Volume 6 Number 2

Summer Edition 2021-22

ISSN: 2206-5202

Police Science
 Contents
Editorial Foreword - Superintendent David Cowan, President, ANZ SEBP 2
Conversations In Custody: Shining Our Values In The Darkest Places - Emma Burns 4
Rapid systematic reviews in policing: Using the Global Policing Database in a 9
partnership between the University of Queensland and New Zealand Police
Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine & Lorraine Mazerolle

Policing approaches prior to the point of arrest, charge, or prosecution: 17

A rapid review of the evaluation literature
Lorelei Hine, Elizabeth Eggins, Lorraine Mazerolle, & James McEwan

Policing alcohol-impaired driving: A rapid review of the evaluation literature 20

Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine, Lorraine Mazerolle

Road policing: A rapid review of the evaluation literature - Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine, Lorraine Mazerolle 22
Policing responses to crime and social problems in Auckland: A rapid review of the evaluation literature - 26
Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine, & Lorraine Mazerolle

Policing child sex offenders and offending: A rapid review of the evaluation literature 32
Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine, & Lorraine Mazerolle

Mental health co-response models: A rapid review of the evaluation literature 34

Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine, & Lorraine Mazerolle

Reducing alcohol-related harm in the night-time economy: A rapid review of the evaluation literature 37
Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine, & Lorraine Mazerolle

The relationship between changing product-specific reward and stealing counts against the backdrop of 40
decreasing reward of property crime overall - Mr Liam Quinn and Dr Joseph Clare
Whariki Haumaru: Partnering with Maori Wardens to reduce Warrants to Arrest - 44
Kaori Takenaka; Matthew Davies; Mahinarangi Hakaraia; Caitlin Spence, Behavioural Science Aotearoa, Lance Tebbutt

Bilateral Electronic Monitoring of High-Risk Family Violence Perpetrators in an Australian jurisdiction - 51

Romy Winter, Ebba Herrlander Birgerson, Ron Frey, Roberta Julian, Peter Lucas, Kimberley Norris, Mandy Matthewson

Vol. 6, No. 2 Summer Edition 2021-22

Notes for contributors
Published by the Australia & New Zealand
Society of Evidence Based Policing Articles for consideration should in the first instance be
sent to the editorial team at anzsebp@gmail.com for initial
ISSN: 2206-5202 consideration.
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ANZ SEBP Patron
references) and be Harvard referenced.
Air Chief Marshal Sir Angus Houston AK, AFC (Ret’d)
Articles should be based upon the aims and objectives of the
Executive Committee 2021-2022 journal and the evidence based policing approach.
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Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 1

 Editorial Foreword Editorial Foreword

Superintendent David Cowan,

Victoria Police

Welcome to the Summer edition of POLICE SCIENCE, published slightly later than intended - in no small part impacted by the continued policing So, what is the perception of researchers and academics by police? Some would suggest they are entirely focussed on analysis, data and
response to CV19 and extra-ordinary demand on policing services in recent months in both Australia and New Zealand. publications. They are perceived to be too slow for our pace, take forever to deliver any results, everything is caveated. This is not entirely the
researcher’s fault. Police have traditionally been poor consumers and generators of research and historically police have not owned their science,
In this edition we are proud to present you with a range of articles, including a body of Rapid Evidence Assessments (REA) produced by the Global nor developed a culture that values research.
Policing Database team, led by Professor Lorraine Mazerolle, at the University of Queensland. These REA’s were commissioned through the on-
going partnership with the New Zealand Police Evidence-based Policing Centre. Each of the REA’s in this edition has been summarised by the team Some of this might sound a little harsh, but I think it is a perception. However, it is not all doom and gloom. Evidence-based Policing is shifting that
into short-format papers. This snapshot of REA’s has been used by New Zealand Police to inform a range of strategies, and importantly the applied relationship. A kinder view would be that there is a growing movement towards EBP largely driven by individual pracademics rather than institutions.
testing or implementation of strategies from Mental health to Road Policing.
In many respects EBP challenges policing conventions. But evidence doesn’t occur in a vacuum. For EBP to be relevant to policing it needs to
As you will know the ANZ SEBP held its annual conference in 2021, raising the bar in online policing conferencing in the process. We welcomed be considered within the authorising environment. Just because it works doesn’t mean that policy makers are going to adopt it, or street level
nearly two and a half thousand delegates who tuned in to three days of police and policing-practitioner led presentations and discussion on around bureaucrats are going to embrace it. So, it’s not all about the science and the evidence.
the conference theme of ‘Leadership, Legitimacy, and the Role of Evidence’.
The approach adopted by the Evidence-based Policing Centre in New Zealand is based on the healthy tension between three disciplines; strategic
Our official media partner for the 2021 conference, Policing Insights, have summarised a number of sessions including the opening remarks I gave intent, the best available evidence, and the experience of its people. This approach, combined with embedding EBP within agency structures, will
on day one. This session talked to making a difference and the changing relationship between academia and policing. The article can be accessed guide the movement into the future and ultimately add to the professionalism of policing and most importantly the delivery of policing services.
here using your Policing Insights login. In addition to this I’d like to share with you some of my notes made in preparation for the day one session
referenced above. I’ll finish here but would like to take this opportunity to thank all our delegates, the organising committee, our partners, and sponsors, and most of
all those who presented their evidence stories and spent time online with us. You can still access over 40 hours of conference material by visiting
The objectives of the ANZ Society for Evidence-based Policing are simple: communicating, using and generating the best evidence to add to the our conference website. In the coming months we plan to share some of this content via our YouTube channel, so look out for this on our social
body of knowledge and professionalism of policing. media channels and website.

But what I want to talk about is not the ‘what’ of EBP, but the ‘how’ of EBP. I am going to share with you, some of my insights into how you can
apply EBP in a practical way, on the ground, and how policing more generally might continue to build this.
Yours in policing,
To start I just want to share something a little bit abstract with you. The Royal Society in the UK is a fellowship of the world’s most Eminent Superintendent David Cowan
Scientists. Their motto is 'Nullius in verba', which simply means 'take nobody's word for it'. That motto is an expression of the determination of President, ANZ SEBP
Fellows to withstand the domination of authority and to verify all statements by an appeal to facts as determined by evidence. And I share that with
you because I think it shares a very similar philosophy with that of evidence-based policing.

The movement towards EBP and the application of science and research to policing has not historically been a smooth path, but nor was the path
smooth for nurses, who half a century ago were seen as bed-changers or paramedics who were seen a stretcher-carriers. And when you think
about those professions, what makes those professions professional, it is the evidence upon which their craft is now based.

So where are we at in policing? Some may suggest that put simply, police don’t like research. They don’t particularly engage, and they find it
irrelevant to practice. It is fair to say Police are pragmatic and often reject the theoretical for the practical. The pace at which police are required to
respond is often perceived to be inconsistent with research and the demands of the authorising environment in which we operate.

Police take a reactive approach to problem solving and move quickly from the problem definition to solution – with greater emphasis on responding
with less rigor in the analysis of the outcome. Before and after comparisons are the main game, but police are astute enough to also realise that
before and after comparisons have serious limitations where we rarely know what actually works in an empirical sense.

In relation to the reactive approach of police, Professor Jerry Ratcliffe (Temple University), refers to it as ‘school-boy’ football – where everyone
simply follows the football wherever it’s kicked to on the field, it gets kicked again and off everyone follows in the next direction. Professor Gloria
Laycock (University College London) refers to police simply as ‘Geronimo’, as we immediately jump in and solve problems.

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 Conversations In Custody: Shining Our Values Conversations In Custody: Shining Our Values In The Darkest Places

In The Darkest Places

These findings suggest that Solution Focused is a good “fit” for working with offending, where there is high volume coupled with a need to reduce
harm and increase safety in a relatively short period of time. There is a large body of research evidencing its effectiveness in reducing offending. In
Authored By: Emma Burns addition, the core principles of the approach are an excellent fit with both the New Zealand Police core values and Our Business.

Introduction
Persons detained in custody are widely known to be at increased risk of self-harm and suicide. While this may be correct, it is also true that they are
maximally motivated to change at this time. It is therefore evident that engagement at this time is critical to influence subsequent positive change.
New Zealand often features in the international media. Most of the time this is positive publicity for our country. However, an article by Dr Ruth
Accordingly, custody represents a “missed opportunity” for engagement. While police and partner agencies provide extensive support for victims of
Gammon on the Massey University website states that “New Zealand continues to rate among the worst countries for (intimate partner violence).
family harm, there existed a significant gap in providing appropriate support for offenders. Given that many couples and families desire to remain in
The links between exposure to family harm and negative trajectories across the lifespan are well established (Jirapramukpitak et al, 2011). Many of
the relationship, this represented an opportunity for enhancing existing processes within the family harm space.
the “high end” offending behaviours have traditionally been viewed as intractable, and the offenders themselves as “resistant” to change. It is the
author’s professional observation that a deficit-based mindset has a negative impact on how these individuals and families are generally viewed,
which in turn adversely impacts strong engagement. Research suggests that “authenticity and genuine human relatedness” are identified by clients Methodology
as the highly valued key components of therapy (Eugster & Wampold, 1996).
This project consisted of two phases. In the initial phase, the focus was on maintaining a presence in the custody area. This involved the
Research has shown that a workforce who adopts a strength-based approach experiences greater job satisfaction, perceived and evidenced author working on a Sunday and being available to speak with individuals who are detained in custody for family harm related offending. These
practice effectiveness, and reduced burnout (Medina & Beyebach, 2014). One of the key studies linking the adoption of a strength-based (Solution conversations were conducted utilising the Solution Focused approach, with the goal of assisting the person to begin to develop personalised ideas
Focused) mind-set and practice with a reduction in burnout was conducted with child protection workers in Tenerife (Medina & Beyebach, 2014). about what some initial steps towards a better future might entail. A secondary goal was the gathering of feedback from persons in custody around
perceived gaps in service.
It has been said that “conversation is the fundamental unit of change, if you change the conversation you change everything that surrounds it”
(Jackson & Waldman 2010). However, there are many approaches to conversations, and as the physicist Thomas Kuhn correctly noted “the Phase two focused on the provision of ongoing support following release from police custody, and the development of stronger partnerships with
answers you get depend upon the questions you ask.” Hawke’s Bay Regional Prison and Community Probations staff. Phase two will be described in a following section.

The Solution Focused approach is a goal-directed collaborative approach to problem resolution. It was developed by a core group of practitioners Approval was gained to conduct a three-week trial. In that time, conversations were offered to a total of eight persons. This represented 29%
at the Brief Family Therapy Centre in Milwaukee in the 1980s (de Shazer & Dolan, 2007). The roots of the approach lie in strategic family therapy, percent of total persons in custody. Demographic data is illustrated in Table 1.
and it is heavily influenced by other theories such as social constructionism – the belief that all meaning is socially constructed - and Wittgenstein’s
philosophy of language. It is an approach that utilises the process co-construction to articulate a person’s preferred future, and to then map a path Table 1: Case Demographics
towards this. The approach is predicated on several key tenets, including the following:

1) The focus is on solution-building rather than problem-solving.

2) No problem happens all the time – thus there are already exceptions that can be used to co-construct future solutions.

3) Effective conversations focus on the person’s preferred future, rather than on the history of problems or current difficulties.

There has been a significant amount of research into the effectiveness of the Solution Focused approach, including an extensive number of
empirical studies, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, as well as combined effectiveness data from thousands of cases, and it is considered to be
an evidence-based approach (Kim et al, 2019). This research clearly demonstrates the efficacy of Solution Focused approach across a wide range
of personal difficulties, ranging from addictions and suicide prevention, through to high performance and criminal offending. The conclusion from
scholarly work is that the Solution Focused approach is an effective approach to the treatment of a wide range of problems, with effect sizes similar
to other evidenced-based approaches, but that these effects are found in fewer average sessions, and using an approach style that is more benign
(Gingerich et al, 2012).

Many studies have been conducted in “real world” settings, meaning that the results are more generalisable. It should also be noted that the
approach was found to be equally effective across social classes and cultures (Dierolf et al, 2020). Accordingly, Solution Focused is an evidenced-
based approach which can be rapidly understood and utilized by “non-professionals” who may encounter persons experiencing difficulties.

Police are called to attend and resolve a wide range of incidents, requiring a wide repertoire of responses, and a diverse skillset. Among these
skills is the ability to create effective engagement with members of the public who require assistance. Many of these incidents may be one-off
conversations, others may result in repeated contact with a person or whanau. The mindset and tools that make up the Solution Focused approach
are therefore a good fit for a policing context. It is the author’s experience that police who have learned this approach, report improved engagement
and personal satisfaction in their work.

Furthermore, the principles underpinning the approach uphold the principles of Te Tiriti o Waitangi and core concepts in Te Ao Maori. For example,
the collaborative nature of Solution Focused engagement and the supportive nature of the approach is consistent with Kotahitanga, where all voices
and views are heard and respected. In the Solution Focused approach, a person or whanau retains control over decisions and selects desired
outcomes that are personally meaningful, which aligns with the principle of Rangatiratanga (self-determination). Additionally, the strong focus on Reasons for a person not being offered a conversation included being deemed at high risk of violence, being asleep at the time an approach was to
creating the future that is desired by the person or whanau speaks of the concept of potentiality or better futures, as expressed in Nga Moemoea. be made, or the person being released or transferred before a conversation could take place. Conversations were only offered to those in custody
The spirit of the approach is founded on respect and seeks to uplift people and uphold their personal mana. This is in harmony with the principle of for family harm related offending, as per the scope of the pilot. These are outlined in Table 2.
Manaakitanga. In addition, the approach upholds the four principles of procedural justice – voice, fairness, respect, and trust.

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 Conversations In Custody: Shining Our Values In The Darkest Places Conversations In Custody: Shining Our Values In The Darkest Places

Table 3: Issues Identified

Table 2: Reason for Arrest

Of those who were offered a conversation, 100% were receptive to the opportunity. This is in significant contrast with the 30-40% rate of
acceptance found in academic literature on brief intervention in police custody. It is likely that the higher rate of acceptance in this pilot is due to the
conversational approach utilised. Brief intervention is traditionally conducted with the goal of having the person engage in a conversation around
a predetermined “problem” or “issue” e.g., substance abuse. This frequently results in resistance from the person, who may not wish to focus on
that issue. In this project, a Solution Focused approach was used, meaning that the subject and direction of the conversation was very much in the
hands of the person, and introduced simply as “the opportunity to have a chat about what might make a difference for you when you go home.”

While the hope was that there would be a rate of uptake at least comparable to published research, the response was far more positive than
anticipated. Length of conversation ranged from 15 minutes to 40 minutes, with an average of 24 minutes. In all cases, there was genuine
engagement, and a high degree of emotion expressed during the conversation.
Current problems and stressors notwithstanding, the conversations then shifted to encouraging the person to imagine the desire future state, either
These conversations were initiated by simply asking a person if they would like to “have a chat about what you would like to be different when
in the absence of the current challenges, or with increased ability to cope with these difficulties (recognising that not all problems can be removed).
you go home.” There was no necessity for the person to speak about the incident that had led to their arrest, or their history. It was clear that this
This shift is a fundamental aspect of the Solution Focused approach and is underpinned by studies in neuroscience showing that various types of
was an unexpected approach for people, and some openly stated they were surprised that the author had not made a point of reading through
questions differentially impact both the brain and consequent emotional and motivational states (Neipp et al 2016; Koorankot et al 2019). It is well
their (at times extensive) history of offending. They were informed simply that this was a conversation about the future, not the past, as the past
evidenced that questions and conversations focusing on positive content (past successes, current coping and exceptions, and future hopes) lead
cannot be changed. A further reason for not conducting an extensive review of a person’s history was to ensure that the author would enter these
to more positive emotional and motivational states that those that focus on negative content (problem history, current concerns and future worries)
conversations with an open mind, and not be clouded by any degree of pessimism in cases where a person may have up to 30 years of frequent
(Grant, 2012).
and significant offending. However, as mentioned, any persons who may pose a safety risk were excluded from this pilot. These safety decisions
were made by custody staff.
Many individuals spoke about finding being detained in custody to be psychologically distressing. Several people reported trying to sleep as much
as possible, a desire to “get away from my head, and gain respite from constant thinking and ruminating. It should be noted that many persons in
Despite there being no requirement for a person to “tell their story” most did share extensive detail about their life and difficulties. During these
custody have a previous trauma history, and detention in custody could represent an additional traumatic experience.
conversations, the power of the organisational values, particularly respect and empathy, was highlighted. All persons spoken to displayed significant
emotion, with nearly all becoming tearful at times.
In summary, the pilot clearly demonstrated that there is a strong desire from those detained in police custody to engage in supportive and future
focused conversation. It reinforced that compassion, respect, and empathy are of paramount importance. Those spoken with often stated that
The Solution Focused approach, while giving space and time for a person to share their story of difficulty, then shifts in focus to what is wanted.
this was their first experience of feeling that someone cared about them, and it was not uncommon for them to be surprised that the agreed follow
In these conversations, questions were selected to elicit dialogue and rich description of the person’s preferred future. During this part of the
up had taken place as stated. Many of those who participated in the trial voiced a sense of feeling let down by agencies, and a lack of trust in the
conversation many issues were identified as barriers to the desired future state, and this led to dialogue around how to best navigate these
system as a whole.
challenges. Often this led to a person sharing information they had not shared with other agencies. For example, some spoke about previously
undisclosed gang association, substance use, suicidal ideation, or past trauma.
Engaging with those in police custody is a significant opportunity, and results from the initial pilot indicated that the work should continue.
Accordingly, the project was extended and expanded to include some additional areas of focus.
Regarding issues or challenges reported by those spoken to, there were several themes that emerged. These included homelessness, suicidal
ideation, access to children, physical or mental health concerns, lack of employment, and substance misuse. Of these themes, homelessness was
highlighted as the most significant stressor by 62% of those spoken to. Lack of stable accommodation creates extreme difficulty for a person to
Phase Two
begin to address other coexisting issues.
At the conclusion of the pilot, further development was considered as below:
As indicated in Table 3, half of those spoken with identified four or more significant challenges. In conversation, the issue creating the most concern
1) Continuation of the Sunday conversations with those in custody.
and stress for males was access to children. This and homelessness, appeared to be the two key drivers for individuals breaching their bail
conditions i.e., to see their children or to have somewhere to sleep.
2) Intensive case management of those requesting follow up.

3) Increased collaboration with key stakeholders, particularly Corrections staff,

These goals were all achieved. Provision of more intensive case management led to some outstanding outcomes for those released into the
community. For example, one young man was able to discontinue a significant (2g/day) methamphetamine habit, and another phoned the author to
proudly announce that he had “handed in my patch” and turned away from gang membership. Continued on next page

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 Conversations In Custody: Shining Our Values In The Darkest Places
Rapid systematic reviews in policing: Using the Global
The project received strong interest from case managers at HB Regional Prison who expressed a desire to work more collaboratively with police.
Policing Database in a partnership between the
University of Queensland and New Zealand Police
Training in the Solution Focused approach was delivered to case managers at Hawke’s Bay Regional Prison, as well as several staff in Community
Probations. This training was well-received and led to increased collaborative practice between services. For example, if a person in custody was
then remanded at Hawke’s Bay Prison, the author would accompany the allocated prison case manager to the initial assessment, and continue to
work collaboratively with prison staff around assessment, intervention, and support upon release. This support included therapeutic intervention for
whanau if desired, as well as individual support that was a blend of Solution Focused and motivational interviewing approaches to change. Authors: Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine & Lorraine Mazerolle

Introduction expedited syntheses of empirical literature, including reviews of

A key achievement of phase two was the creation of an opportunity for Corrections and Probations staff to continue the future focused existing systematic reviews, overviews of reviews, scoping reviews,
conversations that had been started while in police custody, and also to create offender plans that are person-centred and more likely to result in evidence maps, and rapid reviews (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005; Levac,
One of the big contemporary challenges for police and policing is
increased safety, reduced offending, and better futures. Colquhoun, & O’Brien, 2010; Snilstveit et al., 2016; Peters et al.,
accessing and making sense of an ever-increasing abundance of
studies on policing effectiveness. The New Zealand Evidence Based 2020).
Summary Policing Centre (NZEBPC) works in a central capacity within New
Zealand Policing, positioning itself to ensure scientific evidence The reviews we completed adopt a hybrid approach that draws
Engaging with those in police custody is a significant opportunity to begin a process towards positive change. However, for this to be successful underpins every aspect of what police do to improve public safety on a range of review method frameworks. We aimed to provide a
and lead to positive change, it is critical that a suitable approach to the conversation is utilized. The Solution Focused approach has been across New Zealand. Our Global Policing Database (GPD) team at rapid and broad synthesis of the highest quality available evidence
demonstrated to result in high levels of engagement, and there is clear research evidence that a focus on approach goals is associated with the University of Queensland became, therefore, one of the many for the effectiveness of specific interventions. We determined the
increased motivation, confidence, and goal attainment (Braunstein & Grant, 2016). It is the author’s view that this project would not have been as partners that the NZEBPC works with in fostering a comprehensive review topics in collaboration with NZ Police and developed Terms of
successful if a problem-focused approach had been utilised. Interventions focusing on avoidance goals have been shown to result in decreased and systematic approach to evidence informed practice. Reference to guide the expectations and outcomes for each review.
motivation and perceived self-efficacy, poor engagement, and poorer outcomes. (Braunstein & Grant, 2016). The initial stages of each review utilised a standard systematic review
The NZEBPC funded the UQ team to utilise the GPD to complete methodology, beginning with a systematic search of academic and
Moreover, this work is clearly aligned with the Prevention First operating model, and consistent with Our Values. It is the view of the author that the seven rapid reviews drawing on high-quality impact evaluation grey literature (in this case, we utilised the GPD). All studies identified
findings from this work could be translated into teachable skills across police and underpin a paradigm shift in how we engage with not only those literature relating to topics within police and policing. This paper by the search were progressed through standardised sequential
in custody, but in general. This has particular relevance for the Resolutions Framework project, and the potential to lead not only to better outcomes introduces rapid reviews as a hybrid alternative to systematic screening stages. At the point of inclusion, studies were categorised
for the community, but to increased job satisfaction and reduced burnout for police staff. reviews and describes the search strategy and screening and coding and narratively synthesised. We describe these rapid review methods
methods used across the seven projects. Results from each review used in our seven reviews in more detail below.
The Solution Focused approach is easily learned and applied in practice by those in helping professions, including police, who have demonstrated are summarised in seven separate articles in this issue of Police
the ability to transfer the skills into their practice after a relatively brief educational session. Accordingly, there is considerable opportunity for this Science. The topic areas for the reviews, determined in collaboration The Global Policing Database
project to be scaled up across the organisation. This creates the potential not only for better outcomes for people and whanau, but for improved with NZ Police, are as follows:
job satisfaction for staff, and increased trust and confidence in police from the community we serve. For each review, we conducted a systematic search within the
• Road policing GPD , housed at UQ. The GPD is searchable database designed
• Policing alcohol impaired driving to capture all published and unpublished experimental and quasi-
• Mental health co-response models experimental evaluations of interventions relating to police or policing
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questions. Coaching An International Journal of Theory Research and Practice. 9(2): 1-17. • Policing responses for crime and social problems in Auckland by systematically searching, retrieving, and screening published
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de Shazer, S. & Dolan, Y. (2007). More Than Miracles: The State of the Art of Solution-focused Brief Therapy. New York: Routledge.
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(Eds.), Solution-focused brief therapy: A handbook of evidence-based practice (pp. 95–111). Oxford University Press.
reviews as a means for identifying best practice. Randomised
Grant, A. M. (2012). Making positive change: A randomized study comparing solution-focused vs. problem-focused coaching questions. Journal of Systemic Therapies, 31(2), 21–35. experiments and systematic reviews are considered “gold standard” Within the GPD, an eligible intervention is defined as some kind of a
methods in evidence-based policy and practice (Mazerolle & strategy, technique, approach, activity, campaign, training, directive,
Jackson, P. & Waldman, J. (2010). Positively Speaking: The Art of Constructive Conversations with a Solutions Focus. Milton Keynes: The Solutions Focus.
Bennett, 2011). Randomised experiments provide the most robust or funding or organisational change that involves the police in some
Jirapramukpitak, T., Harpham, T & Prince, Martin. (2011). Family violence and its ‘adversity package’: A community survey of family violence and adverse mental outcomes among young people. way (other agencies or organisations can also be involved). Police
methods for establishing causality and the impact of an intervention
Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 46, 825-31.
(Blumstein, 2013). Systematic reviews of interventions, which may or involvement is broadly defined as:
Kim, J., Jordan, S., Franklin, C. & Froerer, A. Is Solution-Focused Brief Therapy Evidence-Based? An Update 10 Years Later. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, may not include a meta-analysis, expand single study evidence by
100(2) 127–138.
utilising a series of standardised methodological stages to capture • Police initiation, development or leadership;
Koorankot, J., Rajan, S. & Ashraf, Z. (2018). Solution-Focused Versus Problem-Focused Questions: Effects on Electrophysiological States and Affective Experiences. Journal of System and synthesise impact evaluations of interventions (Liberati et al.,
Therapies, 38(2):64-78. 2009; Peters et al., 2020). Systematic reviews provide concise and • Police staff or populations are recipients of the intervention or the
comprehensive summaries of high-quality research evidence and are intervention is related;
Medina, A. & Beyebach, M. (2014). The Impact of Solution-focused Training on Professionals' Beliefs, Practices and Burnout of Child Protection Workers in Tenerife Island. Child Care in Practice,
20:1, 7-36. valuable tools for policymakers and practitioners aiming to identify
• Police practices are the focus or target of an intervention; or
interventions that are most effective for particular problems and
Medina, A. & Beyebach, M. (2014). How Do Child Protection Workers and Teams Change During Solution-Focused Supervision and Training? A Brief Qualitative Report. International Journal of
Solution-Focused Practices, 2(1):9-19.
populations (Wilson & Tanner-Smith, 2014).
• Police deliver or implement the intervention.
Neipp, M., Beyebach, M., Nuñez, R., & Martínez-González, M. (2016). The effect of solution-focused versus problem-focused questions: a replication. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy,
While systematic reviews are considered the highest quality
1-14.
evidence, they are time and labour-intensive. As a result, scholars Search strategy
have developed alternative review methodologies to allow for

Page 8 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 9
 Rapid systematic reviews in policing: Using the Global Policing Database in a partnership between the University of Rapid systematic reviews in policing: Using the Global Policing Database in a partnership between the University of
Queensland and New Zealand Police Queensland and New Zealand Police

We developed a wide range of search terms to capture relevant After screening, trained research staff coded each eligible study using
literature for each review. As well as iteratively piloting terms, we standardised guidelines to inform the qualitative syntheses. For all
sought input from police practitioners and researchers to ensure that reviews, data were extracted for each study on the following domains: Summary References

they were not overly sensitive (capturing a high proportion of irrelevant Arksey. H. & O'Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: Towards a methodological
research) or restrictive (not identifying sufficient relevant research). • Citation information (type of document, date, etc.); This article introduced the seven reviews of policing interventions
framework, International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8, 19-32. doi:
Because the systematic search underpinning the GPD utilises policing funded, so far, by the NZEBPC and conducted by researchers at UQ.
10.1080/1364557032000119616
terms, the terms for each review focused on the topic area. Search • Geographical location; These reviews followed a rapid review methodology and involved
standardised screening, coding, and narrative synthesis. Results of Farrington, D. P. (2003). Methodological quality standards for evaluation research. The
terms were applied to the title and abstract fields in the GPD to return ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 587, 49–68. doi:
results potentially relevant to each review. • Research design (including comparison condition); the seven reviews we prepared for the NZEBPC are discussed in
10.1177/0002716202250789
separate articles published in this issue of Police Science.
• Type of outcome measure(s) used to evaluate the intervention; and Higginson, A., & Eggins, E. (2021). The Campbell Collaboration. In J.C. Barnes and David
Screening and coding The success of the UQ-NZ Police partnership was based on the R. Forde (Eds.), Encyclopedia of research methods and statistical techniques in criminology
and criminal justice. Wiley.
• Type of intervention and intervention description (e.g. setting, focus, three-step process: co-developing the Terms of Reference, producing
All search results were exported from the GPD into SysReview,
treatment components, intensity). the rapid reviews, and working with the NZEBPC to distil the key Higginson, A., & Neville, R. (2014). SysReview [Systematic Review Management Software].
a Microsoft Access database designed for managing systematic
findings from these reviews into workable plans of action for police Brisbane, Australia: The University of Queensland.
reviews (Higginson & Neville, 2013). We created separate SysReview
We extracted additional data for some of the reviews to answer the in NZ. The results presented in this issue of Police Science are, Higginson, A., Eggins, E., Mazerolle, L., & Stanko, E. (2015). The Global Policing Database
databases such that data was stored separately for each review. Prior
research questions per stakeholder requirements. These extra coding therefore, just the starting point for evidence-informed policy and [Database and Protocol]. http://www.gpd.uq.edu.au
to screening, all efforts were made to remove ineligible document
domains are described in each relevant review article. Once data practice. It is really the workable (and localised) plans of action that
types (e.g., book reviews) and duplicate records. Levac, D., Colquhoun, H., & O'Brien, K. K. (2010). Scoping studies: Advancing the
were extracted, we organised the reviews by intervention type and/ bring life to the evidence. methodology. Implementation Science, 5, 1-9. doi: 10.1186/1748-5908-5-69
or outcome category and provided a narrative synthesis of results
The studies identified by the searches progressed through Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P. C., Ioannidis, J. P. A., . .
standardised screening stages to ascertain whether they met the
alongside summary tables. Acknowledgements . Moher, D. (2009). The PRISMA Statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-
pre-specified inclusion criteria. These criteria were determined by analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration.
our Terms of Reference and were unique to each review topic. They
Table 1. PICOS and timeframe inclusion Development of the GPD was funded by the Australian Research Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), W65–W94. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-

followed a PICOS (population, intervention, comparison, outcomes, criteria summary across the rapid reviews Council and the College of Policing (United Kingdom). Funding to 200908180-00136

study type) framework and differed depending on the needs of each update the GPD has been provided by grants for systematic reviews
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., & The PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred items for
review (see Table 1). Most of the reviews included a title and abstract using the GPD, from sources including Arnold Ventures, the Australian systematic reviews and meta-analysis: The Prisma Statement. PLoS Med, 6(7): e1000097.

screening stage and then a full-text eligibility screening stage, Institute of Criminology, and the Department of Homeland Security doi:10.1371/journal.pmed1000097

although two progressed directly to the full-text eligibility stage. If (United States). We also acknowledge over 150 volunteer student
Peters, M. D. J., Marie, C., Trticco, A. C., Pollock, D., Munn, Z., Alexander, L. … Khalil,
documents were not excluded, they were considered eligible for the interns who have contributed over 7,000 hours of work on the GPD H. (2020). Updated methodological guidance for the conduct of scoping reviews. JBI
review. since 2015. Evidence Synthesis, 18(10), 2119-2126.

Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental
The rapid reviews were funded research grants awarded to Lorraine
designs for generalized causal inference. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Mazerolle, Elizabeth Eggins and Sarah Bennett via the New Zealand
Evidence-Based Policing Centre in 2019, 2020 and 2021. The Snilstveit, B., Vojtkova, M., Bhavsar, A., Stevenson, J., & Gaarder, M. (2016). Evidence and
gap maps: A tool for promoting evidence informed policy and strategic research agendas.
authors gratefully acknowledge the research assistance provided
Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 79, 120-129. doi: 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2016.05.015
across the seven reviews by the following people: James McEwan,
Georgia Hassall, Natalya Seipel, Rebecca Dunne, Scott Roetman, Wilson, S. J., & Tanner-Smith, E. E. (2014). Meta-analysis in prevention science. In Z.
Sara Roetman, Lynley Anderson, Kirsty Bevis, Michele Ferguson, and Sloboda & H. Petras (Eds.), Defining prevention science Defining Prevention Science (pp.
431–452). New York: Springer.
Andrew Hockey.

Page 10 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 11
Page 12 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 13
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Page 14 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 15
 Policing approaches prior to the point of arrest, charge,
or prosecution: A rapid review of the evaluation literature

Authored By: Lorelei Hine, Elizabeth Eggins, Lorraine Mazerolle, & James McEwan

Introduction Figure 1: PRISMA flow diagram

The New Zealand Police Reframe Te Tarai Hou Strategy is

headspace is the National underpinned by NZ’s goal to be the safest country in the world,
Youth Mental Health Founda
health services to 12-25 yea tion, providing early interve
r-olds. By ensuring help is ntion mental striving for fewer victimisations, less harm, and fewer people in the
lives and providing a holistic accessed in early stages of
model of support, headsp young people’s courts and prison system. Reframe Te Tarai Hou aims to improve
their mental health and wel ace provides a safe space
lbeing back on track. where they can get
frontline police practice and decision-making and the end-to-end
headspace services cover
four core areas: mental hea case management process for better resolution outcomes and a safer
work and study support and lth, physical health (includi
alcohol and other drug serv ng sexual health),
friendly and free or low cos ices. Services are confidentia NZ. During 2021, the NZ Police and NZ Evidence-Based Policing
t. Young people and their l, youth
of 98 headspace centres acro families can access services
ss which can be located Aus face-to-face at one Centre worked with the University of Queensland Global Policing
eheadspace – a national onli tralia at www.headspace.o
ne and telephone counselling rg.au, or via Database team to conduct a rapid evidence review of policing
service at www.eheadspace
Over the past 10 years, hea .org.au.
dspace has proudly provide interventions to inform the development of a strategic resolutions
online and over the phone, d over 1.8 million services
helping over 310,000 young through centres, policy framework and decision-making model for frontline police as
to ensure young people age people across Australia. hea
d 12-25 have access to you dspace wants
where they live. th friendly mental health serv part of Reframe Te Tarai Hou. The rapid review reporting in this article
ices, no matter
Alongside headspace cen sought to provide policymakers and police practitioners with a rapid
tre, online and telephone sup
following areas: port, specialised services are and systematic synthesis of policing interventions that could be used
provided in the
headspace School Suppor to inform the development of the Reframe Te Tarai Hou Strategy.
t – a suicide postvention pro
communities to prepare for, gram, which assists Austral
respond to and recover from ian school
a suicide.
Digital Work and Study Ser
vice – a dedicated team ass Method
isting young people aged
education and work options 15-24 in
. Results
headspace Youth Early Psy The full methods are described in the introductory article to our suite
chosis Program – a progra
improve the lives of young m focusing on early interve of rapid reviews published in this issue of Police Science (Eggins,
people, and their families, ntion, aiming to We identified 27 studies eligible for this review (randomised control
who are affected by psycho Hine & Mazerolle, 2022). The rapid review presented in this paper
sis. trials (RCTs) = 22, and reviews = 5). Interventions were categorised
HEADSPACE DONATIONS
AND FUNDRAISING sought to answer the following question:
into six groupings.
There are many ways to sup
port headspace and the wor
and wellbeing support, info k carried out in providing
rmation and services to you mental health What evidence is there for the effectiveness of interventions
headspace has helped hun ng people and their families Proactive procedural justice encounters
dreds of thousands of you across Australia. involving police activities prior to the point of arrest, charge, or
support will assist us with ng people get their lives bac
our work. k on track and your
prosecution that are a direct response to a clearly defined social
Any donation generously SEEKI We identified seven RCTs of proactive procedural justice (PJ)
provided to headspace NG HE problem, suspicion of an offence, or an actual offence with regard
goes towards community LP interventions. The studies focused on the impact of proactive use of
engagement and Gettin to the following outcomes: offending and crime; victimisation; victim
awareness, which can be spe g supp PJ in traffic encounters on outcomes relating to perceptions of the
cifically given track o r t ca
towards a local centre or to a experience or satisfaction with the encounter; perceptions of safety
National Office. family t school, st n help a yo police, with a dearth of evidence regarding other outcomes such
r u u
Donations to headspace Nat
ional Office, ensures soone lationship dy or work, ng person t
e and perceptions of police; and quality of police decision-making?
as crime and victimisation. Results suggested that police use of
the promotion of the importa r thing s. The as we o keep
s can s ll
to break down stigma associa
nce of seeking help, heads begin ooner help as persona on PJ prior to arrest, charge, or prosecution shows promising results
p to imp is rece l
health issues and to make
ted with mental years- ace can he rove. ived, t and The PRISMA flowchart in Figure 1 (Moher et al., 2009) displays
o lp he for improving perceptions of police during proactive police-citizen
person across Australia, as
sure every young inform ld, a family any youn the attrition of identified records for the Global Policing Database
well as their friends ation m e m g pers encounters, although evidence centres largely on traffic stops
on yo b o
and family, knows there is
help available. These uth m er or friend n aged 12- (GPD) processing and screening specifically for this review. The
ental 2
help f are just som health wanting to 5 search within the GPD identified 481 studies that were assessed
(Mazerolle et al., 2012; MacQueen & Bradford, 2015; Sahin et al.,
You can find out more abo rom h . seek
ut donations and eadsp e of the re 2017; McLean, 2018; Maguire et al., 2016; Lowrey et al., 2016;
fundraising through the ‘Ge If som ace: asons for eligibility for this review. In addition to the standard coding fields
t Involved’ page at e s omeo
www.headspace.org.au worry one is feeli ne ma
y seek described in Eggins et al. (2022), we coded each study for legislative
Lowrey-Kinberg, 2017).
ing ng do
wn, st
If som ressed or policy contexts underpinning the intervention and implementation
eone or con
doesn stantly challenges or process evaluations around internal police information Strategies targeting social groups
If som ’t feel
eone like th
findin isn’t c emselv dissemination and/or management of the intervention.
g it diffi op es any
cult to ing with sch more This review located ten reviews and RCTs falling broadly within
If som conce ool/un
eone n trate i/work police diversion strategies targeting the following social groups:
is feeli or
W? da If som ng sic
U KNO e expe
rience igher
e
on alc one has qu
k or w youth offenders, domestic and family violence offenders, and people
DID YO h a v s ah
– orried
people month ohol o e about
o u n g st 1 2 in g ly, r othe stions abou their h experiencing mental illness.
four y the pa Alarm , If som r drug t, or w ealth
One in lt h is sue in g e g roups. u n g people eone use ants t
t a l h e a
o t h e r a
h o f yo identit wants o cut
me n an all of dea
t y or re to down
nce th cause hs. lation talk about A 2018 Campbell Collaboration systematic review found that police
prevale the leading f a ll deat If som
eone
ships sexua
li
is d o ime t y, gen use of diversion provides some promising results, particularly for
suic id e
for on
e t h ir itical t is hav der
n t in g o o d is a cr e alth If som ing diffi
diverting youth, which can lead to less future offending (Wilson,
accou adulth ental h eone culties
d early nt of m inform is con w it h fam
a n ce ation ce
scen c e
ith 75
p e r
e of 25
. about rned abou ily or
friend
Brennan, & Olaghere, 2018).
Adole life, w the ag If som contra ts
a p e rson’s g b efore eone ceptio exual healt s
in erg in If som is being n h or w
ers em eone bullied ants The included studies showed mixed evidence regarding policing
disord mone is , hurt
y trou worried a or har
assed interventions pertaining to domestic and family violence (Brame et al.,
ble bout w
ork or
study 2015; Clodfelter, 2015). Proactive enforcement of orders appears to
or hav
ing improve victims’ perceptions of police but may not reduce recidivism

Page 16 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 17
 Policing approaches prior to the point of arrest, charge, or prosecution: A rapid review of the evaluation literature Policing approaches prior to the point of arrest, charge, or prosecution: A rapid review of the evaluation literature

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Lowrey-Kinberg, B. V. (2017). Improving police-citizen interactions: Novel approaches to
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Overall, the included studies have positive effects for decision-making This review was funded by a research grant awarded to Lorraine Experimental Criminology, 11(3), 419-443. Taheri, S. A. (2016). Do crisis intervention teams reduce arrests and improve officer safety?
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Mazerolle, L., Bennett, S., Antrobus, E., & Eggins, E. (2012). Procedural justice, routine
acknowledge the research assistance provided by Natalya Seipel, Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 37(4),
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Georgia Hassall, and Michele Ferguson. 302-317.
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Wilson, D. B., Brennan, I., & Olaghere, A. (2018). Police-initiated diversion for youth to
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only addressed crime and none of the other eligible outcomes (e.g., communication: The impact of local policing newsletters on public confidence. Policing: A
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Ariel, B., Weinborn, C., & Sherman, L. W. (2016). "Soft" policing at hot spots - Do police
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Bonkiewicz, L., Green, A. M., Moyer, K., & Wright, J. (2014). Left alone when the cops go
Information dissemination tactics (to the public) had mixed evidence
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for effectiveness. Information dissemination through labelling illegally
Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 37(4), 762-778.
disposed garbage to inform citizens of correct disposal had no effect
on disposal rates (Dur & Vollaard, 2017). Yet, crime prevention advice Brame, R., Kaukinen, C., Gover, A. R., & Lattimore, P. K. (2015). No-contact orders, victim
safety, and offender recidivism in cases of misdemeanor criminal domestic violence: A
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randomised experiment. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 40(2), 225-249.
seems to offer some promise for reducing motor vehicle theft and
burglaries, and improving perceptions of police (Roach et al., 2017; Clodfelter, T. A. (2010). Intimate partner violence: The impact of alcohol and illicit drug

Wunsch & Hohl, 2009; Johnson et al., 2017). use on the deterrent effects of arrest (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses Global database. (UMI No. 3430487)

Curfew checks with a diversion component Compton, M. T., Bakeman, R., Broussard, B., Hankerson-Dyson, D., Husbands, L.,
Krishan, S., ... & Watson, A. C. (2014). The police-based crisis intervention team (CIT)
model: II. Effects on level of force and resolution, referral, and arrest. Psychiatric Services,
We found little evidence regarding curfew checks. The results of the
65(4), 523-529.
single eligible study suggested that hotspots assigned to receive a
prevention-focused curfew intervention with diversion did not show Dewa, C. S., Loong, D., Trujillo, A., & Bonato, S. (2018). Evidence for the effectiveness of
police-based pre-booking diversion programs in decriminalizing mental illness: A systematic
a statistically detectable difference in property crime rates compared
literature review. PloS one, 13(6), e0199368, 1-15.
to hotspots that did not receive the intervention (Santos & Santos,
2016). Duckett, K. A. (2017). An outcome evaluation of the Memphis Crisis Intervention Team (CIT)
training (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global
database. (ProQuest no. 10669647)
Summary
Dur, R., & Vollaard, B. (2017). Salience of law enforcement: A field experiment (Working

Our review identified no evaluation of an overarching decision-making paper series, no. 6499). CESifo Group Munich. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.
com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ecn&AN=1651379&site=ehost-live
policy framework and there was a general lack of insight provided
around the context for strategic decision making. This is a significant Eggins, E., Hine, L., & Mazerolle, L. (2022). Rapid systematic reviews in policing: Using the
limitation in the reporting of policing evaluations and has implications Global Policing Database in a partnership between the University of Queensland and New
Zealand Police. Police Science, this issue.
for portability of strategic frameworks across different jurisdictions
and legislative systems. Additionally, the included studies reported Gill, C., Weisburd, D., Vitter, Z., Shader, C. G., Nelson-Zagar, T., & Spain, L. (2018).
very little information about how interventions were implemented Collaborative problem-solving at youth crime hot spots: a pilot study. Policing: An
within organisations (e.g., techniques for internal dissemination or International Journal, 41(3), 325-338. doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-12-2017-0152

Continued on next page

Page 18 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 19
 Policing alcohol-impaired driving: Policing alcohol-impaired driving: A rapid review of the evaluation literature

A rapid review of the evaluation literature

Other Interventions for Preventing or Controlling Alcohol Impaired dialogue and knowledge of toxicology in alcohol absorption during
Driving traffic operations is likely to further the positive effects of face-to-face
Authored By: Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine, Lorraine Mazerolle policing interventions to reduce road trauma.
A total of 109 studies (reported in 108 documents) examined the
impact of policing interventions that aimed to prevent or control Acknowledgements
alcohol impaired driving. The majority of the studies were conducted
Introduction Results in the United States (n = 62, 56.88%), with the remaining studies This review was funded by a research grant awarded to Lorraine
being conducted across a range of developed and developing Mazerolle, Sarah Bennett, and Elizabeth Eggins via the New Zealand
This article summarises the results of a rapid systematic review The 138 eligible studies were predominantly conducted in the United
countries. Key results from the RCTs (n = 8) and reviews of eligible Evidence-Based Policing Research Centre. The article summarises
funded by The New Zealand Evidence Based Policing Centre States, however, a range of developing and developed countries were
interventions (n = 8) are: findings from a report prepared for the New Zealand Evidence-Based
(NZEBPC) and conducted by the Global Policing Database (GPD) also represented in the corpus of studies. Almost a quarter of the
Policing Research Centre in September 2019. The authors gratefully
team at the University of Queensland. The rapid review considers studies were impact evaluations of tests of technologies for detecting
• Procedural justice elements applied to RBT stops can influence acknowledge the research assistance provided by [RAs, to fill in once
the evaluation evidence for studies that examine the impact of a any alcohol intoxication in the context of policing. The remaining studies
both police and driver perceptions of the efficacy and motives of authorship is determined].
police intervention for addressing alcohol impaired driving, with no fell into a range of other intervention categories, including:
police activities and the nature of the encounter (Mazerolle et al.,
limit on the outcomes used to evaluate the intervention.
2012).
• Legislative or regulatory changes;
Methods • Regardless of whether or not an individual is arrested, police traffic References
• Partnership policing (e.g., with licenced establishments);
stops can reduce the likelihood of future alcohol impaired driving
The full methods are described in the introductory article to our behaviours. Increasing police patrols has a generally beneficial impact Blais, E., & Dupont, B. (2005). Assessing the capability of intensive police programmes
suite of rapid reviews published in this issue of Police Science • Sobriety checkpoints and randomised breath test operations; to prevent severe road accidents. British Journal of Criminology, 45(6), 914-937. doi:
on traffic fatalities and alcohol-related crashes (Leedy, 2007).
(Eggins, Hine & Mazerolle, 2022). The rapid review presented in this 10.1093/bjc/azi017
• Varying the level of police presence or enforcement activities;
paper sought to synthesise the evaluation evidence for studies that • DUI checkpoints reduce alcohol-involved crashes by a minimum of Erke, A., Goldenbeld, C., & Vaa, T. (2009). The effects of drink-driving checkpoints on
examine the impact of a any police intervention for addressing alcohol 17 per cent, and general crashes were reduced by 10-15 per cent crashes - a meta-analysis. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 41(5), 914-923. doi: 10.1016/j.
• Problem-oriented policing approaches to target policing alcohol
impaired driving, with no limit on the outcomes used to evaluate the (Erke et al., 2009). aap.2009.05.005
impaired driving; and
intervention. Fell, J. C., Compton, C., & Voas, R. B. (2008). A note on the use of passive alcohol
• Police interventions targeting speeding and driving while impaired sensors during routine traffic stops. Traffic Injury Prevention, 9(6), 534-538. doi:
• Integrating procedurally just communication or interaction style into
The results of the eligibility screening and coding phases are found reductions between 20 and 36 percent in accidents resulting 10.1080/15389580802282566
DUI policing.
presented in the PRISMA flowchart in Figure 1 (Moher et al., 2009). in injury. Automated systems such as red light cameras and speed Hjelmeland, K., Gustavsen, I., Bernard, J. P., & Mørland, J. (2015). Can a simple clinical
The systematic search identified 5,340 records within the corpus cameras were least effective (Blais & Dupont, 2005). test detect impairment of zopiclone and alcohol? A randomized controlled trial. Forensic
The following sections summarise the results of this review.
of eligible GPD documents. Of 3,079 available records, 1,338 were Science International, 248, 129-133. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.12.0
screened as potentially being about road policing or policing impaired • Police-enacted harm reduction interventions were found to reduce
driving, based on their title and abstract. The full-text of these Tests or Technologies for Policing Alcohol Impaired Driving the likelihood of road traffic accidents but this effect is likely to be
Leedy, M. J. (2007). College students' intentions to drink alcohol and engage in incidental
alcohol-related legal risk behavior following a hypothetical alcohol-related legal encounter
eligible titles and abstracts published 2010–2018 were screened limited to night time accidents only (Stockings et al., 2018). (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global database.
for final eligibility, and 137 documents (representing 138 studies) A total of 29 studies reported on impact evaluations of policing
(UMI No. 3291383)
were deemed to meet full inclusion criteria for the review. of these interventions that involved tests or technologies for detecting alcohol • Survey results show that the strongest deterrents to driving under
138 studies, 12 were randomised controlled trials (RCTs), 9 were impaired driving. One third of the studies were conducted in the the influence of alcohol were intensified enforcement, severe jail
Mazerolle, L., Bennett, S., Antrobus, E., & Eggins, E. (2012). Procedural justice, routine
encounters and citizen perceptions of police: main findings from the Queensland
reviews with or without meta-analyses, and 117 were robust quasi- United States (n = 9), with the remaining studies being conducted penalties and instant, prolonged license suspension. Fine penalties, Community Engagement Trial (QCET). Journal of Experimental Criminology, 8(4), 343-36.
experiments. We prioritised the RCTs and reviews for the written across a range of developed and developing countries. Outcomes delayed punitive responses and legal blood alcohol concentration doi: 10.1007/s11292-012-9160-1
syntheses. used to assess the effectiveness of interventions included biological parameters demonstrated negligible effects (Yao, Johnson & Beck,
measures of alcohol intoxication (e.g., blood alcohol concentration Moher, D., Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., & The PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred items for
2014).
systematic reviews and meta-analysis: The Prisma Statement. PLoS Med, 6(7): e1000097.
(BAC) or level of alcohol on the breath or in oral fluid) and behavioural
Figure 1: PRISMA flow diagram doi:10.1371/journal.pmed1000097
indicators of intoxication (e.g., gait). Key results from the RCTs (n = • Interventions involving harsher penalties were found to reduce
4) and single systematic review for this type of intervention general road traffic injuries in all road users and road traffic head
Perry, P. J., Dorougdar, S., & Van Dyke, P. (2017). Ethanol forensic toxicology. Journal of the

are: American Academy of Psychiatry & the Law, 45(4), 429-438.

injuries in motorcyclists, however stringent speed control legislation
with severe penalties for speeding was not found to reduce the Staton, C., Vissoci, J., Gong, E., Toomey, N., Wafula, R., Abdelgadir, J., ... & Hocker, M.
• Passive Alcohol Sensors (PAS) are likely to assist officers likelihood of road traffic accidents (Staton et al., 2016). (2016). Road traffic injury prevention initiatives: A systematic review and metasummary
to make better decisions about arrests for driving under the of effectiveness in low and middle income countries. PLoS One, 11(1), e0144971. doi:
influence of alcohol (Fell et al., 2008) 10.1371/journal.pone.0144971
Summary
Stockings, E., Bartlem, K., Hall, A., Hodder, R., Gilligan, C., Wiggers, J., ... & Wolfenden,
• Simplified clinical tests of impairment are efficacious L. (2018). Whole‐of‐community interventions to reduce population‐level harms arising from
The harms caused by road trauma involving alcohol are enormous.
and should be used within 1.5 hours following drug alcohol and other drug use: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Addiction, 113(11),
Police have a major role in community wide efforts to reduce serious
consumption, but not after 7 hours (Hjelmeland et al., 1984-2018. doi:10.1111/add.14277
injuries and death caused by alcohol impaired driving. This review
2015). Yao, J., Johnson, M. B., & Beck, K. H. (2014). Predicting DUI decisions in different legal
provides an understanding of the impact of policing interventions
environments: Investigating deterrence with a conjoint experiment. Traffic Injury Prevention,
to address alcohol impaired driving. Overall, the results point to the
• Road police officers need to have knowledge of 15(3), 213-221. doi: 10.1080/15389588.2013.808338
importance of police face-to-face interventions -- such as random
toxicology in alcohol absorption in order to optimise their
breath testing – in helping to both educate and change driver
field assessments of intoxication based on behavioural
behaviours. Automated interventions such as speed cameras and
measures (Perry et al., 2017).
red light cameras lack the opportunity for police to educate drivers
about road trauma harms and are, therefore, less effective than
the face-to-face interventions. Training police in procedural justice

Page 20 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 21
 Road policing: Road policing: A rapid review of the evaluation literature

A rapid review of the evaluation literature • Legislative or regulatory changes We found no RCTs conducted in decentralised jurisdictions or police
organisations that used safety; police operational factors or costs;
• Varying levels of police presence or enforcement activities or social costs as outcomes. Results of the 13 RCTs conducted
in decentralised jurisdictions provided evidence for two outcome
Authored By: Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine, Lorraine Mazerolle • Methods for detecting and enforcing drug and/or alcohol impaired categories.
driving
Road-based offending (n = 3): Results were mixed. One study
Introduction citations within the corpus of eligible GPD documents. Of these, 200 • Partnership and community-based road policing disseminated text messages containing road safety information
documents (representing 201 studies) were deemed to meet our to citizens and showed that, compared with generic messages,
Many police agencies across the world have centralized Road inclusion criteria. The final corpus was comprised of 26 randomised • Integrating procedurally just communication into road policing personalised messages could result in 14% less road violations
Policing Commands with specialist road policing police. Some police controlled trials (RCTs, reported in 25 documents), 10 reviews with or activities (Lu, Zhang, & Perloff, 2016). Conversely, another study found that
agencies use a more decentralized policing system and deploy without meta-analyses, and 165 robust quasi-experiments. technology such as licence plate readers did not enhance the effect
road policing at a more localized level. New Zealand Police were • Technologies for monitoring or enforcing speed and enhancing road of a proactive hot spots patrolling approach on crime (Koper, Lum, &
interested in understanding what type of organizational model might Figure 1: PRISMA flow diagram policing Hibdon, 2015).
work best for road policing. This article summarises the results
of a rapid systematic review funded by The New Zealand The five RCTs conducted in fully or partially centralised jurisdictions Trust, confidence or legitimacy (n = 10): All studies evaluated
Evidence Based Policing Centre (NZEBPC) and conducted provided evidence for two outcome categories. We found no RCTs the impact of police procedurally just dialogue or interaction styles
by the Global Policing Database (GPD) team at the University conducted in centralised jurisdictions that used police operational with citizens in traffic-related contexts. One study (the Queensland
of Queensland. The rapid review considers the evaluation factors or costs; social costs; or safety outcomes to measure the Community Engagement Trial, QCET) was a field trial, and the
evidence for studies that examine the impact of road policing effectiveness of the intervention. remainder were lab-based vignette studies. Results suggest
interventions in the context of differing levels of jurisdictional procedural justice in traffic-related contexts can improve citizen trust
centralisation utilised by the police organisation implementing Road-based offending (n = 3): These studies tested different and confidence in police as well as cooperation with police (Murphy et
the road policing intervention technologies with fairly positive results. Notably, Marciano, Setter al., 2014; Lowrey, Maguire, & Bennett, 2016; Solomon, 2018; Reisig,
and Norman (2015) concluded that the combination of overt speed Mays, & Telep, 2018), although some evidence for this intervention is
cameras and immediate fine notices is a potentially optimal strategy
Methods to encourage adherence to speed limits. Hjelmeland et al. (2015)
more ambiguous (e.g., Lowrey-Kinberg, 2018; Lowrey et al., 2016).

found some support for the efficacy of clinical impairment tests for
The full methods are described in the introductory article to Jurisdictions with unknown or mixed centralisation
drugs and alcohol 1.5 hours following drug consumption, but not
our suite of rapid reviews published in this issue of Police
after 7 hours.
Science (Eggins, Hine & Mazerolle, 2022). This review Fifty-four studies examined the impact of road policing interventions
synthesised studies that examined the impact of a road where the exact level of centralisation could not be determined
Trust, confidence or legitimacy (n = 2): Both studies varied police
policing intervention on: or where there were multiple jurisdictions. The studies were
procedural justice interaction styles during traffic stops and showed
predominantly conducted in the United States, without sufficient
a promising effect of procedural justice on participant perceptions of
• Road safety (e.g., injuries) specification of the location to determine centralisation (n = 27,
police (Sahin et al., 2017; Johnson et al., 2017).
50%), with the remainder of the studies either capturing multiple
• Offence detection (e.g., speeding violations) countries (n = 12), or reporting insufficient information to determine
Decentralised jurisdictions centralisation (n = 14). The most common outcomes used were road-
• Social costs (e.g., traffic congestion) based offending and/or offence detection or safety, followed by police
Eighty-five studies examined the impact of road policing interventions
Results operational factors or costs; trust confidence, or legitimacy; and
• Organisation effects for police personnel and organisations that were implemented in fully decentralised jurisdictions or police social costs. We found a wide range of interventions:
(including costs) The 201 eligible studies were predominantly conducted in the United organisations. The majority were conducted in the United States
States, however, a range of developing and developed countries (n = 60, 70.59%). The most common outcomes were road-based • Hot spots policing
• Public trust, confidence, and legitimacy in the police were also represented. The most common outcome measure used to offending and/or offence detection or safety, followed by trust
evaluate the road policing interventions was offending and/or offence confidence, or legitimacy; police operational factors or costs; and • Legislative or regulatory changes
In addition to the standard coding domains described in Eggins et detection, followed by: (1) safety; (2) trust, confidence or legitimacy; social costs. We found a range of road policing interventions,
al. (2022), we coded studies on a domain for level of organisational (3) police organisational issues or costs; and (4) social costs. We including: • Partnership or community policing approaches
centralisation or decentralisation of police operating models for the provide an overarching synthesis of eligible studies at each level of
jurisdictions where the intervention was implemented. Centralised • Hot spots policing • Variations to police organisational structures or policies
centralisation as well as a summary of results from the RCTs and
deployment was where a road policing command provided services reviews.
across a whole jurisdiction. Decentralized deployment was where • Legislative or regulatory changes • Methods for detecting and enforcing drug and/or alcohol impaired
road policing was embedded to a community or local area command. driving
Fully or partially centralised jurisdictions • Specialised traffic enforcement units
We used the data reported about the geographical location of the
intervention to research police organisational structure in that specific • Technologies for monitoring or enforcing speed and enhancing road
A total of 62 studies reported on impact evaluations of road policing • Varying levels of police presence or enforcement activities
location . If there were multiple locations (e.g., countries) within a policing
interventions in partially or fully centralised jurisdictions or police
study, it was coded as having ‘mixed’ centralisation, and if there was
organisations. Almost one quarter of the were conducted in the • Methods for detecting and enforcing drug and/or alcohol impaired
insufficient detail to determine the exact location (e.g., no location Results of the 10 reviews and 8 RCTs provided evidence for three
United States (n = 14, 22.59%). The most common outcomes used driving
data reported, or only country reported), the study was coded as outcome categories.
to evaluate road policing interventions were road-based offending
having ‘unknown’ centralisation. Eligible studies were categorised by
and/or offence detection or safety. Interventions fell broadly into the • Integrating procedurally just communication into road policing
centralisation model; that is: fully/partially centralised; decentralised; Road-based offending (n = 7): The studies provide some support
following categories: activities
or mixed/unknown centralisation. for the efficacy of enforcement and punitive legal consequences (e.g.,
intensified enforcement, license suspension, etc.; Yao, Johnson, &
• Capturing and recording traffic data or data linkage • Technologies for monitoring or enforcing speed and enhancing road
The results of the screening are presented in the PRISMA flowchart in Beck, 2014). Two studies examining technology for detecting blood
policing alcohol (Fiorentino, 2018) and cannabis (Swortwood et al., 2017)
Figure 1 (Moher et al., 2009). The systematic search identified 5,340

Page 22 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 23
 Road policing: A rapid review of the evaluation literature

were less unequivocal in terms of their effect on road-based offence Johnson, D., Wilson, D. B., Maguire, E. R., & Lowrey-Kinberg, B. V. (2017). Race and

detection or offending. perceptions of police: Experimental results on the impact of procedural (in)justice. Justice
Quarterly, 34(7), 1184-1212. doi: 10.1080/07418825.2017.1343862

Trust, confidence or legitimacy (n = 4): One field study replicated Koper, C. S., Lum, C., & Hibdon, J. (2015). The uses and impacts of mobile
QCET but showed less promising results, highlighting the potential computing technology in hot spots policing. Evaluation Review, 39(6), 587-624. doi:

difficulties with translating policing approaches to different cultural 10.1177/0193841X16634482

contexts (MacQueen & Bradford, 2015). Lab-based studies Lowrey, B. V., Maguire, E. R., & Bennett, R. R. (2016). Testing the effects of procedural
examining procedurally just dialogue with citizens in traffic-related justice and overaccommodation in traffic stops: A randomised experiment. Criminal Justice
contexts, however, seemed to improve self-reported confidence, and Behaviour, 43(10), 1430-1449. doi: 10.1177/0093854816639330

trust and compliance with police (Maguire, Lowrey, & Johnson, 2017; Lowrey-Kinberg, B. V. (2018). Improving police-citizen interactions: Novel approaches to
Roche, 2018; Lowrey-Kinberg, 2018). the intersection of procedural justice and language (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global database. (ProQuest No. 10257720)
Road safety (n = 6): These reviews reported promising evidence for
Lu, F., Zhang, J., & Perloff, J. M. (2016). General and specific information in deterring traffic
fixed speed and section control cameras (Hoye et al., 2014; Staton et violations: evidence from a randomized experiment. Journal of Economic Behaviour &
al., 2016) and road traffic injury prevention initiatives such as harsher Organization, 123, 97-107. doi: 10.1016/j.jebo.2015.12.009
penalties (Staton et al., 2016), but less clear evidence for whole-of-
MacQueen, S., & Bradford, B. (2015). Enhancing public trust and police legitimacy during
community interventions for alcohol and drug harms (Stockings et al., road traffic encounters: results from a randomised controlled trial in Scotland. Journal of
2018). Rahimi et al. (2016) suggested that road safety indicators can Experimental Criminology, 11(3), 419-443. doi: 10.1007/s11292-0
be heavily influenced by context-specific factors such as the number
Maguire, E. R., Lowrey, B. V., & Johnson, D. (2017). Evaluating the relative impact of
of registered vehicles and drivers. Consequently, they advocated
positive and negative encounters with police: A randomized experiment. Journal of
for studies which utilise sensitive indicators that can account for Experimental Criminology, 13(3), 367-391. doi: 10.1007/s11292-016-9276-9
geographic variations to ascertain robust measures of traffic policy
Marciano, H., Setter, P., & Norman, J. (2015). Overt vs. covert speed cameras in
performance.
combination with delayed vs. immediate feedback to the offender. Accident Analysis &
Prevention, 79, 231-240. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2015.03.028
Summary
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., & The PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred items for
systematic reviews and meta-analysis: The Prisma Statement. PLoS Med, 6(7): e1000097.
This review provided a preliminary understanding of the impact of
doi:10.1371/journal.pmed1000097
jurisdictional centralisation versus decentralisation of road policing
Murphy, K., Mazerolle, L., & Bennett, S. (2014). Promoting trust in police: Findings from
on the outcomes of road policing interventions including road trauma
a randomised experimental field trial of procedural justice policing. Policing and Society,
and traffic injuries. In many instances, it was difficult to ascertain
24(4), 405-424. doi: 10.1080/10439463.2013.862246
the level of jurisdictional centralisation due to the lack of information
reported on the intervention location and/or lack of information Rahimi, H., Nazari, S. S. H., Soori, H., Motevalian, S. A., Momeni, H. E., & Azar, A. (2016).
Traffic police effectiveness and efficiency evaluations, an overview of methodological
reported on police institutional websites about their organisational
considerations. Archives of Trauma Research, 6(1), 1-12. doi: 10.5812/atr.36927
structures. Nevertheless, it appears that community context is
an important consideration for road policing. We conclude that Reisig, M. D., Mays, R. D., & Telep, C. W. (2018). The effects of procedural injustice during
centralised Road Policing commands are most likely to have positive police–citizen encounters: A factorial vignette study. Journal of Experimental Criminology,
14, 49-58. doi: 10.1007/s11292-017-9307-1
results when interventions are crafted to local conditions. Conversely,
decentralized road policing interventions are most likely to work best Roche, S. P. (2018). Cops and cells: Theorizing and assessing the implications of
with opportunities for police to have access to high quality training, smartphone surveillance for policing (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest

technologies and support from centralized analysis teams to pinpoint Dissertations and Theses Global database. (ProQuest No. 10608099)

high harm, high risk deployment locations. Sahin, N., Braga, A. A., Apel, R., & Brunson, R. K. (2017). The impact of procedurally-
just policing on citizen perceptions of police during traffic stops: The Adana randomized

Acknowledgements controlled trial. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 33(4), 701-726. doi: 10.1007/s10940-
016-9308-7

This article summarises findings from a report prepared for the New Solomon, S. J. (2018). Examining the role of treatment quality, decision-making quality,
Zealand Evidence-Based Policing Research Centre in July 2019. This and driver race during traffic stops (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses Global database. (ProQuest No. 2088412721)
review was funded by research grant awarded to Lorraine Mazerolle,
Sarah Bennett, and Elizabeth Eggins via the New Zealand Evidence- Staton, C., Vissoci, J., Gong, E., Toomey, N., Wafula, R., Abdelgadir, J., ... & Hocker, M.
Based Policing Research Centre. The authors gratefully acknowledge (2016). Road traffic injury prevention initiatives: A systematic review and metasummary
the research assistance provided by [RAs, to fill in once authorship is of effectiveness in low and middle income countries. PLoS One, 11(1), e0144971. doi:
10.1371/journal.pone.0144971
determined].
Stockings, E., Bartlem, K., Hall, A., Hodder, R., Gilligan, C., Wiggers, J., ... & Wolfenden,
References L. (2018). Whole‐of‐community interventions to reduce population‐level harms arising from
alcohol and other drug use: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Addiction, 113(11),
Fiorentino, D. D. (2018). The effects of breath alcohol concentration on postural control. 1984-2018. doi:10.1111/add.14277
Traffic Injury Prevention, 19(4), 352-357. doi: 10.1080/15389588.2018.1423561
Swortwood, M. J., Newmeyer, M. N., Abulseoud, O. A., Andersson, M., Barnes, A. J.
Hjelmeland, K., Gustavsen, I., Bernard, J. P., & Mørland, J. (2015). Can a simple clinical Scheidweiler, K. B., & Huestis, M. A. (2017). On-site oral fluid DELTA9-tetrahydrocannabinol
test detect impairment of zopiclone and alcohol? A randomized controlled trial. Forensic (THC) screening after controlled smoked, vaporized, and oral cannabis administration.
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Høye, A. (2014). Speed cameras, section control, and kangaroo jumps-a meta-analysis. Yao, J., Johnson, M. B., & Beck, K. H. (2014). Predicting DUI decisions in different legal
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Page 24 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 25
 Policing responses to crime and social problems Policing responses to crime and social problems in Auckland: A rapid review of the evaluation literature

in Auckland: A rapid review of the evaluation Second responder models may increase the level of satisfaction approaches may be effective for responding to individuals with mental
with police, increase the level of DFV reporting to police, facilitate illness (Taheri, 2016; Eggins et al., 2020). However, many studies in
literature family improvements, increase quality of life, reduce the likelihood of
victims retracting statements, decrease victim-perpetrator contact
the included reviews were of low quality or conducted in the United
States and may not be reliable for ascertaining effectiveness or
and decrease the severity of repeat DFV incidents (Davis et al., generalisable to the Auckland context.
2008; Koppensteiner et al., 2017). However, second responder
Author: Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine, & Lorraine Mazerolle models may not substantially reduce repeat DFV incidences beyond Specialised training may not reduce incident-level demand arising
business-as-usual approaches. These models may also increase from individuals with mental illness but may improve the way police
psychosocial stress and may reduce the likelihood of finalising formal record data about individuals they have contact with who display
Introduction In answering these questions, NZ Police wanted to focus on witness statements. These latter counterintuitive findings may be symptoms of mental illness (Scantlebury et al., 2017).
synthesising the evidence for jurisdictions that share similar due to (a) victims taking action to reduce their DFV risk, which can
The New Zealand Police and New Zealand Evidence-Based Policing characteristics to NZ and Auckland. That is, former British colonies be associated with high stress (e.g., separation from partner, legal Specialised interviewing for individuals with ASD requires specialised
Centre worked with the Global Policing Database (GPD) team at with Westminster political systems, with similar levels of wealth proceedings); and (b) the length of time that lapses between initial training, yet there is no information about the cost-benefits of
the University of Queensland to conduct a rapid evidence review of demographic composition. Therefore, the review only included studies contact with victims and subsequent contacts to finalise witness this approach. Only limited information is known about factors
policing interventions pertaining to seven social and crime problems implemented in NZ, Japan, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, statements. that might moderate the effectiveness of the interview approach
faced by Tamaki Makauru (the Auckland region). The intent of the Israel, Singapore, Ireland, and Kuwait . (e.g., characteristics of the individual’s ASD presentation) or
review was to enable NZ Police to use the best evidence available to We found that implementation and enforcement of protection orders mechanism that might underpin the interview approach (e.g., context
inform their strategy for the future of policing in Auckland. Studies were examined using the EMMIE framework (Johnson et by police may be (a) facilitated by clear polices for police and level reinstatement).
al., 2015) to explore: (1) mechanisms underpinning intervention of support for victims with order applications; and (b) impeded by
A number of social and geographical characteristics make Tamaki effectiveness; (2) moderators of intervention effects; (3) administrative processes which may deter victim engagement, faulty Moderators of CIT and MHCR models may include officer and patient
Makauru unique, including: implementation considerations; and (4) economic considerations. DFV perceptions held by responding officers, and difficulty meeting experiential and demographic characteristics. These interventions
evidentiary standards to enforce order breaches. may be facilitated by effective multiagency collaboration (e.g.,
• NZ’s largest airport and seaport The following information was coded and synthesised: mutual agreements, established legal foundations) as well as police
Homelessness understanding of mental illness; inversely, these models may be
• More high-rise buildings than elsewhere in the country • Resources required for implementation hindered by practitioner lack of awareness of referral pathways and
operational difficulties (e.g., referral services may be understaffed or
• More potential targets of terrorism than anywhere else in NZ • Possible barriers or facilitators for implementation not operate 24/7).

• Challenges with congestion • Police organisational structure for the setting where the intervention
Youth crime and delinquency
was evaluated
• A faster growing and more diverse population than other NZ
Family Group Conferencing (FGC), using a third party policing
regions, with a significant and increasing overseas-born population • Nature of the problem and regulatory frameworks for where the
framework, may be effective for increasing parental awareness of
intervention was evaluated
legal responsibility and student willingness to attend school; and
Additionally, the Auckland region faces seven social issues and
decreasing offending behaviour, self-reported antisocial behaviour,
crime problems that impact police practice: continuing challenges A search was conducted in the GPD for each of the seven social
and self-reported impulsivity (Bennett et al., 2018; Cardwell et al.,
with (1) homelessness, (2) family harm, and (3) mental health, (4) an and crime problems, followed by systematic screening to identify
2019; Mazerolle et al., 2017a, 2017b; Mazerolle et al., 2019).
established based for organised crime, and more (5) cybercrime, (6) the eligible studies. Combined, the seven searches identified 75,429
financial crime, and (7) youth offending than anywhere else in NZ. records. After screening, 25 studies were eligible across the seven
Comprehension aids for and structure of Youth Waiver Forms (e.g.,
challenges . This level of attrition is common in systematic reviews
participant checking their understanding of the form during or after
of evaluation evidence in the crime and justice arena, reflecting the
Methods Police arrest for non-violent offences increases the odds of future reading it, and varied levels of complexity of the written content) may
dearth of high-quality evaluations in the field.
criminal justice contact for homeless individuals, even when social increase youth understanding and recall of their rights when being
The full methods are described in the introductory article to our suite cautioned or arrested by police (Eastwood et al., 2015, 2016).
supports are in place to reduce their vulnerability (Roy et al., 2016).
of rapid reviews published in this issue of Police Science (Eggins, Results
Homeless individuals tend to view police less favourably when they
Hine & Mazerolle, 2022). For this project, NZ Police sought answers Formal justice system processing, compared with diversion, is
use handcuffs versus no handcuffs (Kremeddine & Silverstone, 2016).
to the following research questions: In total, we located four studies focused on domestic and family
associated with greater levels of youth crime (Petrosino et al., 2014).
violence (DFV), two on homelessness, 12 for mental health, three on
Both studies were retrospective analyses of existing police
1. What approaches have other policing services implemented youth crime and delinquency, two focused on organised crime, two Facilitators for FGC include joint implementation, mutual goals, and
approaches and provided no rigorous data about operational or
and evaluated in response to the aforementioned social and crime on financial crime, and none for cybercrime. In the following sections, continued commitment by schools and partners. This intervention
implementation considerations.
challenges? we synthesise the findings for each crime problem pertaining model may be impacted by variation in participants’ biopsychosocial
to effectiveness and operational, setting, and implementation histories and other factors (e.g., staffing changes).
2. For those policing approaches that have been rigorously evaluated, considerations. Mental illness
what are the: Potential moderators for Youth Waiver Forms include contextual
Taking witnesses diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Domestic and family violence (e.g., situational stress) and individual factors (e.g., intelligence and
a. key characteristics of the approach (including the role of the to the context or scene where the evidence was encoded may
comprehension skill). Factors that may impede the effectiveness of
police within the intervention and how resources/capabilities are increase the amount and accuracy of memory recall to the level of
Conditional cautioning with an integrated perpetrator workshop using the intervention include educational level and lack of documentation
prioritised)?; and neurotypical individuals (Maras & Bowler, 2012; Maras et al., 2014).
a motivational interviewing framework can be effective for reducing regarding whether and how police assess youth cognitive abilities
However, adapting interview protocols to remove social components
crime harm and recidivism (Strang et al., 2017). Police enforcement before presenting a waiver form.
b. geographical and social characteristics of the jurisdiction, and for individuals with ASD may not improve the amount and accuracy of
of protection orders is associated with lowered odds of DFV re-
how could these impact the implementation and effectiveness of information recalled unless there is a drawing component.
victimisation, yet the effect on threatened violence is less clear
the approach? (Dowling et al., 2018).
Reviews of Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) and Mental Health
Co-Responder (MHCR) models suggest that these partnership Continued on next page

Page 26 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 27
 Policing responses to crime and social problems in Auckland: A rapid review of the evaluation literature Policing responses to crime and social problems in Auckland: A rapid review of the evaluation literature

Organised crime The included study was conducted in Canada, which has a much References
lower population density but similar police organisational structure.
Petrosino, A., Turpin-Petrosino, C., & Guckenburg, S. (2014). The impact of juvenile system
Third party policing initiatives aimed at combating drug crime in hotels While a cost model is not provided, it is implied that this intervention Bennett, S., Mazerolle, L., Antrobus, E., Eggins, E., & Piquero, A. R. (2018). Truancy
intervention reduces crime: Results from a randomised field trial. Justice Quarterly, 35(2), processing on delinquency. In J. Murray (Ed.), Labelling Theory (pp. 113- 147). New York:
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warrants, arrests, and charges (Morton et al., 2018). Educational Cardwell, S. M., Mazerolle, L., Bennett, S., & Piquero, A. R. (2019). Changing the
criminal justice system trajectories of homeless adults living with mental illness. International
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membership may be effective for reducing delinquency and gang Scantlebury, A., Fairhurst, C., Booth, A., McDaid, C., Moran, N., Parker, A., ... & Hewitt, C.
This review covers robust impact evaluations of policing interventions Connors, C. J., Patry, M. W., & Smith, S. M. (2019). The Mr. Big technique on trial by jury.
(2017). Effectiveness of a training program for police officers who come into contact with
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The key mechanism underpinning Operation Galley is third party Simpson, S., Rorie, M., Alper, M. E., Schell-Busey, N., Laufer, W., & Smith, N. C. (2014).
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strong working relationship between hoteliers and police, as well as C. (2017). Reducing the harm of intimate partner violence: Randomized controlled trial of
resources, the availability and amount of funding, legal and regulatory Dowling, C., Morgan, A., Hulme, S., Manning, M., & Wong, G. (2018b). Protection orders the Hampshire Constabulary CARA Experiment. Cambridge Journal of Evidence-Based
clear communication of roles and objectives within the intervention, frameworks, and training for police and other practitioners. for domestic violence: A systematic review. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Policing, 1(2–3), 160–173.
and hindered by the levels of vigilance required for hoteliers to Justice, 551. Retrieved from https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi551
implement the intervention, which may be considered outside of their Taheri, S. A. (2016). Do Crisis Intervention Teams reduce arrests and improve officer safety?
Acknowledgements Eastwood, J., Snook, B., & Luther, K. (2015). Measuring the reading complexity and oral A systematic review and meta-analysis. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 27(1), 76-96.
role in the hotel and/or the business model of the hotel itself.
comprehension of Canadian Youth Waiver Forms. Crime & Delinquency, 61(6), 798-828.
This article summarises findings from a report prepared in December Thornton, A., Sidebottom, A., Belur, J., Tompson, L., & Bowers, K. (2019). On the
The effectiveness of multiagency educational gang interventions Eastwood, J., Snook, B., Luther, K., & Freedman, S. (2016). Engineering comprehensible development and application of EMMIE: Insights from the What Works Centre for Crime
2020. The review was funded by research grant awarded to Lorraine youth interrogation rights. New Criminal Law Review, 19(1), 42-62.
may be influenced by the number of existing youth gangs, along Reduction. Policing & Society, 29(3), 266-282. doi: 10.1080/10439463.2018.1539483
Mazerolle and Elizabeth Eggins by the New Zealand Evidence Based
with their trauma histories. Barriers to implementation can include Eggins, E., Hine, L., & Mazerolle, L. (2020). Policing responses for crime and social
Policing Centre. The authors gratefully acknowledge the research
scheduling errors, timeframe mismanagement, inconsistencies with problems in Auckland: A rapid review of the evaluation literature: Final report. Report
assistance provided by James McEwan, Georgia Hassall, Rebecca
educational materials, and lack of signposting sessions for students. prepared by the University of Queensland for the New Zealand Evidence-Based Policing
Dunne, Natalya Seipel, and Lynley Anderson. Centre.
Implementation may be facilitated by natural and non-judgemental
communication by facilitators and bespoke videos with local Eggins, E., Hine, L., Mazerolle, L., McEwan, J., Hassall, G., Roetman, S. … Bevis, K.
examples. (2020). Mental health co-response models: A rapid review of the evaluation literature: Final
report. Report prepared by the University of Queensland for the New Zealand Evidence-
Based Policing Centre.
Financial crime
Johnson, S. D., Tilley, N., & Bowers, K. J. (2015). Introducing EMMIE: An evidence
rating scale to encourage mixed-method crime prevention synthesis reviews. Journal of
Experimental Criminology, 11, 459-473. doi: 10.1007/s11292-015-9238-7

Koppensteiner, M. F., Matheson, J., & Plugor, R. (2017). Project 360: An intervention
to address victim-police engagement in repeat domestic violence cases. Economics
Discussion Paper (No. 17/08). Retrieved from https://www.le.ac.uk/economics/research/
RePEc/lec/leecon/dp17-08.pdf?uol_r=d307e306

Krameddine, Y. I., & Silverstone, P. H. (2016). Police use of handcuffs in the homeless
population leads to long-term negative attitudes within this group. International Journal of
Law and Psychiatry, 44, 81-90.

Maras, K. L., & Bowler, D. M. (2012). Context reinstatement effects on eyewitness memory
in autism spectrum disorder. British Journal of Psychology, 103(3), 330-342.

Maras, K. L., Mulcahy, S., Memon, A., Picariello, F., & Bowler, D. M. (2014). Evaluating
the effectiveness of the Self‐Administered Interview© for witnesses with Autism Spectrum
Disorder. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 28(5), 693-701.
Corporate crime deterrence strategies via legal mechanisms may
Mazerolle, L., Antrobus, E., Bennett, S., & Eggins, E. (2017a). Reducing truancy and
influence whether illegal behaviour or non-compliance is reported to fostering a willingness to attend school: Results from a randomised trial of a police-school
police (Simpson et al., 2014). However, many of the studies in this partnership program. Prevention Science, 18(4), 469-480.
review were not from Westminster nations, and of those that were,
Mazerolle, L., Bennett, S., Antrobus, E., & Eggins, E. (2017b). The coproduction of truancy
none clearly explicated police involvement with the intervention,
control: Results from a randomized trial of a police–schools partnership program. Journal of
thereby limiting the ability to ascertain effectiveness or generalise to Research in Crime and Delinquency, 54(6), 791-823.
the Auckland context.
Mazerolle, L., Bennett, S., Antrobus, E., Cardwell, S. M., Eggins, E., & Piquero, A. R.
(2019). Disrupting the pathway from truancy to delinquency: A randomised field trial
Covert investigative techniques for identifying and eliciting confessions
test of the longitudinal impact of a school engagement program. Journal of Quantitative
of involvement in financial crime were evaluated by mock jurors Criminology, 35(4), 663-689.
(Connors et al., 2019). Results show that cases with high financial
Morton, P., Mazerolle, L., Luengen, K., & Newman, M. (2018). Operation Galley: A
incentives ($35,000) were less likely to receive a guilty verdict than
partnership approach to reducing hotel drug crime. Police Science: Australia & New
those with low incentives ($5,000). The intervention showed no effect
Zealand Journal of Evidence Based Policing, 3(1), 7-10.
for juror perception of confession falseness, defendant character, or
defendant-officer social bond.

Page 28 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 29
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Page 30 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 31
 Policing child sex offenders and offending: A rapid Policing child sex offenders and offending: A rapid review of the evaluation literature

review of the evaluation literature a law enforcement agency) needs to be more than 2,000 feet from References
places where children congregate. The rates of arrest for rape
slightly decreased following the legislation implementation but Bailey, C., Mace, G., Powell, M., & Benson, M. (2015). Evaluation of a collaborative
operation to improve child sexual abuse reporting in Western Australian Indigenous
began increasing shortly thereafter. The authors concluded that the
Author: Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine, & Lorraine Mazerolle communities. Criminal Justice and Behaviour, 42(12), 1303-1315
legislation had no notable impact on arrests for rape or robbery. It is
important to note that child-specific offenses were not analysed in Bracewell, T. (2015). Children's advocacy centres’ effect on the prosecutorial decision to

this study and the rape arrest outcome measure included offenses accept or reject cases of child sexual abuse (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest

Introduction Training committed against victims of all ages. As such, any benefits of Dissertations & Theses Global. (UMI No. 3725320)

child sex offender residency restrictions for preventing reoffending Bracewell, T. E. (2018). Multidisciplinary team involvement and prosecutorial decisions in
This article provides a systematic rapid review of the evidence-base Four studies examined the impact of police training in the area of specifically against children could not be assessed in this study. child sexual abuse cases. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 35(6), 567-576.

for policing approaches for child sex offenders and offending. The child sex offenders/offending, represented by one systematic review
Cederborg, A.-C., Alm, C., da Silva Nises, D. L., & Lamb, M. E. (2013). Investigative
review had two inter-related aims. First, to ascertain and synthesise and two quasi-experiments. The systematic review of school-
Collaborative approaches interviewing of alleged child abuse victims: An evaluation of a new training programme for
the evidence-base for risk management of child sex offenders by based education programs for preventing child sexual abuse by investigative interviewers. Police Practice and Research, 14(3), 242-254.
police. Second, to synthesise studies that assess the impact of any Walsh et al. (2015) included one study that integrated police as part Four studies examined the impact of collaborative or multiagency Cyr, M., Dion, J., McDuff, P., & Trotier-Sylvain, K. (2012). Transfer of skills in the context
type of policing approach for child sex offenders and offending, with of the intervention. This study was an RCT and compared a live approaches in the area of child sex offenders/offending, represented of non-suggestive investigative interviews: Impact of structured interview protocol and
no limit on the outcomes used to evaluate the intervention. performance with a DVD recording and a control group. Children in by one systematic review and three quasi-experiments. A systematic feedback. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26(4), 516-524
both intervention groups reported higher scores on knowledge of review by Nwogu et al. (2015) evaluated the impact of Child Feltis, B. B., Powell, M. B., Snow, P. C., & Hughes-Scholes, C. H. (2010). An examination
self-protective skills (e.g., getting help, rejecting unwanted touch) than
Methods Advocacy Centres and multidisciplinary teams on the likelihood of the association between interviewer question type and story-grammar detail in child
the control group. of prosecution and caregiver satisfaction in cases of child sexual witness interviews about abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(6), 407-413.
The full methods are described in the introductory article to our suite abuse. The authors concluded that collaboration between child
The three quasi-experimental studies involved training initiatives for Johnson, J. L., & Shelley, A. E. (2014). Effects of child interview tactics on prospective
of rapid reviews published in this issue of Police Science (Eggins, victim advocates, law enforcement and multidisciplinary teams in jurors' decisions. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 32(6), 846-866.
police officers to improve their performance when interviewing child
Hine & Mazerolle, 2022). child sexual abuse investigations may benefit case outcomes by
victims. Studies showed promising results in terms of promoting more Lindholm, J., Cederborg, A. C., & Alm, C. (2015). Adolescent girls exploited in the sex
increasing the satisfaction in non-offending caregivers of victims and
The results of the eligibility screening, after extraction from the Global frequent and effective use of important interview techniques (e.g., trade: informativeness and evasiveness in investigative interviews. Police Practice and
the likelihood of successfully prosecuting child sex offenders. The
Research, 16(3), 197-210.
Policing Database (GPD) are presented in the PRISMA flowchart in use of open-ended questions; Yii et al., 2014) and, in turn, allowing
quasi-experiments also noted benefits of multiagency teams around
Figure 1 (Moher et al., 2009). The final corpus of 12 eligible studies for more successful interviews with child victims of sexual abuse Merken, S. (2015). The effectiveness of sex offender residency restrictions in Alabama and
prosecution acceptance (Bracewell 2015, 2018), increasing rates of
(reported in 13 documents) is comprised of no randomised controlled (Cyr et al., 2012) as well as improving the quality and frequency of Oklahoma: Are we preventing crime in the Heart of Dixie and the Sooner State? (Doctoral
arrest, and reporting in CSA cases (Bailey et al).
interview techniques (e.g., promoting free recall, directive utterances; dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (UMI No. 3714762)
trials (RCTs), 2 reviews with or without meta-analyses, and 10 robust
Cederborg et al., 2013). Notably,
quasi-experiments. Summary Moher, D., Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., & The PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred items for
systematic reviews and meta-analysis: The Prisma Statement. PLoS Med, 6(7): e1000097.

Investigative approaches doi:10.1371/journal.pmed1000097

Figure 1: PRISMA flow diagram Overall, very little high-quality evaluation evidence exists to help
inform evidence-based approaches in the area of child sex offending/ Nwogu, N. N., Agrawal, L., Chambers, S., Buagas, A. B., Daniele, R. M., & Singleton, J. K.
Three quasi-experimental studies were impact evaluations of (2015). Effectiveness of Child Advocacy Centres and the multidisciplinary team approach
offenders. Limited evidence presented shows promise across
investigative approaches or techniques in the area of child sex on prosecution rates of alleged sex offenders and satisfaction of non-offending caregivers
a range of outcomes for investigative, training and multiagency
offenders/offending. Two of these examined the efficacy of different with allegations of child sexual abuse: A systematic review. JBI Database of Systematic
approaches. For example, Child Advocacy Centres that involve Reviews and Implementation Reports, 13(12), 93-129.
interview questions for police interviews with child witnesses (Feltis
multi-agency collaboration are likely to benefit case outcomes by
et al., 2010) and adolescent sex trafficking victims (Lindholm et Walsh, K., Zwi, K., Woolfenden, S., & Shlonsky, A. (2015). School-based education
increasing the satisfaction in non-offending caregivers of victims
al., 2014). Both examined whether open-ended questions elicited programmes for the prevention of child sexual abuse: A systematic review. Campbell
and the likelihood of successfully prosecuting child sex offenders.
Systematic Reviews, 11(1), 1-180. doi:10.4073/csr.2015.10
more detailed accounts than specific closed or option-posing
We did not find any studies that reported outcome measures (such
questions. Results indicate that open-ended question types Yii, S. L. B., Powell, M. B., & Guadagno, B. (2014). The association between investigative
as re-offending against children) relevant to child-specific offenses
produce greater detail and more story grammar elements (i.e., interviewers’ knowledge of question type and adherence to best-practice interviewing.
for child sex offender residency restrictions. Although there is a vast
the components that make the witness’s account logical/easy to Legal and Criminological Psychology, 19(2), 270-281.
amount of literature examining the psychometric qualities of various
follow).
risk assessment tools, the review did not identify any police-focused
impact evaluations of these tools. Rigorous impact evaluations of
Johnson et al. (2014) examined whether setting of the police
police use of risk management strategies in the field - including risk
investigative interview with children affected mock juror
assessment tools – are required to understand their effectiveness in
perceptions of interview quality, prior opinions about children's
Results the context of for child sex offending.
eyewitness abilities, credibility of child victim, or guilt decisions.
Results showed no significant difference in mock juror perceptions
This rapid review provides a comprehensive preliminary understanding
between interviews described as having been conducted in a Child
Acknowledgements
of the impact of policing responses for child sex offenders/offending
on a range of policy and practice outcomes. The 12 eligible studies Advocacy Centre versus a traditional police setting.
This article summarises findings from a report prepared in April
were predominantly conducted in the United States, however, a range 2020. The review was funded by research grant awarded to Lorraine
of developing and developed countries were also represented in the Regulatory or legislative approaches Mazerolle, Sarah Bennett, and Elizabeth Eggins by the New Zealand
corpus of studies. It is notable that there were no standalone impact Evidence-Based Policing Centre. The authors gratefully acknowledge
evaluations of risk assessment approaches and none of the included A single study provided evidence around regulatory or legislative
the research assistance provided by xxxxx.
interventions contained a risk assessment component. The studies approaches. The quasi-experimental time series analysis by Merken
consider the impact of collaborative policing responses for child sex (2015) evaluated the impact of Megan’s Law and associated
offenders/offending, as well as training, investigative, and legislative/ residency restrictions for convicted child sex offenders on monthly
regulatory approaches. arrest rates for rape in Alabama and Oklahoma (United States)
from 1984 to 2012. Residency restriction laws mandate that
released sex offenders’ residential address (usually recorded with

Page 32 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 33
 Mental health co-response models: Mental health co-response models: A rapid review of the evaluation literature

A rapid review of the evaluation literature health services without arrest (Watson et al., 2010) and police officers untrained officers, CIT trained officers demonstrated higher levels of
may demonstrate better referral decisions than officers no trained in knowledge, more diverse attitudes about mental illnesses and their
CIT (Compton et al., 2014). treatments, higher self-efficacy for interacting with someone with
Author: Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine, & Lorraine Mazerolle psychosis or suicidality, and less preference to distance themselves
Resource use and demand from people with mental illness (social distance stigma).
Introduction Figure 1: PRISMA flow diagram
Nine studies, including one RCT and three systematic reviews, Adverse events
This article provides a systematic rapid evaluated the impact of MHCR approaches on the use of agency
review of the evidence base for mental resources. The RCT by Stantlebury and colleagues (2017) involved a A total of five studies, including two reviews, were evaluations or
health co-response (MHCR) models. These training program for police officers developed collaboratively with the reviews including evaluations summarising the impact of MHCR
models partner mental health services and National Health Service (UK). The authors found that the specialised models on adverse events. One of the reviews focused on CIT
relevant practitioners with police to facilitate training and routine training police stations did not differ 6-months approaches and included studies using use of force and injury
referrals to treatment for individuals with after the intervention in terms of the number of police incidents outcomes and the other review included a range of MHCR models
mental health issues who come in contact referred to the central control room or number of individuals with a and included studies with use of force outcomes. Results showed
with police. This approach takes a range of warning marker for mental health. However, the number of incidences that MHCR models may lead to fewer use-of-force complaints filed
forms, including: with a generic marker (tag) for mental health was significantly higher in against police (Shapiro et al., 2015), but CIT had no significant impact
the experimental police stations. The authors conclude that although on use of force (Taheri 2016).
• Co-location of police and mental the training did not appear to reduce the incident-level demand, it
health practitioners to facilitate may improve the way police record data about individuals they have Summary
onsite collaboration and support for contact with who display symptoms of mental illness.
individuals with mental health issues Mental Health Co-Responder models, oftentimes led by police, aim to
Evidence from the reviews and quasi-experimental studies also reduce repeat contact with police by facilitating appropriate referrals
• Active collaborative or linkages suggest MCHR models have some effect on the time spent at mental to treatment for individuals with mental health issues who come in
between police and mental health health calls (Lamanna et al., 2018; Shapiro et al., 2015) and may contact with police. The approach includes co-location of police and
services, in the absence of physical lower calls-for-service and admittance into emergency protective mental health practitioners, active collaborative or linkages between
co-location custody (Bonkiewicz et al., 2014). police and mental health services and Crisis Intervention Teams
(CIT). Overall, we find that MHCR-like models appear promising
• Crisis Intervention Teams (CIT) Perceptions of police for increasing referrals for mental health services, reducing time
and other training-focused studies spent responding to mental health incidents, improving practitioners’
where there is an explicit partnership One quasi-experimental study by Furness et al. (2017) evaluated the knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes towards mental illness, and
with other mental health services in impact of a MHCR model on perceptions of police. The Northern changing citizen’s perception of police. Yet the co-responder models
developing or delivering the training. Police Clinician Response (NPACER) is an initiative whereby a police appear to have mixed evidence for reducing arrests for individuals
officer and senior mental health practitioner attend the scene of a with mental illness and reducing use of force.
Methods Criminal justice outcomes mental health crisis in a ‘diversional van’ after initial police response.
Participants who received the co-response intervention (n = 18) We conclude that there is a significant lack of randomised control
The full methods are described in the introductory article to our suite A total of 15 studies were impact evaluations or reviews including believed their interaction with the NPACER to be more procedurally trials for MHCR models. There is also a significant gap in evaluation
of rapid reviews published in this issue of Police Science (Eggins, impact evaluations of MHCR models for criminal justice outcomes. just than participants who interacted with police only (n = 25), evidence for broader outcomes beyond those focused on criminal
Hine & Mazerolle, 2022). The PRISMA flowchart (Moher et al., 2009) Due to there being no RCTs using criminal justice measures as the although the difference in raw mean scores was small (3.0 for justice (e.g., perceptions of police).
in Figure 1 shows the screening process and attrition for this review. outcome, we drew on six reviews of eligible interventions and nine NPACER group and 2.9 for police-only group, measured on a 1-4
The initial search was conducted within the Global Policing Database quasi-experimental evaluations to provide depth to the synthesis. point Likert scale). Acknowledgements
and identified 5,146 potentially eligible citations. Of these, 562 were Traditional MHCR approaches may reduce rates of arrest for mental
screened as potentially being about MHCR models based on their health calls (Shapiro et al., 2015) and result in fewer detentions in Practitioner perceptions of MHCR models This article summarises findings from a report prepared in April
title and abstract. The full-text of these eligible documents published police custody (Puntis et al., 2018). A Post-Crisis Assistance Program 2020. The review was funded by research grant awarded to Lorraine
between 2010 – 2018 were screened for final eligibility. Of these 301 (PCAP) involving collaboration between police and the Mental One quasi-experimental impact evaluation and one systematic review Mazerolle, Sarah Bennett, and Elizabeth Eggins by the New Zealand
documents, 26 were deemed to meet full inclusion criteria for the Health Association of Nebraska reduced arrest rates for individuals reported on impact evaluations using outcomes around practitioner Evidence-Based Policing Centre. The authors gratefully acknowledge
review (representing 24 studies). experiencing a mental health crisis (Bonkiewicz et al., 2014, 2018). A perceptions of the MHCR approach. Results show that participating the research assistance provided by xxxxx.
meta-analysis found that CIT had no significant impact on arrests of in a MHCR or CIT intervention can increase an officer’s perceptions of
Results individuals with mental illness, although the results across the studies intervention effectiveness (Shapiro et al., 2015), but not perceptions of
varied (Taheri, 2016). intervention desirability (Morabito et al., 2013). References over next page
The 24 eligible studies were predominantly conducted in the
United States, however, other countries represented include: Referral to services Practitioner knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes about
United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia. This corpus of studies is
mental illness
comprised of one randomised controlled trial (RCT), six reviews with Six studies examined the impact of MHCR models on referrals to
or without meta-analyses, and 16 robust quasi-experiments. Almost services, comprised of three reviews of eligible interventions and three Three studies – one review and two quasi-experiments – examined
three-quarters of the studies consider the impact of mental health quasi-experimental evaluations. There is some evidence suggesting the impact of MHCR models on practitioner perceptions of,
co-response models on criminal justice related outcomes. Results that traditional MHCR approaches may lead fewer individuals to be knowledge about, or attitudes about mental illness or individuals
from this review are presented by outcome category in the following referred to hospital emergency departments and may also reduce with mental illness. Abbott (2011) found that officers involved in a
subsections. the length of stay in hospital emergency departments for those who multiagency Jail Diversion Program were less authoritarian, equally
are referred (Shapiro et al., 2015). Under CIT approaches, individual benevolent, more socially restrictive, and less community mental
experiencing mental illness may be more frequently referred to mental health oriented. Compton et al. (2014) found that, compared to

Page 34 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 35
 Mental health co-response models: A rapid review of the evaluation literature
Reducing alcohol-related harm in the night-time
References

Abbott, S. E. (2011). Evaluating the impact of a jail diversion program on police officer's Morabito, M. S., Watson, A., & Draine, J. (2013). Police officer acceptance of new
economy: A rapid review of the evaluation literature
attitudes toward the mentally ill (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest innovation: The case of Crisis Intervention Teams. Policing: An International Journal of
Dissertation and Theses Global database (UMI No. 3450400). Police Strategies & Management, 36(2), 421-436.
Author: Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine, & Lorraine Mazerolle
Bonkiewicz, L. A., Moyer, K., Magdanz, C., & Walsh, J. (2018). Keeping it REAL: Assisting Puntis, S., Perfect, D., Kirubarajan, A., Bolton, S., Davies, F., Hayes, A., ... & Molodynski, A.
individuals after a police-abated mental health crisis. Police Quarterly, 21(4), 486-508. (2018). A systematic review of co-responder models of police mental health ‘street’ triage.
doi:10.1177/1098611118782777 BMC Psychiatry, 18(1), 256-267. doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1836 Introduction for eligibility in a series of systematic screening stages. A total of eight
studies were deemed eligible for the policing component of the review
Bonkiewicz, L., Green, A. M., Moyer, K., & Wright, J. (2014). Left alone when the cops Scantlebury, A., Fairhurst, C., Booth, A., McDaid, C., Moran, N., Parker, A., ... & Hewitt, C.
(2017). Effectiveness of a training program for police officers who come into contact with Alcohol-fuelled violence in entertainment precincts poses many and 114 studies were deemed eligible for the component of the
go home: Evaluating a post-mental health crisis assistance program. Policing: An
International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 37(4), 762-778. doi: 10.1108/ people with mental health problems: A pragmatic randomised controlled trial. PLOS One, challenges for policing. The night-time economy (NTE) – defined review focused on specific alcohol-harm reduction strategies.
PIJPSM-04-2014-0035 12(9). as any public activity, space, or establishment that operates after
work hours that may or may not serve alcohol – offers a rich part of Figure 2: PRISMA flow diagram for supplementary data
Compton, M. T., Bakeman, R., Broussard, B., Hankerson-Dyson, D., Husbands, L., Shapiro, G. K., Cusi, A., Kirst, M., O'Campo, P., Nakhost, A., & Stergiopoulos, V. (2015).
Krishan, S., ... & Watson, A. C. (2014). The police-based crisis intervention team (CIT) Co-responding police-mental health programs: A review. Administration and Policy in inner-city life yet, at the same time requires careful controls. The NTE
model: I. Effects on officers’ knowledge, attitudes, and skills. Psychiatric Services, 65(4), Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 606-620. doi:10.1007/s10488- establishments include night clubs, pubs, bars,
517-522. 014-0594-9 music/theatre venues, entertainment, or leisure
Furness, T., Maguire, T., Brown, S., & McKenna, B. (2017). Perceptions of procedural Shapiro, G. K., Cusi, A., Kirst, M., O'Campo, P., Nakhost, A., & Stergiopoulos, V. (2015). precincts (including transport services). This
justice and coercion during community-based mental health crisis: A comparison study Co-responding police-mental health programs: A review. Administration and Policy in article describes a systematic rapid review of
among stand-alone police response and co-responding police and mental health clinician Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 606-620. doi:10.1007/s10488- the evidence base for (a) policing approaches
response. Policing, 11(4), 400-409. doi: 10.1093/police/paw047 014-0594-9 in the context of the NTE; and (b) four specific
Lamanna, D., Shapiro, G. K., Kirst, M., Matheson, F. I., Nakhost, A., & Stergiopoulos, V. Taheri, S. A. (2016). Do Crisis Intervention Teams reduce arrests and improve officer safety? strategies related to reducing alcohol-related
(2018). Co‐responding police–mental health programmes: Service user experiences and A systematic review and meta-analysis. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 27(1), 76-96. doi: harm in the context of the NTE (one-way door
outcomes in a large urban centre. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 27(2), 10.1177/0887403414556289 policies, bringing forward closing times, alcohol
891-900.
Watson, A. C., Ottati, V. C., Morabito, M., Draine, J., Kerr, A. N., & Angell, B. (2010).
outlet density, and ensuring readily accessible
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., & The PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred items for Outcomes of police contacts with persons with mental illness: The impact of CIT. transport home).
systematic reviews and meta-analysis: The Prisma Statement. PLoS Med, 6(7): e1000097. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 37(4),
doi:10.1371/journal.pmed1000097 302-317. doi:10.1007/s10488-009-0236-9
Methods
In addition to the standard methods described
in the introductory article to our suite of rapid reviews published in this Results
issue of Police Science (Eggins, Hine & Mazerolle, 2022), this review
incorporated supplementary searches across several criminal justice The eligible studies were predominantly conducted in Australia and
and multidisciplinary sources to capture studies evaluating one-way the United States, however, other countries represented include
door policies , adjusting establishment closing times, alcohol outlet New Zealand, United Kingdom, and Europe (e.g., Switzerland,
densities, or readily accessible transport home from NTE precincts . Netherlands). The studies consider the impact of eligible interventions
on a range of alcohol-related harm outcomes, with most considering
Figure 1: PRISMA flow diagram for GPD search violence and aggression. The effectiveness of the interventions was
mixed, with some showing promising effects and
others showing less equivocal results.

Policing in the NTE

Eight studies – comprised of four randomised

controlled trials (RCTs) and four reviews – were
evaluations of interventions relating to police or
policing. The included studies covered a range of
different outcomes for measuring the effectiveness
of the four intervention types (auditing and problem-
oriented policing, police activity, motivational
interviewing, and compliance checks).

Auditing and problem-oriented policing at high-risk

establishments may not produce changes in alcohol
intoxication, but may reduce violence at premises
(Moore et al., 2012).

Increasing licensee awareness and police activity

may be effective for reducing alcohol-related sexual
offences on problematic weekends and reducing
The PRISMA flowcharts in Figures 1 and 2 (Moher et al., 2009) display alcohol-related violence on non-problematic weekends, with noted
the attrition of identified records for the Global Policing Database cost-effectiveness (Navarro et al., 2013).
(GPD) processing and supplementary searches. Combined, the Continued on next page
searches identified 12,911 records (citations) which were assessed

Page 36 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 37
 Reducing alcohol-related harm in the night-time economy: A rapid review of the evaluation literature Reducing alcohol-related harm in the night-time economy: A rapid review of the evaluation literature

Implementing motivational interviewing when individuals are in police Summary References Saltz, R. F., Paschall, M. J., McGaffigan, R. P., & Nygaard, P. M. (2010). Alcohol risk

custody may reduce holistic measures of alcohol dependence (Tobutt management in college settings: The safer California universities randomized trial. American
Cameron, M. B., J. Cochrane, W. Robertson, N. (2018). An evaluation of the Whangarei Journal of Preventive Medicine, 39(6), 491-499. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2010.08.020506.
& Milani, 2010), although these results should be interpreted with This review provided a preliminary understanding of the range and
one-way door policy. Wellington: Health Promotion Agency.
caution due to the study’s small sample sizes and the homogeneity of impact of policing strategies in the NTE. We identified a number of Sherk, A., Stockwell, T., Chikritzhs, T., Andréasson, S., Angus, C., Gripenberg, J., ... &
the sample demographics. interventions that met our criteria, including one-way door policies, Eggins, E., Hine, L., Dunne, R., Anderson, L., Hassall, G., McEwan, J. … Mazerolle, L. Wood, J. (2018). Alcohol consumption and the physical availability of take-away alcohol:
(2020). Reducing alcohol-related harm in the night-time economy: A rapid review of the Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of the days and hours of sale and outlet density.
reducing business hours, alcohol outlet density, and safe transport
Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 79(1), 58-67.
Police-enforcement and compliance checks at party venues on options home. We found that reducing business hours for NTE
evaluation literature: Final report. Report prepared by the University of Queensland for the
New Zealand Evidence-Based Policing Centre.
university/college campuses may reduce incidents related to premises may reduce alcohol-related harms, increasing licensee Taylor, N., Miller, P., Coomber, K., Mayshak, R., Zahnow, R., Patafio, B., ... Ferris, J. (2018).
intoxication both on- and off-campus, with little displacement to other awareness can reduce alcohol-related sexual offences on problematic Gmel, G., Holmes, J., & Studer, J. (2016). Are alcohol outlet densities strongly associated A mapping review of evaluations of alcohol policy restrictions targeting alcohol-related harm

settings (Saltz et al., 2010). with alcohol-related outcomes? A critical review of recent evidence. Drug & Alcohol Review, in night-time entertainment precincts. International Journal of Drug Policy, 62(1), 1-13. doi:
weekends (with noted cost-effectiveness) and that designated driver
35(1), 40-54. doi: 10.1111/dar.12304 10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.09.012
programs may reduce drink driving and increase the likelihood of
One-way door policies patrons selecting a safe transport option home. Our results show that Kingsland, M., Wolfenden, L., Tindall, J., Rowland, B., Sidey, M., McElduff, P., & Wiggers, Tobutt, C. & Milani, R. (2010). Comparing two counselling styles for hazardous drinkers
J. H. (2015). Improving the implementation of responsible alcohol management practices charged with alcohol-related offences in a policy custody suite : Piloting motivational
one-way or ‘lock-out’ door policies show mixed effects on alcohol-
by community sporting clubs: A randomised controlled trial. Drug and Alcohol Review, interviewing brief intervention or a standard brief intervention to reduce alcohol
We identified six impact evaluations (reported in nine documents) and related harm outcomes and that problem-oriented policing at high-
34(4), 447-457. doi:10.1111/dar.12252 consumption. Advances in Dual Diagnosis, 3(4). doi: 10.5042/add.2011.0189
one systematic review of one-way door policies in the context of the risk establishments may not produce changes in alcohol intoxication
NTE. Many of these studies implemented this intervention alongside Wilkinson, C., Livingston, M., & Room, R. (2016). Impacts of changes to trading hours of
but may reduce violence at premises. Overall, we conclude that there Kypri, K., & Livingston, M. (2020). Incidence of assault in Sydney, Australia, throughout
liquor licences on alcohol-related harm: A systematic review 2005–2015. Public Health
changes in closing times or other policies. One-way or ‘lock-out’ is a significant lack of randomised control trials across this review, 5 years of alcohol trading hour restrictions: Controlled before‐and‐after study. Addiction,
115(11), 2045-2054. doi: 10.1111/add.15025 Research and Practice, 26(4):e2641644, 1-7. doi:10.17061/phrp2641644
door policies show mixed effects on alcohol-related harm outcomes, which speaks to the dearth of high-quality impact evaluation research
yet this is based on less rigorous quasi-experimental research (e.g., into the NTE. Menéndez, P., Kypri, K., & Weatherburn, D. (2017). The effect of liquor licensing restrictions
Taylor et al., 2018; Cameron et al., 2018; Kypri & Livingston, 2020; on assault: A quasi- experimental study in Sydney, Australia. Addiction, 112(2), 261-268.
Menéndez et al. 2015, 2017; Miller et al., 2017). Acknowledgements doi: 10.1111/add.13621

Menéndez, P., Weatherburn, D., Kypri, K., & Fitzgerald, J. (2015). Lockouts and last drinks:
Changing closing times This article summarises findings from a report prepared in December The impact of the January 2014 liquor licence reforms on assaults in NSW, Australia. (Crime
and Justice Bulletin No 183). Sydney: NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research.
2020. The review was funded by research grant awarded to Lorraine
We identified 20 quasi-experimental evaluations of varying Mazerolle, Sarah Bennett, and Elizabeth Eggins by the New Zealand Miller, P. G., Ferris, J., Coomber, K., Zahnow, R., Carah, N., Jiang, H., ... Najman, J.
adjustments to business hours in the NTE (reported in 22 Evidence-Based Policing Centre. The authors gratefully acknowledge (2017). Queensland Alcohol-related violence and Night Time Economy Monitoring project
documents). Additionally, we identified six reviews that included the research assistance provided by xxxxx. (QUANTEM): A study protocol. BMC Public Health, 17(789), 1-12. doi: 10.1186/s12889-

findings around adjustments to business hours. These studies 017-4811-9

suggest that reducing business hours for NTE premises may reduce Moher, D., Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., & The PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred items for
alcohol-related harms (e.g., Sherk et al., 2018; Wilkinson et al., 2016; systematic reviews and meta-analysis: The Prisma Statement. PLoS Med, 6(7): e1000097.
Taylor et al., 2018; Nepal et al., 2020), yet it should be noted that this doi:10.1371/journal.pmed1000097

is based on less rigorous quasi-experimental research. Moore, S. C., Murphy, S., Moore, S. N., Brennan, I., Byrne, E., Shepherd, J., & Moore, L.
(2012). An exploratory randomised controlled trial of a premises-level intervention to reduce

Alcohol outlet density alcohol-related harm including violence in the United Kingdom. BMC Public Health, 12(1),
1-17.

We identified 69 quasi-experimental studies and eight reviews that Navarro, H. J., Shakeshaft, A., Doran, C. M., & Petrie, D. J. (2013). Does increasing
examined outlet density. While some authors suggest that the effect community and liquor licensees' awareness, police activity, and feedback reduce alcohol-
of density may be context-specific or depend on the outlet type related violent crime? A benefit-cost analysis. International Journal Of Environmental
Research And Public Health, 10(11), 5490-5
(e.g., Gmel et al., 2016), overall, higher alcohol outlet density is
generally associated with greater alcohol-related harms, although this Nepal, S., Kypri, K., Tekelab, T., Hodder, R. K., Attia, J., Bagade, T., ... & Miller, P. (2020).
conclusion is drawn from a large body of heterogeneous less rigorous Effects of extensions and restrictions in alcohol trading hours on the incidence of assault

quasi-experimental evidence (e.g., Quigg et al., 2020; Roche et al., and unintentional injury: Systematic review. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 81(1),
5-23.
2015; Taylor et al., 2018).
Quigg, Z., Bigland, C., Hughes, K., Duch, M., & Juan, M. (2020). Sexual violence and
nightlife: A systematic literature review. Aggression & Violent Behaviour, 51(1), 1-10.
Transport home
doi:10.1016/j.avb.2020.101363

We identified two RCTs and two quasi-experimental studies that Rivara, F. P., Boisvert, D., Relyea-Chew, A., & Gomez, T. (2012). Last Call: Decreasing
assessed the impact of transport options home from the NTE. Of drunk driving among 21-34-year-old bar patrons. International Journal of Injury Control and
Safety Promotion, 19(1), 53-61. doi:10.1080/17457300.2011.603150
the four studies, three were conducted in Australia and the fourth
was conducted in the United States. Interventions captured within Roche, A., Kostadinov, V., Fischer, J., Nicholas, R., O’Rourke, K., Pidd, K., & Trifonoff, A.
this section include taxi stands (Rivara et al., 2012), accreditation (2015). Addressing inequities in alcohol consumption and related harms. Health Promotion
programs for community sporting clubs that require clubs to International, 30(S2), 20-35. doi:10.1093/heapro/dav030

implement safe transport strategies (Rowland et al., 2012; Kingsland Rowland, B. C., Wofenden, L., Doods, P., Kingsland, M., Gillham, K. E., & Wiggers, J. H.
et al., 2015), and designated driver programs (Rowland et al., 2015). (2015). The impact of a hypothetical designated driver program on intended alcohol-related
There is very little evidence examining the impact of safe transport behavior: an RCT. Health Promotion International, 30(1), 7-15. doi:10.1093/heapro/dau07

options home on alcohol-related harms. The studies included in Rowland, B., Toumbourou, J. W., & Allen, F. (2012). Reducing alcohol-impaired driving
this review suggest that designated driver programs may reduce in community sports clubs: Evaluating the Good Sports Program. Journal of Studies on
drink driving and increase the likelihood of patrons selecting a safe Alcohol and Drugs, 73(2), 316-327. doi:10.15288/jsad.2012.73.316
transport option home.

Page 38 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 39
 The relationship between changing product-specific The relationship between changing product-specific reward and stealing counts
against the backdrop of decreasing reward of property crime overall

reward and stealing counts against the backdrop of a 1% change in the price of a good is correlational analyses were conducted on Importantly, we can state with reasonable

decreasing reward of property crime overall associated with a 1.2% change in theft
of that good. Another important result of
the changing desirability of specific makes
and models of gaming consoles with their
assurance that it was the decline in
desirability rather than a decline in
the review was that the strength of price- corresponding stealing counts between availability of the consoles that was
theft relationships varied across type of 2007 and 2019 in Western Australia. We associated with the decrease in stealing
Author: Mr Liam Quinn and Dr Joseph Clare goods, with the price-theft elasticity value found statistically significant and large counts. This is because changes in stealing
Acknowledgments: We would like to acknowledge the contributions of Dr Jade Lindley, Dr Frank Morgan, Dr Rick Brown, Mr Anthony Morgan, for copper (1% change in copper prices correlations between sales units and counts closely followed changes in unit
and Mr Tom Sullivan to some of the empirical work referenced in this article. is associated with a 1.67% change in the stealing counts of six of the eight gaming sales at the same time manufacturers were
theft of copper) less than the steel price- consoles analysed (see Figure 1). still producing and selling the console in
theft elasticity value and more than the large quantities, and the cumulative stock
(significant and meaningful) price-theft Figure 1. of the console in the population continued
Abstract engage in purposive behaviour that they specific expertise (Cornish, 1994, Nee et
elasticity values for consumer goods, to grow.
believe will benefit them in some way al., 2019). The crime script can also be
jewellery, and petrol.
The majority of burglars commit their (Cornish and Clarke, 2014). Indeed, recent modified in the event of a burglar having
offences due to an economic motivation to research suggests that the time and effort difficulty disposing of a particular good due
gain cash, often to fund drug use. Given taken by some offenders during the course to its reduced value or demand (reward)
this, it is reasonable to think that burglars of their offences increases as the perceived (Cornish, 1994). In this instance, the crime
are suitably attuned to stolen goods market reward increases (Addis et al., 2021). This script might be revised such that the good
dynamics, such as the changing prices is consistent with the rational choice notion is no longer stolen and/or different goods
and demand for different stolen goods. of offenders making decisions to maximise with greater reward to the offender are
Offender decision-making models such the reward of a crime (Cornish and Clarke, targeted. This fits with research showing
as the rational choice perspective and 2017). The rational choice perspective also that offenders have an ever-changing
offender domain-specific expertise reflect recognises that offenders gain expertise hierarchy of goods that they target (Sutton,
this sensitivity to stolen goods market with increasing experience (Cornish and 2010), and that ease of disposability is the
dynamics. There is recent evidence to Clarke, 2014). In practice, this ‘offender most common reason cited by offenders
demonstrate a close relationship between domain-specific expertise’ might mean for stealing particular goods (see Nelson et
product-specific prices and demand that experienced burglars more accurately al., 2003, Schneider, 2005, Stevenson et
with product-specific stealing counts. assess the reward for stealing specific al., 2001).
There is also indication that the reward of goods than non-offenders. A recent study
committing burglaries has been decreasing by Nee et al. (2019) using a virtual burglary Product-specific reward
scenario demonstrated that experienced
overall and that this is partially responsible and stealing counts over
for the property ‘crime drop’ experienced burglars expertly discriminated between
in Western market-based countries such more valuable and less valuable goods time
as Australia and New Zealand over the last to optimise the value of their haul while
With this background in mind, we recently
two decades. The present article provides taking into account removability and other
conducted a systematic review and series
a brief literature review on relevant offender considerations. In contrast, non-offenders
of meta-regressions to determine if there
interview research and offender decision- stole haphazardly and came away with
is a statistically significant and meaningful
making models, before discussing recent a less valuable haul (Nee et al., 2019).
relationship between longitudinal changes Counter to the large statistically significant Figure 1. (a) Number of PlayStation 2 Another interesting finding to emerge
developments in the research on product- The decision-making process of burglars
in product-specific prices and theft rates, as and positive coefficients of other consumer consoles sold globally (in millions) and from the Quinn and Clare (2021b) study
specific reward and stealing counts, as during target selection is also reflected in
well as identify differences in the magnitude goods, three of the consumer goods theft counts of PlayStation 2 consoles in was that cumulative sales units for all
well as research on the changing reward of ‘CRAVED’: a heuristic framework developed
of this relationship according to type of (televisions, DVD players, and gaming Western Australia between 2007 and 2019. consoles trended sharply downwards from
property crime offences more broadly. to demarcate attributes of goods that are
good and other variables (Quinn et al., in consoles) analysed exhibited non-significant (b) Number of PlayStation 3 consoles sold 2011 to 2015, before plateauing, with
most stolen by offenders (Clarke, 1999).
press). The systematic search process and/or negative price-theft relationships. globally (in millions) and theft counts of cumulative stealing counts of all consoles
The attributes of such ‘hot products’ are
Background returned 1,717 unique documents once This finding was discussed in the context PlayStation 3 consoles in Western Australia lagging behind this. This provides some
concealable, removable, available, valuable,
duplicates were removed, and 16 studies of partial product life cycles (Shaw et al., between 2007 and 2019. (c) Number of credence to the notion that changes in the
Offender interview research has consistently enjoyable, and disposable. Importantly,
were ultimately included in the review after 2015, Thompson, 2017, Wellsmith and PlayStation Portable consoles sold globally disposability of electronic consumer goods
demonstrated that the majority of burglars Clarke (1999) suggested that disposability
screening was completed. The majority Burrell, 2005), the reality that specific (in millions) and theft counts of PlayStation might impact theft-related property crime
steal goods to be converted into cash (or (converting the stolen goods into cash or
of the 16 studies included in the review makes and models of electronic consumer Portable consoles in Western Australia rates at a higher level. Another contribution
steal cash directly), often to fund drug use drugs) is the attribute most closely related
reported a quantitative analysis of the price- goods undergo their own lifecycles involving between 2007 and 2019. (d) Number of of the study was to propose an additional
(for examples, see Cromwell et al., 1991, to the amount a specific good is stolen
theft relationship for metals (n = 13), two stages of product introduction, growth, Xbox 360 consoles sold globally (in millions) reward-factor that might partially account
Ferrante and Clare, 2006, Stevenson et (Clarke, 1999).
reported an analysis for petrol, one reported maturity, and decline (Cao and Folan, and theft counts of Xbox 360 consoles in for the property crime drop: the decreasing
al., 2001). Given this economic motivation an analysis for jewellery, and four reported 2012). Western Australia between 2007 and 2019. availability of cash. Indeed, there was a
With respect to the notion that a burglar’s
to offend, it is reasonable to hypothesise an analysis for consumer goods. (e) Number of Nintendo Wii consoles sold statistically significant and large correlation
future behaviour is responsive to the
that burglars are attuned to the changing In a recent follow-up article, we presented globally (in millions) and theft counts of between decreasing Australia-wide cash
changing reward of a specific good, crime
reward of stealing specific goods, and The results of the review showed a a preliminary analysis of the relationship Nintendo Wii consoles in Western Australia usage estimates and decreasing stolen
scripts (Cornish, 1994) offer a useful
that their target selection behaviour is statistically significant and meaningful between one of these product-specific between 2007 and 2019. (f) Number of cash rates between 2007 and 2019 (Quinn
conceptual lens. A crime script is the step-
responsive to this changing reward. Both relationship between good-specific prices factors, demand, with product-specific Nintendo DS consoles sold globally (in and Clare, 2021b).
by-step breakdown of a specific offence
of these hypotheses imply that offenders and theft rates over time. Taking the more stealing counts in the context of partial millions) and theft counts of Nintendo DS
that becomes increasingly automated and
are operating with at least some degree of robust price-theft elasticity estimates, we product life cycles (specific makes and consoles in Western Australia between
efficient the more experienced the burglar
rationality. The rational choice perspective found that, on average, across all studies models) of gaming consoles (Quinn and 2007 and 2019.
becomes, in line with offender domain- Continued on next page
in criminology stipulates that offenders reporting price-theft elasticity estimates, Clare, 2021b). Specifically, a series of

Page 40 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 41
 The relationship between changing product-specific reward and stealing counts The relationship between changing product-specific reward and stealing counts
against the backdrop of decreasing reward of property crime overall against the backdrop of decreasing reward of property crime overall

Changing reward of Australia exhibited some of the same trends the market for stolen goods. A step further References NELSON, D., COLLINS, L. & GANT, F. 2003. The stolen

in specific property crime offences that the would be to enact government policy property market in the Australian Capital Territory.
property crime overall ABS 2020a. Crime Victimisation, Australia. Australian
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So far in this article we have largely dealt
hypothesis playing a major role in the out crime, much like policies to limit carbon ABS 2020b. Recorded Crime - Offenders. changes in offending between two NSW birth cohorts.
with product-specific reward factors that Canberra, ACT: Australian Institute of Criminology.
property crime drop, but not the improved pollution among major corporations exist.
provide useful information about which ADDIS, N., EVANS, A. & MALLESON, N. 2021. Burglars
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consistent with the changing reward market reduction approach (Sutton, 1998) trade. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 1-22. reward of electronic consumer goods on burglary and
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retailers, and consumers should be most CAO, H. & FOLAN, P. 2012. Product life cycle: The years prior to and during the crime drop. Crime Science,
burglaries in which offenders entered example, recent evidence suggests that
vigilant about protecting. However, to evolution of a paradigm and literature review from 1950- 10, 1-14.
a dwelling but did not steal anything making it harder to dispose of stolen metals 2009. Production Planning & Control, 23, 641-662.
reach our objective of reducing aggregate
increased in Australia and the UK over the in scrapyards, by virtue of increasing the QUINN, L. & CLARE, J. 2021b. Longitudinal variations
property crime rates (and avoiding target CARROLL, J. & WEAVER, F. 2014. Shoplifters'
years of the crime drop (the same data are regulatory oversight, significantly reduces in availability and disposability of specific makes and
displacement), the collective disposability of Perceptions of Crime Opportunities: A Process-Tracing models of hot products associated with variations in
not available for the US). In a forthcoming metal theft in the affected area (Kirchmaier
a potential haul of stolen goods has to be Study. In: CORNISH, D. B. & CLARKE, R. V. (eds.) The corresponding stealing counts. Current Issues in Criminal
manuscript (Clare et al., forthcoming), et al., 2020, Mares and Blackburn, 2017). reasoning criminal: Rational choice perspectives on
sufficiently lowered such that offenders see Justice, 33, 517-535.
we also present evidence from seven Finally, a greater understanding of the offending. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction
little utility in taking risks for a haul they are QUINN, L., CLARE, J., LINDLEY, J. & MORGAN, F.
iterations of the Drug Use Monitoring in influence of market forces and stolen Publishers.
unable to dispose of. Importantly, this may forthcoming. Explaining offenders’ longitudinal product-
Australia (DUMA) program survey showing goods market dynamics on theft rates of
result in novice offenders that fail to convert CLARE, J., QUINN, L., BROWN, R., MORGAN, A. specific target selection through changes in disposability,
that Australian property crime offenders specific goods will enable identification of & SULLIVAN, T. forthcoming. Offender insight into
stolen goods to cash or drugs desisting availability, and value: An open-source intelligence web-
appear to have shifted away from stealing the specific goods and time periods that Australian stolen goods markets from 2002-2017: The scraping approach. University of Western Australia.
from crime (Sutton, 1998), or discourage a
increasingly devalued electronic consumer warrant greater resource allocation for DUMA survey as a 16-year window into property crime
cohort of offenders from committing a crime QUINN, L., CLARE, J., LINDLEY, J. & MORGAN, F. in
goods for resale purposes, and toward protection, as well as focussing consumer offenders’ target selections and disposal. University of
in the first place (Payne et al., 2018). Western Australia. press. The relationship between variation in price and
stealing increasingly expensive food and vigilance on these goods and time theft rates of consumer and commodity goods over time:
clothing for personal consumption. windows. CLARKE, R. V. 1999. Hot products: understanding,
In another of our recent articles, we A systematic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology.
anticipating, and reducing demand for stolen goods.
propose that longitudinal variations in the ROSENFELD, R. 2014. Crime and inflation in cross-
reward of electronic consumer goods Conclusion Police Research Series, Paper 112, Policing and
Reducing Crime Unit. Research Development and national perspective. Crime and Justice, 43, 341-366.
provide a complementary account to the Statistics Directorate. Home Office.
SCHNEIDER, J. L. 2005. Stolen-goods markets:
role of improved security in explaining Recent evidence suggests that there is
CORNISH, D. B. 1994. The procedural analysis of Methods of disposal. The British Journal of Criminology,
burglary and theft offence rates in Western a close relationship between product-
offending and its relevance for situational prevention. 45, 129-140.
market-based countries in the years prior specific prices and demand with product-
Crime prevention studies, 3, 151-196.
specific stealing counts (Quinn and SHAW, O., MORGAN, N., MINEVA, I., HOARE, J. &
to and during the property crime drop
CORNISH, D. B. & CLARKE, R. V. 2014. The reasoning STEVENSON, R. 2015. Crime and the value of stolen
(Quinn and Clare, 2021a). We explain that Clare, 2021b, Quinn et al., in press), and
criminal: Rational choice perspectives on offending, New goods. London: Home Office.
the relationship between changing prices that the decreasing reward of domestic
Brunswick, New Jersey, Transaction Publishers.
of electronic consumer goods and burglary burglary overall has played a major role in STEVENSON, R. J., FORSYTHE, L. M. &

the property crime drop across Western CORNISH, D. B. & CLARKE, R. V. 2017. The rational WEATHERBURN, D. 2001. The stolen goods market
and theft offence rates makes sense in
choice perspective. In: WORTLEY, R. & TOWNSLEY, M. in New South Wales, Australia: An analysis of disposal
the context of steep increases in prices of market-based countries such as Australia
(eds.) Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis. avenues and tactics. British Journal of Criminology, 41,
consumer goods in the 1960s, with prices (Quinn and Clare, 2021a, Quinn et al.,
2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge. 101-118.
peaking in the early 1980s, at the same forthcoming). This is consistent with a
SUTTON, M. 1998. Handling stolen goods and theft: A
time property crime rates did (Rosenfeld, degree of rationality to the offender’s CROMWELL, P. F., OLSON, J. N. & AVARY, D. A. W.
1991. Breaking and entering: An ethnographic analysis of market reduction approach Research, Development and
2014). This was also the time period that decision-making process for these crimes,
burglary, Newbury Park, California, Sage. Statistics Directorate. London: Home Office.
saw the introduction of the first televisions, in terms of maximising the reward (Cornish
and Clarke, 2017). It is also consistent FERRANTE, A. & CLARE, J. 2006. "Known" burglars and SUTTON, M. 2010. Stolen goods markets. US
videocassette recorders, computers, and
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mobile phones to the market among other with offender interview research indicating the stolen goods market in Western Australia: Research
report. In: OFFICE OF CRIME PREVENTION, D. O. P. Policing Services.
high-value electronic consumer goods. that many burglars focus more on the
A. C., WESTERN AUSTRALIA (ed.). Western Australia:
Furthermore, prices of consumer goods prospective reward of crime, rather than THOMPSON, R. 2017. Portable electronics and trends
Office of Crime Prevention, Department of Premier and
the risks or effort involved (Carroll and in goods stolen from the person. Journal of Research in
have also broadly been decreasing since Cabinet.
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the early 1990s when property crime rates Weaver, 2014, Cromwell et al., 1991,
KIRCHMAIER, T., MACHIN, S., SANDI, M. & WITT, R.
have also decreased (Rosenfeld, 2014). Wright and Decker, 1996). Importantly, the WEATHERBURN, D. & RAHMAN, S. 2021. The Vanishing
2020. Prices, policing and policy: The dynamics of crime
Data from the United States (US) and research also suggests that property crime Criminal: Causes of Decline in Australia’s Crime Rate,
booms and busts. Journal of the European Economic
offenders, on aggregate, are attuned to Melbourne Univ. Publishing.
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strong relationships between the values for changing stolen goods market dynamics WELLSMITH, M. & BURRELL, A. 2005. The influence
MARES, D. M. & BLACKBURN, E. A. 2017. Reducing
electronic consumer goods and burglary (such as changing prices and demand), of purchase price and ownership levels on theft targets:
metal thefts through the use of local ordinances: An
rates prior to and during the crime drop consistent with offender domain expertise The example of domestic burglary. The British Journal of
evaluation of an impromptu market reduction approach in
Criminology, 45, 741-764.
(see Quinn and Clare, 2021a). (Nee et al., 2019). St. Louis, MO. Security Journal, 30, 487-503.
WRIGHT, R. T. & DECKER, S. H. 1996. Burglars on
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While similar data are not available for There are a number of applied implications the job: Streetlife and residential break-ins, Boston,
Z. & MEENAGHAN, A. 2019. Learning on the job:
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Studying expertise in residential burglars using virtual
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(ABS, 2020a, ABS, 2020b). Additionally, of goods to disrupt their disposability in

Page 42 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 43
 Whariki Haumaru: Partnering with Maori Wardens to Whariki Haumaru: Partnering with Maori Wardens to reduce Warrants to Arrest

Figure 1. The script used by Maori Wardens was informed by behavioural science and Te Ao Maori principles
reduce Warrants to Arrest

Author: Kaori Takenaka, Matthew Davies, Mahinarangi Hakaraia, Caitlin Spence ; and Lance Tebbutt

Abstract
Failing to appear at court (FTA) leads to a cascade of negative and experience disruption to employment.
consequences for individuals, their whanau and the criminal justice
system. The problem is particularly marked in the east coast of New Across New Zealand, the FTA rate increased from around 8% in 2014
Zealand’s North Island, where 13.7% of events in Napier District to 10% in 2020, although rates vary between courts. The problem is
Court and 11.9% of events in Hastings District Court resulted in particularly marked in the Eastern District, where 13.7% of events in
a Warrant to Arrest (WTA) (compared to around 10% across the Napier District Court and 11.9% of events in Hastings District Court
country). To address this, New Zealand Police’s Eastern District and resulted in a WTA (for events in cases disposed between 1 March
the Ministry of Justice worked with Ahuriri Maori Wardens to develop 2019 and 29 February 2020). Eastern District Police are estimated to
a new intervention named Whariki Haumaru. The wardens made spend between 1,600 and 2,500 hours a year dealing with WTAs .
phone calls to people with active WTAs, using a script that was
designed based on a combination of behavioural science and Te Ao The easiest way for defendants to clear their warrant is to make a
Maori principles. This article presents results from a five-month trial voluntary appearance at court. For most cases, this enables the
to evaluate the impact of the initiative. We find encouraging evidence court to set a new date and to remove the active warrant from the
that wardens were able to contact over a quarter of participants. defendant’s record. However, defendants may not make voluntary
Further, we find statistically significant evidence that those who were appearances for a range of reasons, including a lack of awareness
successfully contacted by the wardens were 29 percentage points that they have an outstanding warrant for their arrest and fear about
more likely to make a voluntary appearance compared to those who what might happen to them at court. To address this issue, Eastern
were not contacted. While further analyses and other research using District Police have been exploring innovative evidence-based
experimental designs will provide clearer evidence about the impact solutions.
of Whariki Haumaru, there is promising evidence that this Te Ao
Maori and behaviourally informed intervention can increase voluntary The intervention
appearances at court.
The Eastern District population has a higher proportion of Maori than
We strongly recommend that New Zealand Police roll out Whariki the overall national average (33% compared to 17% across New
Haumaru in different districts in Aotearoa, and that they use every Zealand), so New Zealand Police (New Zealand Police) were keen to
opportunity to explore the additional research questions referenced in design a solution that meets the needs of its community. The police
this discussion. Conducting further research will enable New Zealand developed a new intervention called Whariki Haumaru, working with
Police to make design improvements that bring even greater benefits Ahuriri Maori Wardens and the Behavioural Science Aotearoa (BSA)
to the justice system and, more importantly, its participants. team based in the Ministry of Justice.

Acknowledgments In this intervention, two Maori Wardens were based at a local police
station in the Eastern District for one day a week. They made phone-
The authors thank the following individuals for their significant calls to people with active WTAs that had been issued from within
contribution to the design and implementation of the intervention, and the Hawkes Bay area. Using a specially designed script, the wardens
without whom this work would not have been possible: encouraged defendants to go to court to clear their warrants. As part
of their usual role, the same wardens also attended Napier District
Damin Ormsby, Damion Davies, Philip Rowden , Roxann Gray, Josie Court two days a week, and supported people at court if they made a
Kewley; and Zita Smith voluntary appearance.

We would also like to thank Ron Garrick, Karen Pink and Robert The script (figure 1) was developed using a combination of
Whaitiri for their support and advice throughout the project. behavioural science and Te Ao Maori based principles and was
designed to enable the wardens to build rapport with the defendants
in a culturally appropriate way. The script is based around the
Background
principles of whanaungatanga, pono and manaakitanga, and includes
Failing to appear at court (FTA) leads to a cascade of negative elements of procedural justice and implementation intentions .
consequences for individuals, their whanau and the criminal justice
system. Every time someone fails to appear at court, there is a high
likelihood that a Warrant to Arrest (WTA) is issued for that person.
This leads to issues for the justice sector due to new court events
being created (costing the courts approximately $1.5 million per year)
and police time spent on processing, transportation and paperwork
relating to WTAs. There are also significant costs to defendants and
their whanau, as those with active WTA are more likely to be arrested,
experience stress and anxiety, risk a reduction of benefit payments

Page 44 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 45
 Whariki Haumaru: Partnering with Maori Wardens to reduce Warrants to Arrest Whariki Haumaru: Partnering with Maori Wardens to reduce Warrants to Arrest

Method To add context and richness to the quantitative findings, we also Figure 2. Graph showing the percentage of people who made The experience of the defendant in relation to the wardens
The purpose of the research was to determine: analysed the qualitative reflections and stories from the wardens and a voluntary appearance within 2 weeks of being called. This
local police officer using thematic analysis . difference is statistically significant (p<0.0001). THE WARDENS’ PHONE CALLS WERE RECEIVED POSITIVELY
1. The impact of the intervention on the proportion of defendants with BY MOST PEOPLE
active WTAs who voluntarily appear at court to clear their warrant Results When comparing the voluntary appearance rates by ethnicity, we
found that for Maori defendants, there was a 20 percentage-point In most cases, the defendant appeared to have either a neutral
Quantitative findings or positive experience when speaking with the wardens. Wardens
We expected that the intervention would increase the proportion increase in the rate of voluntary appearances within 2 weeks for
of defendants who make a voluntary appearance, and that Maori people successfully contacted (38%), compared to those who were reported that defendants were often “very happy with the phone call”.
Over the first 5 months of the trial, the wardens called 374 people, of
defendants would particularly benefit from the intervention. not contacted (18%). For non-Maori, this increase was higher (49 In a very small number of cases, the call was received less positively,
whom 76% were Maori, 17% were European, 4% were Pacific and
percentage-points; 68% compared to 19%). The difference between but the wardens were often able to turn the conversation around:
ethnicity was unknown for 2%. 37% of those called were female, and
2. The impact of intervention on the proportion of defendants with Maori and non-Maori defendants is statistically significant .
62% male. Gender was unknown for 1%. Twenty two percent were
active WTAs who are arrested under 25 years old. “He was not aware of a WTA, sounded a
bit angry asked why a Maori Warden was
We expected that those receiving the calls would be less likely to be Of the 374 people that were called, the wardens successfully
arrested as they were more likely to have cleared their warrants, and ringing him, I explained our kaupapa, then
contacted 27% of them (100 people). For around 40% of those who
that Maori defendants would particularly benefit from the intervention. were successfully contacted, contact was made after more than one told him what to do so he said he would do
attempt. a voluntary appearance at the Napier Courts
The intervention was trialled for five months, starting in March 2021.
Each week, the wardens were provided with a straight after work today.”
list of people with active WTAs, including their
PEOPLE FEEL SUPPORTED BY THE WARDENS’
name and phone number. Using the specially
MANAAKITANGA
designed script, the wardens first sought
consent before continuing with the call. For
The wardens’ accounts showed that they expressed manaakitanga in
all calls, wardens recorded which people they
various ways. This included reassuring people when scared, offering
called, how many attempts they made, whether
ideas for seeking support for drug addiction, explaining the process
they successfully spoke with the defendant,
and answering questions. They often appeared to go “above and
and whether consent was given to take part in
Figure 4. Graph showing the percentage of people who made a
beyond” when offering support (in one example they helped connect
research. If consent was given, details of the conversation (including Figure 1. Proportion of people who were called, contacted and
voluntary appearance within 2 weeks of being called, comparing
a defendant with a potential employer). The wardens reported that
intention to make a voluntary appearance) were recorded. If consent subsequently made a voluntary appearance at court
Maori defendants with non-Maori defendants. This difference is
people felt reassured, thankful and at ease after speaking with them.
was not given, the call was ended.
statistically significant.
It appears that contact was less likely to be made with people who
Every week, the wardens wrote qualitative reflections and were Maori (24% contacted) compared with people who were non-
“One of the clients that I was able to contact
stories based on the calls they made and subsequent voluntary Maori (35% contacted). This difference approaches significance .
Finding 2: Arrests last week made a voluntary appearance
appearances. A local police officer supporting the wardens also
contributed some qualitative accounts. To answer research question 2, we compared arrest rates between
yesterday at our Napier Courts. She was so
Finding 1: voluntary appearances
those who were and were not successfully contacted. afraid that she would get arrested. We awhi-
Voluntary appearances were recorded by court staff via the usual To answer research question 1, we compared voluntary appearance ed her, Zita took her to see a Duty Solicitor
court processes. Personal data was removed from the dataset and We found that 8% of people who were successfully contacted by
rates between those who were called but not successfully contacted
the wardens were arrested within two weeks of the call (8 people),
and when she came out she could not
then made available to BSA to be analysed for the purpose of this (n=274) and those who were called and successfully contacted
research. compared to 14% of people who were not successfully contacted thank us enough and commented that she
(n=100).
(38 people). While this difference is in the right direction, it is not appreciated for helping our people.”
Analysis statistically significant (p=0.1081), meaning we cannot rule out that it
We found that for people who were successfully contacted, 47%
occurred by chance.
(48 people) made a voluntary appearance within 2 weeks of being “My delivery to her made her feel worthy,
We used a non-experimental design where we compared outcomes contacted. This was 29 percentage points higher than people who
Of the eight people who were arrested within two weeks of being putting her mind at ease and hopefully
between those who were successfully contacted against those who were not contacted (18%; 50 people). This difference is strongly
were called but could not be reached. For each person, we found statistically significant (p<0.0001), meaning it is very unlikely to have
contacted, five did not make a voluntary appearance and three a positive outcome for her. A new court
people did make a voluntary appearance at court but do not appear
all WTA which were active at the time they were first called. We occurred by chance alone. appearance has been set. She was so
to have had their warrant cleared on the day.
then compared the outcomes of these warrants in the two weeks grateful to have the call and it gave her
after they were first called (if the person was not contacted) or first
contacted (if contact was made). Key outcome measures were
Sample sizes were not large enough to compare arrest rates between strength to turn up, without police arrest.”
Maori and non-Maori.
whether the person made a voluntary appearance (signified in the
data as “WTA withdrawn”) or was arrested (signified in the data as
“WTA executed”). Qualitative findings

With this quasi-experimental approach, it is possible that there are During the trial, the wardens and local police officer wrote accounts
some systematic differences between the group that was successfully of their phone calls and interactions with people at court. In total, 55
contacted and the group that could not be reached, which may also separate accounts were recorded between 25 March 2021 and 11
impact their likelihood of making a voluntary appearance. This could August 2021. The following key themes emerged through the process
potentially introduce bias into our results (see Limitations). Although of thematic analysis.
preferable, a randomised controlled trial (RCT) was not feasible for
this trial due to reasons of practicality and a small sample size. Continued on next page

Page 46 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 47
 Whariki Haumaru: Partnering with Maori Wardens to reduce Warrants to Arrest Whariki Haumaru: Partnering with Maori Wardens to reduce Warrants to Arrest

MAORI WARDENS ARE TRUSTED BY PEOPLE IN THE The intervention’s function Wider impact By dealing with the incident in this way, kept
COMMUNITY, SO THEY CAN INFLUENCE PEOPLE THAT SOME PEOPLE WERE ALREADY AWARE THAT THEY HAD A NEWS ABOUT THE WARDENS’ PHONE CALLS IS SPREADING
POLICE STRUGGLE TO REACH WARRANT TO ARREST, BUT THE PHONE CALL REMINDED WITHIN THE COMMUNITY
PST response in Napier at full strength and
THEM TO GO TO COURT AND FILLED GAPS IN THEIR didn’t apply any further pressure on staff. The
Several accounts showed that defendants and their whanau have UNDERSTANDING OF THE PROCESS There appears to have been a diffusion of benefits (also known as male avoided arrest, overnight stay in the
trust in the Maori Wardens. In some cases, defendants demonstrated a positive spillover effect) in Whariki Haumaru i.e. the effects of the
their trust by sharing personal details about their lives with the Many defendants were aware of their warrant to arrest, but the intervention are not limited to just those who were directly contacted.
cells, having to find travel back from Hastings
wardens: warden’s phone call explained that they had to go to court. Some and returned to his whanau. The male also
defendants were grateful for the explanation and reminder: The wardens and local police recorded two separate cases where works part time (late shift) at the hospital so
“I mentioned to her that there is still an a defendant made a voluntary appearance at court after speaking
would’ve missed his shift, potentially losing
outstanding WTA and it must be sorted, her “She was aware of a WTA but unsure what to whanau who had received a phone call from the wardens. Local
his job.
police staff note:
reply she is aware, she has admitted that to do, she was very thankful for the reminder
she has drug addiction and has decided to and said that she would go straight away to “It’s clear the benefits of Whariki Haumaru I called the male the following morning and
forego treatment, she simply don’t think her make a Voluntary Appearance at the Hastings are being spoken about in the community. he told me that he had some mental health
problem is bad enough to hit rock bottom.” Courthouse... and thanked me again.” It demonstrates that others not called by issues and couldn’t get a hold of his case
IN OTHER CASES, PEOPLE FOUND OUT ABOUT THEIR the Maori Wardens are hearing about this worker to provide transport to the courts.
In some cases, people responded more positively once they found
out that the caller was a warden: WARRANT TO ARREST THROUGH THE PHONE CALLS Kaupapa, therefore getting WTA resolved.” I decided to uplift him and take him to the
courts. […]
Around one in six defendants did not know there was an active This could suggest that many defendants in the community need
“On the first call he hung up on me. Second warrant for their arrest before speaking with the warden. In most of more information and communication about warrants to arrest – not
call he was totally different after I told him I On a staff perspective, the two Constables
these cases, they were aware of the charge but there was some just those that were included in this pilot.
was a Maori Warden and the reason for my confusion around the process. For example, one person said that were pleased and appreciative that an holistic
call. He was aware of a WTA, then went on a police officer had told her that she wouldn’t need to go to court if THE TRIAL HAS STARTED TO INFLUENCE WIDER POLICE approach was an option for them and spoke
to say that he was going to the Hastings
she paid her bill. Another said that their son (the defendant) had been CULTURE AND PRACTICE very highly to other staff about the pilot.”
to the police station recently and the police had not mentioned the
Police Station for another mater and then he warrant. Local police staff told a story that shows how the wardens’ phone
Discussion
calls have started to change how police think about resolving issues
will pop into the Courts to make a Voluntary on the frontline. In this case, frontline officers who had heard about Summary of findings
THE WARDENS’ PRESENCE AT COURT WAS VALUABLE TO
Appearance.” DEFENDANTS MAKING VOLUNTARY APPEARANCES Whariki Haumaru called the officer working with the wardens, hoping
to find an alternative to making an arrest. The officer then chose to This study has found encouraging evidence that phone calls from
A police officer’s account shows that the wardens were able to The wardens accounts sometimes focused on interactions they had help the man to get to court, likely due to his involvement in the trial Maori Wardens can increase the likelihood of defendants making
influence people who police have found difficult to reach: with people whilst carrying out their usual roles in court. Often, the and understanding the importance of going to court: a voluntary appearance to clear their warrant at court. Whilst this
wardens’ physical presence was important e.g. when they “awhi- positive finding applies to all defendant groups, the intervention
“One of the people contacted by Josie has ed her” or “held her hand”. It seems people responded positively to “I was contacted by frontline staff who were appears to be somewhat less effective for Maori defendants
compared to others. This is an important finding that requires further
an extensive criminal history with police seeing them in court:
dealing with a male who had an outstanding investigation. The study has also found that the intervention has
and in the past has evaded police at every warrant. The warrant was low level and promise to reduce arrests, but more research is needed to establish
“[She] approached Josie and I upstairs at
opportunity, which resulted in many police the male responded very well to attending whether there is a statistically significant impact. Qualitative analysis
the Napier courts, she was so excited to supports the quantitative results and indicates manaakitanga and
resources being utilised to apprehend him. officers. In addition, the PST [public safety
speak to us about making the volunteer trust as possible reasons for why the wardens could be having a
When contacted he advised Josie that he team] staff had a backlog of incidents positive impact. Finally, the qualitative accounts also indicate further
appearance”
would head into the Napier courts to sort to respond to and an arrest of the male potential for the intervention; for example it could help shift police
his warrant out. On checking this morning, WHANAU CAN HELP DEFENDANTS TO MAKE VOLUNTARY would’ve tied them up for a few hours, once
culture and spread positive perceptions of the justice system via
word-of-mouth in communities.
this person made a voluntary appearance APPEARANCES
they travelled to and from Hastings. The
yesterday arvo as per his agreement with In some cases, wardens spoke with whanau members (often officers were aware of Whariki Haumaru and Limitations
Josie. This is a great outcome and prevented mothers) who expressed concern for the defendant and offered called me for my advice before arresting
As aforementioned, an RCT would have been the most appropriate
a potential risk to the community. In addition, to support them to make a voluntary appearance. However not all
the male. I advised the officers to obtain his
whanau members have the best interests of defendants in mind – in method to robustly evaluate the impact of this intervention. However,
also demonstrates the trust and confidence one example, the defendant said that his ex-girlfriend didn’t pass on details and I will contact him, they did this, when planning the operationalisation of the trial it was important that
that our community have in the Maori the warrant that was issued for him. forwarded his details to me and were able to no further complications were introduced. It also became apparent
Wardens. Good story to share with all.” come free to attend more urgent matters. that active and accurate phone numbers would only be available for a
small proportion of people with active WTAs, and randomising would
reduce the number of people that we could contact.

Continued on next page

Page 48 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 49
 Whariki Haumaru: Partnering with Maori Wardens to reduce Warrants to Arrest
Bilateral Electronic Monitoring of High-Risk Family
This trial therefore used a non-experimental design where we Test whether the intervention could encourage court
Violence Perpetrators in an Australian jurisdiction
compared people that could be contacted by the Maori Wardens appearances before WTAs are issued
against people who couldn’t be reached. This means that the effect
we found cannot be directly attributed to the intervention, as there Most of the defendants in this trial had active WTAs because they Author: Romy Winter, Ebba Herrlander Birgerson, Ron Frey, Roberta Julian, Peter Lucas, Kimberley Norris, Mandy Matthewson.
are likely to be underlying factors which contribute to both a person’s missed a previous court appearance. Whariki Haumaru could be used Funding: This project was funded by the Department of Police, Fire and Emergency Management (Tasmania) under the Women’s Safety Package
likelihood of being able to be contacted and likelihood of making a to help avoid people avoid WTAs in the first place by encouraging
– Technology Trials program within the National Plan to Reduce Violence Against Women and their Children.
voluntary appearance. For example, people who could be contacted initial court attendance. We recommend testing this intervention at
Conflict of interest: No potential conflict of interest exists.
may have more stable employment and income, which could also an earlier stage in the defendant’s experience of the justice system,
Corresponding Author. Romy Winter romy.winter@utas.edu.au School of Social Sciences, College of Arts Law and Education, Private Bag 22,
make it easier for them to make a voluntary appearance. as this could have meaningful benefits for the person and the justice
system. Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia.
Another limitation with this research is that the 5-month period
Consider involving whanau members
Abstract Introduction There are more published evaluations on
included in the analysis yielded a relatively small sample size of UEM than BEM (Ibarra, 2005). Evaluation
people who were successfully contacted (n=100). This means it was studies have focused on EM’s value in
This study describes an evaluation of a Criminal justice systems around the world
not possible to compare between some sub-groups based on age, Our qualitative analysis has provided some evidence that whanau reducing recidivism; its cost effectiveness
two-year trial of bi-lateral (perpetrator and have been using electronic monitoring (EM)
gender or ethnicity with enough power to find statistically significant members can be instrumental in encouraging defendants to go to relative to imprisonment; and legal concerns
victim) electronic monitoring (EM) of high- as a means of surveillance for offenders
results. Future research using larger sample sizes will enable this court. This suggests that there could be potential to encourage associated with implementation in different
risk family violence (FV) perpetrators in an since first introduced in the USA in the
analysis. attendance via whanau members, particularly if the defendant cannot components of criminal justice (Renzema
Australian jurisdiction. This project was a 1980s (Erez, Ibarra & Lurie, 2004). EM
be contacted directly. The ethicality and legality of contacting whanau & Mayo-Wilson, 2005; Mainprize, 1992;
multiagency collaboration between Police usually serves as an alternative to a full-time
Finally, it should be noted that findings regarding ethnicity should be members should be explored by New Zealand Police. Gibbs & King, 2003; Gies et al, 2013) –
and the Department of Justice and involved custodial sanction, or as a requirement of
treated with caution as we relied on ethnicity data captured within rarely entailing field observations or intensive
the creation of a locally based monitoring parole, and allows for the monitoring of an
police systems. Police ethnicity data is often based on officer- Conclusion centre. Observations of key activities, such individual via an electronic ankle tag (Black interviewing which can obscure how EM
reported ethnicity rather than being self-reported by defendants works in specific contexts or how the
as fitting of devices, court proceedings, and & Smith, 2003; Hucklesby et al., 2016;
themselves. While police have a long history of partnering with local organisations context shapes implementation (Ibarra,
multiagency meetings, were conducted Padgett, Bales & Blomberg, 2006). EM
to support the community, this study adds value by focusing 2005).
throughout the project to assess progress. was first introduced in Australia as part of
Recommended next steps specifically on Maori Wardens and voluntary appearances, which has
Semi structured interviews (n=49) were promoting community-based sanctions, to
not been examined before. It also highlights the potential benefits Electronic monitoring of family violence
conducted with key stakeholders and a decrease prison overcrowding, decrease
Test Whariki Haumaru with a wider audience using of aligning procedural justice concepts with Te Ao Maori principles offenders
sample of victims and offenders. Key themes prison building costs, and increase the
experimental methods by establishing a partnership between police, central government
emerging from the analysis were chance of successful reintegration upon
and the Maori community. We hope this study encourages others to In circumstances of FV, EM is used for the
release (Bartels & Martinovic, 2017; Ibarra,
Given the promising findings from this study, we recommend testing consider this approach when designing interventions in the criminal additional purpose of victim protection,
1. Local monitoring is working well 2005).
the intervention in different districts across Aotearoa. This would justice system. as distinct from general public safety. EM
provide a larger sample size, allowing the intervention to be tested can also be used when existing options
2. Offenders were largely compliant The most common tracking systems in
using experimental methods e.g. a randomised control trial. This This study provides the first evidence that Maori Wardens can play for protection orders have been exhausted
EM are radio frequency (RF) and global
would allow additional research questions to be explored, such as: a role in encouraging defendants to clear their WTA by voluntarily 3. There was a reduction in both – as is the case when the offender has a
positioning system (GPS) using satellites. RF
appearing at court. We strongly recommend that New Zealand frequency and seriousness of offending history of violent offences (Erez et al., 2004,
is considerably cheaper than GPS, which
• How effective are phone calls from Maori Wardens Police roll out Whariki Haumaru in different districts in Aotearoa, and Nancarrow & Modini, 2018). In FV cases,
tends to be used for higher risk offenders
compared to others e.g. police officers or other community that they use every opportunity to explore the additional research 4. Victims reported feeling safer EM is beneficial as a pre-trial option as this
(Hucklesby et al, 2016). GPS technology
figures? questions referenced in this discussion. Conducting further research is a volatile period in domestic violence
enables the tracking of individuals either
will enable New Zealand Police to make design improvements 5. Both offenders and victims needed cases when offenders frequently engage in
in real time or retrospectively and provides
• Can we establish causation between the intervention and that bring even greater benefits to the justice system and, more short term support services in further abuse, intimidation, and manipulation
concrete evidence of breaching, enabling
voluntary appearances? Or is it simply that people who are importantly, its participants. conjunction with EM of the witness (Erez et al., 2012). Intimate
offender accountability. EM alleviates prison
contactable by phone have more trust in authorities (resulting relationships are a unique environment for
overcrowding without compromising public
in them picking up the phone), which also makes it more However, offenders expressed a preference providing opportunity for further violence and
safety and allows offenders to maintain
likely for them to go to court voluntarily? for custodial options and whilst short term abuse.
their lives in the community (Ibarra, 2005).
offending has been positive, a longer- However, EM is unable to completely prevent
• What impact does the intervention have on arrests? term study is required to monitor enduring The offender is well versed in the victim’s
individuals absconding or offending. EM
(This was explored in this study but a larger sample size is behaviour change. routines and personal and social networks.
programs are often described as unilateral
required). They know their place of employment, the
(UEM), which monitors the offender only, or
children’s school, phone numbers, as well
bilateral (BEM), which provides monitoring
Examine differences by demographics, particularly ethnicity as common travel routes. This knowledge
for specific victims.
provides the abuser with a plethora of
Whariki Haumaru was designed specifically with Maori defendants opportunities to harass, stalk, intimidate,
in mind. However, although we found the intervention had positive abuse, or assault the victim in violation of
impacts for all defendants, the effects were weaker for Maori protection orders. Advance warning of a
participants. The reasons for this are unknown, but possible reasons violation gives a victim better chance to
include greater challenges in making contact, and greater systemic escape or secure her location and enables
barriers to attending court e.g. income, employment, transport. faster police response.
Further research, both quantitative and qualitative, is strongly
recommended to examine this in more detail and inform the design of
the intervention so it is as effective as possible for Maori defendants.
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 Bilateral Electronic Monitoring of High-Risk Family Violence Perpetrators in an Australian jurisdiction Bilateral Electronic Monitoring of High-Risk Family Violence Perpetrators in an Australian jurisdiction

The success of family violence interventions signal strength can be weak, and victim Its objectives were to increase safety to A unique aspect of this evaluation was the was supplemented with snowball sampling Results
is generally measured by a decrease in remains reliant on prompt response from victims and their children subjected to FV; embedding of a research assistant in the with stakeholders nominating others who
subsequent physical and non-physical police for safety. Malone’s argument is that to increase perpetrator accountability; and project team for the duration of the trial. might be interested in participating in the A total of 76 perpetrators participated in the
abuse (Holt et al., 2002). However, research GPS should be available for offenders other to reduce the impacts of FV on victim and The research assistant conducted weekly research. program with 49 perpetrators completing
advises that the measure of success should than the seriously dangerous – e.g., used children. observations with the project team, and their EM order during the trial period
not solely be based on decreased violence, in conjunction with civil protection orders monthly observations with the monitoring (See Table 2) (November 2018 to June 2020). Perpetrator
as victims consider the coercive control together with a risk assessment tool in order Project Vigilance went live in November unit once established. These observations and victim devices
and emotional, financial, and psychological to make serious inroads to the domestic 2018 and finished 30 June 2020. The enabled the analysis of weekly operations, were active across all
abuse to be more harmful than physical violence problem. jurisdiction in which this research is based is interactions between project members, Police geographical
abuse (Westmarland, Kelly & Chalder-Mills, considered a regional area, with limited and and discussions regarding implementation districts (Southern,
2010). In 2016, Hucklesby and colleagues looked at inconsistent cellular coverage. In some parts processes. Northern, Western).
five jurisdictions in Europe (Belgium, England of the state the population is quite dense, Perpetrator
It is thus imperative to include victims’ and Wales, Germany, the Netherlands, and whereas in others, people are isolated. The members of the evaluation team also participants are
feelings of safety, sense of renewed control Scotland) in a comparative study of EM. The Selecting participants who did not reside consulted a range of stakeholders (n=40) assessed and fitted
over their own lives, and plans for the future, Belgian system uses GPS, England, Wales within the same suburb/township was crucial through semi-structured interviews, which by the FVUs and
as measures of success. Studies indicate and Scotland use RF, and the Netherlands for the selection process. As EM had not provided rich qualitative data (Berg & Lune, victim participants by the FVUs in northern
that offenders enrolled in BEM programs uses both. Belgium and the Netherlands previously been used in this jurisdiction, the 2017), about the implementation of the trial Offender and victim participants were and western district, and by FVCSS in the
are less likely to contact victims, and that also use EM as replacement for prison, introduction required amendments to the and operational strengths and weaknesses. also recruited by police, who explained south. All perpetrator participants were
participating victims felt an overall increased while Germany uses it post-release. All Family Violence Act (2004) to add electronic Semi-structured interviews were also the purpose of the research and obtained male. Two thirds of perpetrator participants
sense of safety during participation (Erez et jurisdictions reported considering broader monitoring to existing police powers. conducted with participating FV perpetrators consent. Consent was given by eleven resided in the south. The average age
al., 2004; Ibarra & Erez, 2005). use of GPS because of the greater flexibility and victims to document their experiences offenders and eleven victims. This, however, of perpetrators was 33 years, with ages
and freedom for individuals while being able Perpetrators are deemed eligible for EM by of EM, victims’ sense of safety, whether they did not translate into participation in ranging from 19 years to 56 years.
There are a number of published studies to monitor 24/7. Tasmania Police Family Violence Units (FVUs) viewed their participation in the program as interviews with the research team, with Participants in the north were older on
that informed our research. For example, across the state using selection criteria and successful or not, and any suggestions for participants not responding to attempts to average, while those in the western region
the comparison study of EM in the Midwest Common criticisms of GPS were short monitored by the Department of Justice’s improvements from a perpetrator and victim schedule a telephone interview or being tended to be younger on average.
of the US, which used RF EM that sounded battery life and weak or inconsistent signal Monitoring and Compliance Centre (MCU). perspective. absent at arranged interview times.
an alarm if offender approached within 500ft strength in some locations (Hucklesby et Once an FVO has been applied for by (See Table 3)
of the victim’s address (Erez et al., 2004). al., 2016). In the Anglo model (England, Tasmania Police, and the participant deemed Interviews were conducted between Telephone interviews can be
The researchers found that the system was Scotland &Wales) the private sector runs suitable by the FVUs, a magistrate can order February 2018 and November 2020, particularly useful when discussing
not sensitive to all encounters e.g., at court, all EM (procurement, installation, removal that an offender be fitted with an EM device and ranged from 13 to 58 minutes for sensitive topics as it provides
phone calls, chance meetings, contacts and monitoring by telephone or home visits, (EMD) for the duration of their order. Victims stakeholders, and eight to 20 minutes a level of anonymity that allows
by proxy, mail, florist delivery etc. There control rooms, reporting breaches etc) in the are ‘managed’ jointly by Family Violence for perpetrator and victim participants. participants to disclose emotional
were also technical issues such as false Euro model the private sector is responsible Counselling and Support Services (FVCSS) Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, experiences without the discomfort
alarms and power outages. Victims reported for procurement, software, and technical in the South and the FVUs in Northern and and analysed using thematic analysis (Braun of face-to-face interaction (Block
satisfaction with EM but expressed the need support only. This study reported that all Western districts. & Clarke, 2013). & Erskine, 2012). It also enabled
for a victim support group and a handbook jurisdictions were considering using BEM for involvement from participants in locations There have been 27 victims on the program,
that covered how the equipment worked, FV cases. Methods (See Table 1) further from the research team. all females. Victim participation was evenly
and the program rules that the offender must spread across the three police districts.
observe as sometimes they found it hard to Background The evaluation employed a mixed-methods Eleven victims completed their involvement
remember the details. approach, using both quantitative and with EM during the trial period.
EM was introduced in this jurisdiction as qualitative methods to address the overall
Victims were allocated either a pager, duress part of Australia’s Women’s Safety Package objectives of the trial. This included (See Table 4)
pendant or a mobile phone pre-programmed -Technology Trials. Called Project Vigilance, observations of key activities, such as fitting
with contacts for emergency services. The the initiative involved the trialling of up to of devices, court proceedings, multiagency
victim also had the option to carry a field 100 GPS devices to track and monitor steering committee meetings, as well as
monitoring device outside the home. Erez repeat, high-risk, family violence offenders. semi-structured interviews with stakeholders
and colleagues found that many offenders Victims, subject to eligibility criteria, could (n= 40), perpetrators (n=4) and victims
will conform to the orders because they nominate to participate in the trial. BEM is (n=5). Quantitative data, such as breaches,
know they are monitored electronically. in use elsewhere, for example in the UK offending, and victim data, was provided
during the bail stage (Gaskarth, 2016), and to the research team by the Safe Families
Malone (2012) looked at GPS monitoring in in NSW as a back-end custodial sanction for Co-ordination Unit (SFCU) in-house analyst.
Tennessee used as a condition of bail or after offenders with a history of FV being released Ethics approval was obtained from the The challenges
violating a protection order (with offenders into home detention following imprisonment. University of Tasmania Human Resources in recruiting
categorised as seriously dangerous). The This trial, however, specifically targets FV Ethics Committee (Social Sciences). perpetrator and
GPS is programmed with exclusion zones offenders and utilises EM as a front-end Stakeholder recruitment was facilitated by victim interviewees were expected and can
designated by the protection order and the option to accompany a court-issued Family the key stakeholder, who provided names be attributed to the ‘vulnerable’ status of
victim can also have an alert device. One Violence Order (FVO) and is therefore not an and contact details for potential interviewees. those subjected to sanctions resulting from
benefit of EM is that it creates a record that alternative sentencing option. Initial contact was made via email to set up arrested and subjected to abuse respectively
provides proof of violations. However, this a time and place for face-to-face interviews. and is further discussed in the limitations
was not found to be foolproof, in situations Purposively targeting persons with section.
such as rural areas or commercial buildings, specialised knowledge (Berg & Lune, 2017),
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 Bilateral Electronic Monitoring of High-Risk Family Violence Perpetrators in an Australian jurisdiction Bilateral Electronic Monitoring of High-Risk Family Violence Perpetrators in an Australian jurisdiction

Incident data It was argued that using EM as a bail This included building security, such as For example, EM facilitated the break There was recognition that victims may not ‘How does it practically work if it is
condition would limit the ability to control lighting and CCTV, rostering and resourcing between one victim and perpetrator, be willing to cooperate with police, due to imposed and bail is granted? Do they
An analysis of 39 perpetrators, fitted with the length of monitoring, as bail provision for shift work, as well as staff adjusting enabling the victim to recover from drug past experiences, and that more intensive remain in custody until…? What would
EM for at least 6 months and still on the trial, is dependent on the crime and the victim to shift work routines. Interviewees also misuse, relocate, regain custody of victim support services would provide the order would be: in custody until
comparing breach data across two periods: continuing with criminal justice proceedings. indicated that the implementation of the their child, and find employment. This better outcomes for victims. It was noted fitted – 30-60 minutes? … ‘How would
12 months prior to EM; and the ‘trial period’ Using EM as a sentencing option meant Monitoring and Compliance Unit (MCU) was is consistent with research arguing that that a proportion of victims were reluctant he know if he was entering an exclusion
(from fitting until 30 June 2020 or when EMD that the offender would not be monitored resource intense from a financial, human EM provides offenders with ‘time out’ to to return their devices when the offenders zone if he doesn’t know the address
was removed) indicated an overall reduction between the alleged crime and trial, which resources and management impact, which reflect (Hucklesby, 2008) and victims with EM was removed, as they had become (of victim)? He would be in breach
in violent incidents, particularly high-risk would carry a heightened risk for victims. had temporary flow-on effects for the an opportunity to regain control over their reliant on the additional security provided. of the order’ (Southern Magistrate,
incidents (76%). Most incidents while on the The decision to attach EM as a condition of organisation. lives and plan for future (Erez et al., 2004; As EM protects victim’s physical safety proceeding 6,)
EM program involved breaches only, such an FVO further allows for monitoring prior, Westmarland, Kelly & Chalder-Mills, 2010). and does not address the psychological
as failing to be contactable or charge the during, and after court proceedings. Blackspots in GPS coverage were flagged as or emotional abuse, nor cyber stalking or At times, prosecution or police officers asked
device. Violent incidents decreased by 81%; a potential challenge for the local geography, Interviewees identified the need for support being approached by third parties, additional for missing conditions, for example a case
assault by 75%; psychological abuse by Interviewees reported that the project due to being a regional area with relatively for both perpetrators and victims and support is crucial, particularly prior to the in May 2019 where police pointed out the
81%; property damage by 74%; emotional planning phase, which had included limited and inconsistent cellular coverage, raised some concerns regarding a lack expiration of an FVO. inclusion of the condition to be ‘fitted prior to
abuse was reduced by 87%; and a 100% consultations with subject matter experts; but stakeholders agree that coverage has thereof. Support and early intervention being released from custody’, the magistrate
decrease in stalking. Nine perpetrators market research both interstate and been good overall. Loss of EM signals can were recognised as imperative to change Court experience with EM apologising and asking where that condition
committed no FV incidents at all, and only 12 overseas; as well as inter- and intra-agency affect the functioning of GPS which can behaviour and interviewees argued that can be found (Northern Magistrate,
were involved in violent incidents. communication, provided valuable insights cause problems for offenders (Bales et al., EM would be best coupled with intensive The main themes emerging from the proceeding 5) and prosecution answering,
that ensured a smooth implementation 2010; Baumer et al., 2008) and may result in support for perpetrators and suggested analysis of court proceedings were that EM ‘it’s the first condition’. Prosecution can be
Analysis of post-trial offending was process. These consultations informed monitoring complacency due to false alerts a range of strategies, such as the is working both as a surveillance measure seen in several proceedings to ‘educate’
undertaken on 26 perpetrators. On average, decision making in relation to monitoring, (Gies et al., 2013). implementation of a halfway house for FV and reducing prison populations and both magistrates and defence as to how
their EMD had been removed for 330 days, response protocols, breach protocols, and perpetrators to receive support: counselling; that inconsistencies persist in the level of EM works, such as in December 2018
ranging from 185 to 734 days. A total of eligibility criteria. Blackspots were recognised as a major risk support for alcohol, drugs, and mental understanding of EM in the court context. In where the prosecution explains how the
32 FV reports had been received for twelve for non-compliant or high-risk perpetrators, health; short term accommodation; and the court environment, EM is frequently used device is charged. However, some more
participants (46%), compared to 81 reports In June 2017, the three main vendors however, lack of coverage was addressed food. as an argument by both prosecution and recent recordings from January 2021 find
in the previous 12 months. The most presented their products, and the devices and mitigated through risk assessment defence for increased surveillance. magistrates still unsure about some aspects
common type of incident was breach of an were worn and tested by members of the around perpetrator locations and those This is particularly important in this of EMD:
order. There were nine instances of assault project team to determine cellular coverage residing in areas with poor coverage are jurisdiction as – in practice – there is no ‘The good thing about the ankle device
post-trial; six instances of threats, coercion, and quality of GPS tracking. This process not deemed suitable for participation. dedicated emergency housing for FV is that it gives me comfort that he is ‘Now what are the normal conditions?’
intimidation, or verbal abuse; two instances enabled some of the challenges with the Interviewees report that monitoring is perpetrators. Research has long recognised not going to breach it. Of course, if he (Southern Magistrate, proceeding 13)
of stalking, and one instance of property use of EM in the geographical context to effective and monitoring staff are willing to that sanctions work best when coupled with takes it off it will be immediately alerted
damage. be identified and taken into consideration in assist, receptive to feedback, have a good adequate support services for perpetrators, to the police, but at least I know that While magistrates demonstrate
the development of response policies and understanding of what their role entails, take including rehabilitative support to change police are keeping an eye on him and understanding that EM can mitigate the
Stakeholder interview results protocols. pride in their work, and strive for continuous offending behaviour (Baldry et al., 2006; are able to keep an eye on him. It is concerns around the safety, wellbeing
improvement. Borzycki & Baldry, 2003; Cullen & Gendrau, good for his bail application’ (Southern and interests of an affected person, there
Successful implementation of EM programs Technology and monitoring 2000; Lowenkamp & Latessa, 2005; Magistrate, proceeding 6) remained some perceived inconsistencies in
require communication between agencies Monitoring staff are concerned for the Martinovic, 2010; Maruna & LeBel, 2003; the delivery of conditions and foundational
and planning with clear objectives, Stakeholders recognised the advantage safety of victims, and thus appreciate Przybylski, 2008; Willis, 2018). While this indicates a positive attitude, knowledge of how EMD works, which is
guidelines, and expectations. Goals that a local monitoring unit offered as it feedback from police regarding outcomes it is important to note that EM was not alleviated by prosecutors’ willingness to
and objectives, as well as roles and allows organisations to take responsibility from alerts. There is also a sense of pride For an enduring reduction in recidivism, intended to be used as a surety for bail in educate magistrates and defence barristers.
responsibilities, need to be well thought out for all aspects of the monitoring to ensure when monitoring operators stop perpetrator EM needs to be combined with treatment this jurisdiction, only an additional option As the number of perpetrators being
and communicated to guide the process accountability and oversight to meet behaviour. There is a solid collaborative and social support services. Marklund and if bail was already likely to be granted. subjected to EM is below 100 at the time
(Belur et al., 2020). community expectations. Prior research relationship between the MCU and the Holmberg (2009) found that the three-year It is possible that the intent was not of writing, it is likely that any inconsistency
suggest that it is preferable for governments project team, with regular communication recidivism rate was 26 percent for offenders widely understood by magistrates. This stems from lack of exposure to FVOs with
Feedback was sought from stakeholders to retain overall control over EM offender between agencies. Potential concerns subjected to RF monitoring in combination possibility is further evidenced by some EM conditions which can be remedied with
from several agencies with experience of management rather than engage private can be discussed and resolved quickly, with treatment and support, compared with of the inconsistencies around magistrate additional training for court members.
the EM trial, around the establishment and enterprise due to ethical, privacy, and quality and requests and information are provided 28 percent for the control group (stand-alone knowledge across districts and proceedings,
implementation of EM as well as day-to- control issues that are sensitive to dilution promptly. RF). This is further corroborated by Schaefer that it is taking some time to achieve
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day activities, such as fitting devices and and expansion in for-profit structures (Bartels (2019), who argues that rehabilitative, and universal understanding of how EM works.
communicating with perpetrators, victims, & Martinovic, 2017; Nancarrow & Modini, Overall, perpetrators have been compliant meaningful, support and supervision is Understandably, some magistrates had
and the monitoring provider. Stakeholders 2018). and look after their equipment. Interviews required alongside EM to alter offending limited knowledge/experience of EM early
agreed that using EM as a condition of an FV indicate that EM works well for perpetrators behaviour. in the trial, as evident in remarks made
order, as distinct from bail or a sentencing Initial monitoring, from November 2018 by creating accountability and an opportunity November 2018 to May 2019, where the
option, is advantageous in the context of to April 2019, was undertaken by the to change their behaviour, while providing Furthermore, interviewees acknowledged magistrate asks for clarification of the
FV, as it allows for continuous monitoring vendor in the United Kingdom until the victims with a breathing space, allowing the need for additional support for victims situation when EMD is imposed, and bail
from the time of the alleged crime until the establishment of the MCU in April 2019. The them to make clear decisions that are not and the benefits of involving FVCSS, who do granted:
end of the order, even if the victim retracts implementation of a local monitoring unit in forced, or pressured, by perpetrators. provide support to victims, more closely as
their complaint, and removes the capacity a jurisdiction without experience in EM and the FVUs are designed to prioritise high-risk
for offenders to intimidate victims to drop in an organisation that had not previously perpetrators, rather than victims.
charges. undertaken 24/7 operation was a learning
process.

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Offender experience The interviewees accepted the exclusion A number of men interviewed mentioned He’s very sneaky, so I have no doubt Discussing experience of past family violence Conclusion
zone on the whole but commented that the they would like more support to understand that once it’s off, he’ll go back to what has the potential to elicit powerful emotional
Our results suggest that some perpetrators lack of flexibility of movement impacted on their use of violence and skills to cease their he was doing before… That’s what I’m responses such as anger, sadness, shame The present study represents an evaluation
do not fully grasp the extent of the impact their life outside their relationship with the behaviour. Increased access to programs most nervous about, is when that thing or embarrassment, stigma, fear or anxiety. of BEM in Australia which included
of electronic monitoring. For example, at victim: is seen as a worthy value-add to electronic comes off, then I don’t know where he The tendency of males to feel shame in the establishment of a government-led
the beginning of the trial, the project team monitoring: is (V3). presence of other males in particular may monitoring service. Key findings included
would receive phone calls from participants It doesn’t restrict me. But my ex is have impacted on perpetrators’ willingness general enthusiasm toward the program
seeking clarification on various aspects of no longer in [name of suburb] but I I would need programs, help, and It appears that that’s [the previous to be interviewed by male researchers from project stakeholders, as well as
the program (such as further instructions on can’t go and see family there cos it’s support. You get depressed when behaviour has] slowly crept back in and (Gainey & Payne, 2000; Gibbs & King, 2003; increases in victims’ confidence and
how to charge the device) despite having excluded and I’ve told them but they’ve you’re on curfew for 12 months (P2) it happened quite quickly. So, quite Vanhaelemeesch et al., 2014). feelings of safety in their social activities and
received verbal and written information not amended it…. Said they would look quickly, just he’s hanging around on the community participation. Offenders were
during fitting of the EM device. into it but it hasn’t happened (P1) It was notable that the participants with fringes, or turning up when he knows A further barrier to participation is that the less satisfied with BEM, noting stigma and
family support e.g., a parent, seemed I’m at certain places, that sort of thing. request for interview may be interpreted as that electronic monitoring was more onerous
Fitting staff suggested a likely link to a I went inside the zone and nearly to cope better with EM, including I guess that’s the big change, is that a further means of surveillance. Participants than incarceration. However, offending
heightened emotional state, predominantly breached it. I was working, packing up encouragement to use the time to change sort of we’ve had to go back to that may feel that they are being scrutinised was significantly reduced during the EM
excitement, at the prospect of avoiding a house, and the police walked down their behaviour. Socially and geographically really keeping good records, watching and thus are not comfortable in discussing program. The evaluation found that while
incarceration. Some perpetrators did not the drive and “you’ve just breached”, isolated participants were more anxious and where we are, that sort of stuff again their experience to researchers. All these resource intensive, the introduction of EM for
comprehend the 24/7 nature of monitoring and I lost the job over it P(2) fractious during interview. (V2). barriers illustrate why informed consent is so high-risk family violence offenders showed
until they were intercepted by police or called important for the ethical conduct of research. evidence of success. Further investments
by the project team where conversations Three of the four interviewees stressed they Victim experience Limitations of the study The research team chose to use telephone were required for governance of EM within
about their whereabouts ensued. Poor would not opt for a monitoring device in the interviews because the technique provided the lead agency and also for support
understanding of the program was future: Overall, they found their device easy to This study was affected by the following participants with the opportunity to disclose mechanisms to facilitate behaviour change
addressed in mid-2019 by implementing use, although they had the same issues as limitations: small number of victims and experiences without the discomfort of the with offenders and offer victims ongoing
follow-up phone calls to ensure that No way (would he go on the program offenders regarding charging and retaining offenders agreeing to participate in the close proximity of another person; it also support. This project concentrated on short
participants understood instructions and to again), I’d sooner go to jail (P3) charge in that the further they were from study; lack of data from the Magistrates allowed involvement from trial participants term outcomes and so further quantitative
see if they had any questions. the mast, the more quickly it drained. They Court; and challenges due to the Covid-19 in areas distant from the research team. work with a larger sample of both male and
I wouldn’t do it again. I’ve actually lost all discussed their experience with the pandemic. However, it was clear that many potential female victims may strengthen conclusions
Apart from confusion about the program my job over it (P2) offender’s testing of boundaries. However, participants had not understood that the regarding effectiveness and extent of the
the other common theme was frustration they all saw how quickly police responded Challenges in recruiting perpetrator and interview would be via telephone. It is capacity of EM to improve the safety of adult
It’s not worth it. I’d rather go to jail. It and felt much more supported by police victim interviewees are not unique to unclear whether stronger emphasis on the
about keeping the device charged. They and child victims.
took me 3-4 months to get used to it, because the offender was being monitored: this project. Victims and perpetrators of mode of participation would have improved
were critical about erratic charging times and
now I’m completely over it (P1) family violence are considered ‘vulnerable uptake, but this warrants consideration for
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I’m constantly hounded cos it’s flat. alert, … because I’ve been watching sanctions resulting from arrest respectively It was expected that the evaluation would be review of the experiences of vulnerable people
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I’ve rung all these places but I can’t get commented on their decision to use EMD as
nuts. Once I get back into the coverage have it, I wouldn’t have known [that] he This could be due to participant investment Bales, W, Mann, K, Blomberg, T, Gaes, G, Barrick, K,
in. I thought I was starting one but he part of bail conditions was enlisted. Dhungana, K, & McManus, B 2010, ‘Quantitative and
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Page 56 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing Page 57
 Bilateral Electronic Monitoring of High-Risk Family Violence Perpetrators in an Australian jurisdiction

Borzycki, M, & Baldry, E 2003, ‘Promoting Integration: The vol. 34, pp. 161-180 has a keen interest in reintegration and factors
Provision of Prisoner Post-Release Services’, Trends & that impact the success of people returning
Malone, NF 2012, ‘GPS Monitoring of Domestic
Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, no. 262.
Violence Offenders in Tennessee: Generating Problems from prison, but also ‘what works’ in criminal
Cullen, FT, & Gendreau, P 2000, ‘Assessing Correctional Surreptitiously’, University of Memphis Law Review, no. justice and policing.
Rehabilitation: Policy, Practice, and prospects’, Criminal 43, pp. 171.
Justice, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 299-370. Ron Frey (PhD) is a developmental
Marklund, F, & Holmberg, S 2009, ‘Effects of early release
Dutton, M, Holtzworth-Munroe, A, Jouriles, E, McDonald, from prison using electronic tagging in Sweden’, Journal of psychologist who lectured on developmental
R, Krishnan, S, McFarlane, J, & Sullivan, C 2003, Experimental Criminology, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 41-61. psychology, trauma, human sexuality, and
‘Recruitment and Retention in Intimate Partner Violence the psychology of gender for 30 years in the
Martinovic, M 2010, ‘Increasing Compliance on Home
Research’, Rockville, MD US: Department of Justice. School of Psychology and Counselling at the
Detention Based Sanctions through Utilisation of an
Erez, E, Ibarra, PR, Bales, WD, & Gur, OM 2012, ‘GPS Intensive Intervention Support Program’, Current Issues in Queensland University). Since re-locating to
Monitoring Technologies and Domestic Violence: An Criminal Justice, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 413-435. Tasmania in 2017, he has written a training
Evaluation Study’, Research report submitted to the U.S. manual for men who use violence on the
Maruna, S, & LeBel, TP 2003, ‘Welcome Home?
Department of Justice. impact of DFV on children as part of a project
Examining the ”Re-entry Court” Concept from a Strengths-
Erez, E, Ibarra, PR, & Lurie, NA 2004, ‘Electronic based Perspective’, Western Criminology Review, vol. 4, with TILES and the Salvation Army (Start Today
Monitoring of Domestic Violence Cases-A Study of Two no. 2, pp. 91-107. Again, 2018), and co-authored with Dr. Romy
Bilateral Programs’, Federal Probation, vol. 68, no. 1, pp. Winter, a workshop on Working with Men
Nancarrow, H, & Modini, T 2018, ‘Electronic Monitoring in
15-20. Who Use Violence for the DV-Alert series of
the Context of Domestic and Family Violence’, Research
Fitzalan Howard, F 2020, ‘The Experience of Electronic Report, ANROWS. workshops under the National Plan to Reduce
Monitoring and the Implications for Effective Use’, The Violence Against Women and Children.
Przybylski, R 2008, ‘What Works: Effective Recidivism
Howard Journal of Crime and Justice, vol. 59, no. 1, pp.
Reduction and Risk-Focused Prevention Programs’,
17-43. Roberta Julian (PhD) is an Adjunct Professor
Colorado Division of Criminal Justice.
Gaskarth, G 2016, Why we should electronically monitor of Sociology, and Foundation Director of
Renzema, M, & Mayo-Wilson, E 2005, ‘Can electronic
alleged perpetrators of domestic abuse. Policy Exchange, the Tasmanian Institute of Law Enforcement
monitoring reduce crime for moderate to high-risk
Retrieved from https://policyexchange.org.uk/why-we- Studies, at the University of Tasmania. She
offenders?’ Journal of Experimental Criminology, vol. 1, no.
shouldelectronically-monitor-alleged-perpetrators-of-
2, pp. 215-237. has a particular interest in forensic science and
domestic-abuse/
was the lead Chief Investigator in a recently
Schaefer, L 2019, ‘Electronic monitoring bracelets are
Gibbs, A, & King, D 2003, ‘The Electronic Ball and Chain? completed ARC Linkage Project ($970,000)
only crime deterrence tools, they can’t ‘fix’ offenders’,
The Operation and Impact of Home Detention with with Victoria Police, the Australian Federal
The Conversation, 5 June, Retrieved from http://
Electronic Monitoring in New Zealand’, The Australian and
theconversation.com/electronic-monitoring-bracelets-are- Police and the National Institute of Forensic
New Zealand Journal of Criminology, vol. 36, no. 1, pp.
only-crime-deterrencetools-they-cant-fix-offenders-118335 Science that examined the effectiveness of
1-17.
forensic science in the criminal justice system.
Vanhaelemeesch, D, Vander Beken, T, & Vandevelde, S
Gies, SV, Gainey, R, Cohen, MI, Healy, E, Yeide, M,
2014, ‘Punishment at home: offenders’ experiences with
Bekelman, A, & Bobnis, A 2013, ‘Monitoring high-risk
electronic monitoring’, European Journal of Criminology, Kimberley Norris (PhD) is a Professor of
gang offenders with GPS technology: An evaluation of
vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 273-287. Psychology at the University of Tasmania
the California supervision program final report’, National
(UTAS) and lead researcher in the Risk and
Institute of Justice, NW Washington, DC. Westmarland, N, Kelly, L, & Chalder-Mills, J 2010,
‘Domestic violence perpetrator programmes: What
Resilience Research Lab at UTAS. She
Holt, VL, Kernic, MA, Lumley, T, Wolf, ME, & Rivara, FP
counts as success?’ Research Report, University of has been the lead or co-lead of several
2002, ‘Civil protection orders and risk of subsequent
Southampton. research projects of national and international
police-reported violence’, JAMA, vol. 288, no. 5, pp.589-
594.
significance around family relationships and
Willis, M 2018, ‘Supported Housing for Prisoners
Returning to the Community: a review of the literature’, family violence.
Hucklesby, A 2008, ‘Vehicles of desistance? The impact
Research Reports No. 7, Canberra: Australian Institute of
of electronically monitored curfew orders’, Criminology &
Criminology. ISSN 2206-7280. Peter Lucas (PhD) is a Senior Lecturer in
Criminal Justice, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 51–71
Paramedicine at the University of Tasmania.
Hucklesby, A, Beyens, K, Boone, M, Dunkel, F, McIvor, G, Prior to joining the Division of Paramedicine,
& Graham, H 2016, ‘Creativity and Effectiveness in the use
of electronic monitoring: a case study of five jurisdictions’,
Author biographies Peter worked as a Research Fellow on the
Family Violence Men’s Education Project which
Research Report, University of Leeds.
Rosmarie (Romy) Winter (PhD) is the involved a comprehensive review of best
Ibarra, PR 2005, ‘Red flags and trigger control: The role of practice programs and resources currently
Research Stream Leader for the Violence and
human supervision in an electronic monitoring program’,
Abuse Research Unit (VARU) with TILES and being used to help increase men’s awareness
In Ethnographies of Law and Social Control (pp. 31-48):
a lecturer in Police Studies and Emergency of the harms that exposure to family violence
Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Management at the University. Romy teaches can have on children.
Ibarra, PR, & Erez, E 2005, ’Victim-Centric Diversion?
several units in the Police Studies program
The Electronic Monitoring of Domestic Violence Cases’,
developed specially for frontline police officers Mandy Matthewson (PhD) is a Senior Lecturer
Behavioural Sciences and the Law, vol. 23, no. 2, pp.
– in areas such as risk management/risk in Psychology at the University of Tasmania. Dr
259-276.
assessment; family violence; victimology and Matthewson is the lead researcher in the Family
Lowenkamp, CT, & Latessa, EJ 2005, ‘Developing and Interpersonal Relationship Research Lab
applied policy. Her research interests centre on
Successful Re-entry Programs: Lessons Learned from the
interpersonal violence. at UTAS. She has been the lead or co-lead
“What Works” Research’, Corrections Today, vol. 67, no.
of several research projects of national and
2, 72-77.
Ebba Herrlander Birgerson (MA) is a international significance in the area of family
Mainprize, S 1992, ‘Electronic monitoring in corrections: relationships and family violence
researcher with the Tasmanian Institute of Law
Assessing cost effectiveness and the potential for widening
Enforcement Studies (TILES) in the School of
the net of social control’, Canadian Journal of Criminology,
Social Sciences, University of Tasmania. She

Page 58 Australia & New Zealand Society of Evidence Based Policing

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