Deep/Surface Approaches To

Learning: An Introduction
James Rhem, Executive Editor
many students did not get the point

I n the United States, the phrase

“learning styles” commonly
accompanies discussions of personal-
of what they were reading “simply
because they were not looking for
it.”
ity differences. These discussions What were they looking for? They
almost always create a kind of short- were looking for the facts they
term, local excitement, but they thought they would be tested on.
tend to exaggerate the correlations They were not looking for the
between individual personality types meaning of the text. In a sense, for
and cognitive engagement. As them, at least as they perceived the
Wilbert McKeachie pointed out in situation, the meaning of the text
the last issue of The National Teaching stood in direction relation to the
and Learning Forum, the best vali- way they expected to be assessed.
dated conceptions of learning styles They were taking what has become
stem instead from research begun in known as a “surface approach”
Sweden in the mid-1970s by Ference rather than a “deep approach” to
Marton and Roger Säljö. learning.
In the last twenty years, this line Alarmingly, studies in Australia
of inquir y (in which the idea of suggest that students progressively
“styles” emerges as secondary to a drop a deep approach to learning as
larger preoccupation with “ap- they move through high school and
proaches” to learning) has been college. It appears that in many
pursued by many researchers ways, traditional teaching pushes
working in a variety of countries. students toward superficial levels of
The research has looked at thou- engagement with material, even as it
sands of students studying in over 40 hopes to do the opposite. Why? To
disciplines. Repeatedly, it has found find out these researcher put
fundamental patterns in studying students and a qualitative look at
and learning behavior as it actually what they thought they were doing
occurs within the contexts of in studying at the center of their
university education. work. They avoided questions such
Probably the most influential as “Do introverts learn mathematics
finding of the original experiments, more easily than extraverts?” or
the researchers say, was what they “Why are some teachers more
describe as an “obvious aspect of effective than others?” Instead of
learning virtually ignored by earlier asking “how” and “why” questions,
research.” And that was the fact that they’ve concentrated on “what”

Volume 5 Number 1 1995

 questions: “What does it take to be Indeed, the ver y way in which these THE NATIONAL TEACHING
good at learning from a text; to researchers, in dialogue with one & LEARNING FORUM
learn arithmetic; or to be an effec- another, moved toward the term Executive Editor:
tive teacher?” “approach” and away the term James Rhem, Ph.D.
The shift toward a fuller under- “process” indicates how inseparable 213 Potter St.
standing of learning phenomena in an awareness of context is to their Madison, WI 53715-2050
context involves an inquiry into the insights into how students learn. Editorial Advisory Board
meaning of the underlying human “Approach,” they feel, embraces a Jonathan Fife, Director
actions involved. Instead of project- sense of the student’s intention in ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education
ing laborator y ideas about learning taking up a learning task as well as
onto real-world settings, and rather how he goes about the task (process- Judy Greene, Director
than assume that “output” or ing it). Center for Teaching Effectiveness
University of Delaware
achievement equalled intelligence, Intention emerges as perhaps the
they’ve approached students, dominant idea in the pair (if one Pat Hutchings
Director, The Teaching Initiative
observed their actions and listened must dominate), because the hows
American Association of Higher Education
ver y carefully as they described of learning necessarily var y. And this
Susan Kahn, Director
how they actually went about is where the deep/surface approach
Undergraduate Teaching Improvement Council
studying in particular situations. In literature takes up the idea of University of Wisconsin System
the end, they have focused on learning styles, not in terms of fixed
Wilbert McKeachie
meta-cognition as the heart of traits or unyielding attributes of Professor of Psychology Emeritis
individual students, but in terms of University of Michigan
cognitive (and social) orientations Edward Neal
within deep or surface approaches Director, Center for Teaching and Learning
Many students did to learning. It’s true that the hows University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill
do var y in response to personal
not get the point of preference, habit, and personality as
Susan Nummedal
Department of Psychology
California State University
what they were we are accustomed to thinking in
the United States. But they vary Long Beach
reading “simply more in response to a student’s Laura Rendón
perception of particular contexts Senior Research Associate
because they were and the intention she forms as a National Center for Postsecondary Teaching,
result. Learning, and Assessment
not looking for it.” Students build toward under- Arizona State University
standing in one of two general ways. Phyllis Steckler, President
The Oryx Press
Some draw a quick mental sketch of
learning and view it as a phenom- the material to be grasped, using Editorial correspondence:
enon more influenced by the analogies, metaphors, and ties to James Rhem
213 Potter St.
demands of particular learning personal experience, and then fill in Madison, WI 53715-2050
environments than by predisposi- and alter that framework as they
Subscription information:
tions of personality. acquire more and more detailed
The Oryx Press
The research does not boil down information. Others build up a 4041 North Central #700
into an easy or mechanistic answer framework piece by piece only as Phoenix, Arizona 85012
to the challenges of good college they acquire knowledge of the Phone: 1-800-279-6799
teaching precisely because it shows details. The first approach roughly The National Teaching & Learning Forum
ver y clearly how learning and describes what the researchers call is published six times during the academic year
teaching must be considered in comprehension learning; the second by The Oryx Press in conjunction with James
describes operations learning. Both Rhem & Associates, Inc. - October, December,
relation both to the content and the
February, March, May, September.
context of the teaching. But repeat- are necessary — on both global and One-year individual subscription: $39.
edly, Ference Marton (Sweden), local levels — to develop real
Second class postage paid at Phoenix, AZ.
Noel Entwistle (Scotland), Paul understanding.
Ramsden (Australia) and a host of Social orientations also affect Postmaster: Send change of address to:
colleagues have found the same student learning. Research at the The National Teaching & Learning Forum
patterns emerging, patterns which Oxford Polytechnic and the Open 4041 North Central #700
have strong implications for making University found four general social Phoenix. Arizona 85012
teaching in college effective. orientations: academic, vocational, Copyright © 1996, James Rhem &
For example, the same student personal, and social. Each of these Associates, Inc. (ISSN 1057-2880)
may take a deep approach in a also differed in response to the
DUPLICATION BY PHOTOCOPYING OR
humanities class, where it seems to amount of extrinsic or intrinsic OTHER MEANS IS STRICTLY FORBIDDEN.
be demanded, and a surface ap- motivation students felt.
When faculty see vocabulary Bulk discount subscription rates available.
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grabbing the facts and formulae multiplying this way, they often feel December
seem to equal academic success. an inner resistance, as though they

2 THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM Vol. 5, No. 1 1995

 were being asked to become part of
Editor’s Note: a new religion. I know because I feel
A doppelganger hangs over this issue, the teacher’s that way myself. But having pushed
teacher. I see it everywhere asking: “What are you about?” through and read a great deal of this
Troubling, confusing as it may be at times, it is the question that research now, I’ve come away with a
sense that some fundamental
compresses the spring, gives animation to work, makes us want to dynamics of the learning-teaching
know. Toward the end of my interview with software author Neil dance are being laid bare. The
Larson (profiled in this issue) he was speaking with great simple dualism — “deep/surface” —
enthusiasm about how he felt Aristotle’s emphasis on classification which sounds superficial, even
led to more knowledge and insight than Socrates’ emphasis on judgmental at first, ends up repre-
senting a highly complex and
questions. Classifying forces one to confront the edges, he said, empathic view of real-world learn-
and at the edges insights spring up. I thought, ‘Yes, . . but what ing. As these researches have kept
makes one want to classify in the first place.” We agreed it’s the on listening systematically and
question. closely to what students have to say,
We need both, of course — the impulse and the method, the their work is transforming what
might be described as folklore and
hunch and the proof. The stories in this issue all show teachers prejudice about how student are and
asking what they’re about. They show something more as well; they how they learn into principles of
show them listening with care for the answers. “Listening,” “care” understanding. And as understanding
create a sacred space between the question and the answer. Their grows, so, often, does vocabulary.
held breath contains the guardian impulse that says “Wait.” For me this vocabulary has not
been without humor and the
Together they make room for reflection before method springs up, insights humor brings. For example,
so eager to answer. It’s the quality I see it in the research into deep/ one early researcher talks of “holist”
surface approaches to learning. Listen to Ference Marton and “atomist” approaches rather
answering one of my queries: than “deep” and “surface.” Con-
“In our recent micro analyses of the learning process we fronting the problems of students’
indulging in either extreme, he
have discovered that there is a brief initial phase of learning, a kind begins to speak of “globetrotting
of general understanding of the whole of that which is to be learned. holists” and “improvident serialists.”
This experienced whole is necessarily very vague and The temptation to type and stereo-
undifferentiated to begin with. As you go on, the different parts type is so strong, it crops up even in
derive their meaning from the sense of the whole. At the same time, resolutely systemic and contextual
thinkers. But the point is clear: Facts
the parts contribute, determining the whole in more and more are dust unless they lead to under-
differentiated, integrated and precise ways. The whole and the standing; but theories are fantasy
parts thus mutually consittute each other in the process of learning. unless they remain awake to the
But the whole is slightly, very slightly, preceding the parts. The facts. The implications for faculty
reason is, of course, that you can not learn anything without having are also clear: teach toward under-
standing, not grades. How to
an idea of what you are learning about.” translate that trusim into action is
The sense of the poetry in learning runs right through David the subject of the accompanying
Brakke’s case study and the responses from Bruce Perry and sidebar. (page 4.)
Wendy Luttrell. It’s the force that makes Richard Burnor dream of
giving students a tool to help them think, and made Horace
Rockwood broker a marriage between contending views of
knowledge. Learning and teaching require many things, but none
more than this faithful pause.
— James Rhem

Vol. 5, No. 1 1995 THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM 3

 perceive them. The key thing to Interaction with others: As Noel
understand about approaches is that Entwistle put it in a recent e-mail
they arise from the student’s message, “The teacher is not the
perception of the teacher’s require- only source of instruction or
Going Deep ments.” inspiration.” Peers working as
Faculty are instrumental in groups enjoin dimensions of
W hat are the characteristics of
courses that incline students
toward a surface approach? Here’s a
forming those perceptions, he says,
because research indicates that
learning lectures and readings by
themselves cannot touch.
different forms of teaching are A well-structured knowledge base:
list: perceived differently by students, This doesn’t just mean presenting
An excessive amount of material and thus tend to elicit different new material in an organized way. It
in the curriculum approaches. also means engaging and reshaping
Relatively high class contact hours The list of features associated with the concepts students bring with
An excessive amount of course surface approaches given above them when they register. Deep
material implies alternative strategies. approaches, learning for under-
A lack of opportunity to pursue Specific implementations prove as standing, are integrative processes.
subjects in depth various as contexts and learners. The more fully new concepts can be
A lack of choice over subjects and Four key classifications, however, connected with students’ prior
a lack of choice over the experience and existing
method of study knowledge, the more
A threatening and likely it is they will be
anxiety provoking impatient with inert facts
assessment system and eager to achieve their
In e-mail dialogue this own syntheses.
fall, Marton, Entwistle, In many ways — as
and Ramsden all empha- Ference Marton suggests
size the primary impor- — this tide of research
tance of an assessment ends up affirming the
system that truly reflects primary importance of
the level of understand- helping students learn
ing faculty want students how to learn, how to
to achieve. If students study, how to know
feel called upon to themselves as learners.
reproduce information Study skills courses,
rather than make sense however, do not do that;
of it, they will see cultivating this awareness
teaching and learning as must become part of
“closed” processes with coursework itself.
short-range aims and Students after all do not
outcomes. learn in the abstract,
But while it is possible they learn something.
to structure “learning Their approach — deep
environments” (a phrase or surface — doesn’t
meant to emphasize the offer a check list of general features represent intelligence or character
interaction of departmental and to consider in developing strategies (or personality). It represents a
campus climate as well as curricu- and cultivating environments which relationship between the student and
lum, course design and so on) that help deep approaches thrive. what he or she is trying to grasp.
encourage a deep approach, it can Motivational context: We learn On the encouraging side,
be tricky. In some experiments best what we feel we need to know. Marton and Noel Entwistle join
designed to foster deep engage- Intrinsic motivation remains inextri- Ramsden in speaking of the
ment, students merely “technified” cably bound to some level of choice importance of group work and
the probing questions and adapted and control. Courses that remove problem-solving as means to
themselves to a new way of parroting these take away the sense of owner- fostering a deep approach. In the
the “right” answer. ship and kill one of the strongest United States, these elements of
Ramsden — writing from Austra- elements in lasting learning. refor m have begun to have
lia — emphasizes the delicate Learner Activity: Deep learning influence under various banners
balance needed: “It isn’t so much and “doing” travel together. Doing — “active lear ning,” “cooperative
the specific teaching and assessment in itself isn’t enough. Faculty must lear ning,” “problem-based
methods you use that make the connect activity to the abstract instr uction” — though, as yet,
difference to the quality of student conceptions that make sense of it, they seldom appear as part of a
learning, but the reasons why you but passive mental postures lead to systemic and integrated
use them and the way your students superficial learning. approach on most campuses.

4 THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM Vol. 5, No. 1 1995

 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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E ntwistle and Ramsden both say
it’s time for second editions or
new books to report on the ways
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their understanding has grown in the 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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last several years. Chapters in 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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collected volumes and journal 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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articles — including a chapter in 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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“Disciplinary Differences in Teaching 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
and Learning,” a forthcoming New 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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Directions paperback from Jossey- 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
Bass — report on some recent 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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findings. But what’s “old” is news to 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
those who haven’t heard it. The 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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following offer provocative 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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introductions to this very different 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
way of looking at student learning. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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• The Experience of Learning , eds. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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Ference Marton, Dai Hounsell, Noel 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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Entwistle (Scottish Academic Press, 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
1984). The book, with a forward by 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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Wilbert McKeachie, is a model of 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
what multi-authored books could be. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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Each chapter builds on an 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
awareness of the preceding 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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chapters and tailors its contribution 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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to the construction of a larger 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
understanding of where the inquiry 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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is headed, rather than blindly 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
focusing on the findings of some 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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specific research. Thus, the book 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
demonstrates in its methodology 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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how its authors believe deep 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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learning happens. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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• Noel Entwistle, Styles of Learning 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
and Teaching: An Integrated Outline 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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of Educational Psychology for 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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Students, Teachers, and Lecturers . 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
(John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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1981). While more a textbook than a 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
narrative, Entwistle’s outline really 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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does speak to each of his named 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
audiences. The hard data appear in 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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tables and footnotes, but so do 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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engrossing excerpts from forgotten 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
classics on learning and telling 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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narratives from student interviews. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
The book also contains a short self 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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inventory to test one’s approach to 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
studying, and it is broken up with 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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“Stop and Think” questions that 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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invite engagement with the meaning 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
of the text. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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• Paul Ramsden, Learning to Teach 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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in Higher Education. (Routledge, 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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New York, 1992). Ramsden lays out 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
material clearly and is not afraid to 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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speak bluntly when needed. He 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
seems readier than most to offer 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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specific advice on how to go about 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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shifting the orientation of college 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
teaching toward actual learning. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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I had difficulty locating this book, 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
and Ramsden ended up e-mailing 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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me chapters. It is available via 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
Routledge’s online ordering service at 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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http://www.thompson.com/ 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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routledge.htm 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
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Vol. 5, No. 1 1995 THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM 5