting. As defined, a case study is
limited to a descriptive method rather than an explanatory one (Yin, 2009).
That is, without the controlled conditions of the laboratory, conclusions
about cause-and-effect relationships cannot be drawn. Behavior can only be
described, not explained. As a case study, this research only involved a few
individuals and, therefore, may not be representative of the group or popu-
lation. Since much of the information collected was retrospective data (i.e.,
recollections of past events), the information was subject to the problems
inherent to the bias of one’s memory.
This case study had the possibility of being influenced by the insider bias
of the researcher. As noted earlier, the researcher was involved in the inner
workings of the program described. The researcher was a course facilitator and
a member of the steering committee of cohort 1. To help ensure the trustwor-
thiness of the data and to help establish my objectivity, I used a reflection jour-
nal to help me become more aware of my bias. Additionally, to be as objective
as possible after the coding of materials, a peer researcher reviewed my coded
data. All materials and codes were reviewed by the peer, and she felt that due
diligence had been used in coding the materials. In fact, she believed that my
insider perspective helped me to understand the complexities of the case.

Future Research
Day, Harrison, and Halpin (2009) and Lord and Hall (2005) put forth propo-
sitions regarding mentoring, identity development, and leadership develop-
ment. This study attempted to bridge these three important areas of study.
Although studies have been conducted on mentoring, leader identity, and
leadership development, this study united all three of these areas. Findings
of this study suggest a strong influence of the mentoring relationship on the
identity development of those in a leadership training program. These areas
would benefit from quantitative empirical studies to add to the body of plan-
ning research as organizations look to the future of leadership development.
This study made inferences to other influences on leader identity develop-
ment; however, it did not focus on those other influences such as cohort,
critical reflection, and program curriculum. More research needs to done in
this area so that HRD professionals can learn what dimensions can further the
salience of the leader identity.

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Mentoring and Leader Identity Development: A Case Study 375

A grounded theory study approach to a leadership development program

would be useful in identifying the process by which a leader identity becomes
salient. By doing this, HRD professionals could combine the findings of this
study to create a more holistic approach to leader development.
Additionally, longitudinal study on the effect of mentoring on leadership
development. Very few longitudinal studies have been conducted on mentor-
ing. Additionally, studies on mentoring have focused traditionally on man-
agers. Leadership and management have different functions. A longitudinal
study of mentoring in a leadership development program would allow plan-
ners to know if the stages of a mentoring relationship apply to this implemen-
tation. With this knowledge human resource professionals and educational
planners could develop a strategy for implementing a formal mentoring pro-
gram. These leaders would be able to better assess the strengths, weaknesses,
and opportunities of their leadership mentoring programs.

Conclusion
The results of this research provide important insights into the phenomena of
mentoring and identity development in a leadership development program.
This research shows how the linking of leader development and leadership
development can grow the social capital of the organization. Leadership
development contains a body of ideas and concepts that needs to be exam-
ined critically in the light of participants’ own experiences and shaped by
their understandings of their identity. Such engagement with these critical
perspectives will aid adult educators and human resource professionals as
they develop innovative approaches to leadership learning and development.

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Douglas Muir is Director of Education at Notre Dame Parish, Clarendon, IL.

Corresponding author:
Douglas Muir can be contacted at muirdk@yahoo.com.

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Appendix: Participant Demographics

Highest Level
Name Role Cohort Age Gender of Education Occupation
Beth Mentor 1 72 Female BA Retired
Keith Protégé 1 57 Male BA Manager
Jackie Mentor 1 56 Female MA Life Coach
Catherine Protégé 1 46 Female AA Dental Hygienist
Madison Mentor 1 55 Female MA Director of Liturgy
Madonna Protégé 1 43 Female AA Homemaker
Meagan Mentor 1 53 Female HS Office Manager
Ted Protégé 1 66 Male AA Mechanical Engineer
Valerie Mentor 1 50 Female HS Home Maintenance
Patricia Protégé 1 58 Female AA Office Manager
Barry Mentor 2 60 Male MA Manager
Elise Protégé 2 50 Female MA Social Worker
Rachael Protégé 2 66 Female MA Nurse Educator
Diane Mentor 2 54 Female BA DRE
Karen Protégé 2 46 Female HS Unemployed
Martha Mentor 2 62 Female MA Occupational
Therapist
Camille Protégé 2 31 Female AA Bookkeeper
Veronica Mentor 2 55 Female AA Office Manager
Regina Protégé 2 53 Female HS Homemaker
Tanya Protégé 2 54 Female AA Sales
Carlene Mentor 3 58 Female Doctoral Student DRE
Jane Protégé 3 58 Female MA CEO
Marylou Protégé 3 57 Female HS Administrative
Assistant
Renita Protégé 3 45 Female BA Pharmacist
Travis Protégé 3 61 Male AA Alzheimer’s
Coordinator

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

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