Homework & Tutorial 5

MATS2202, Second Semester 2022 (Due on Wednesday 27 April)

Turn in solutions for at least 10 problems.

From Friedberg.etal pp 74-79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Label the following statements as true or false. In each part, V and W are finite-dimensional vector
spaces (over F ), and T is a function from V to W .

(a) If T is linear, then T preserves sums and scalar products.

(b) If T (x + y) = T (x) + T (y), then T is linear.
(c) T is one-to-one if and only if the only vector x such that T (x) = 0 is x = 0.
(d) If T is linear, then T (0V ) = 0W .
(e) If T is linear, then nullity(T ) + rank(T ) = dim(W ).
(f) If T is linear, then T carries linearly independent subsets of V onto linearly independent subsets
of W .
(g) If T, U : V → W are both linear and agree on a basis for V , then T = U .
(h) Given x1 , x2 ∈ V and y1 , y2 ∈ W , there exists a linear transformation T : V → W such that
T (x1 ) = y1 and T (x2 ) = y2 .

For Exercises 2 through 6, prove that T is a linear transformation, and find bases for both the N (T )
and R(T ), i.e., null space and range of T . Then compute the nullity and rank of T , and verify the
dimension theorem. Finally, determine whether T is one-to-one or onto.

2. T : R3 → R2 defined by T (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a1 − a2 , 2a3 ).

3. T : R2 → R3 defined by T (a1 , a2 ) = (a1 + a2 , 0, 2a1 − a2 ).

4. T : M2×3 (F ) → M2×2 (F ) defined by

   
a11 a12 a13 2a11 − a12 a13 + 2a12
T =
a21 a22 a23 0 0

5. T : P2 (R) → P3 (R) defined by T (f (x)) = xf (x) + f ′ (x), where f ′ is the derivative of f .

6. T : Mn×n (F ) → F defined by T (A) = tr(A). Recall that tr(A) = ni=1 aii .

P

7. In this exercise, T : R2 → R2 is a function. For each of the following parts, state why T is not linear.

(a) T (a1 , a2 ) = (1, a2 )

(b) T (a1 , a2 ) = (a1 , a21 )
(c) T (a1 , a2 ) = (sin a1 , 0)
(d) T (a1 , a2 ) = (|a1 |, a2 )
(e) T (a1 , a2 ) = (a1 + 1, a2 )

8. Suppose that T : R2 → R2 is linear, T (1, 0) = (1, 4), and T (1, 1) = (2, 5). What is T (2, 3)? Is T
one-to-one?

9. Prove that there exists a linear transformation T : R2 → R3 such that T (1, 1) = (1, 0, 2) and
T (2, 3) = (1, −1, 4). What is T (8, 11)?

10. Is there a linear transformation T : R3 → R2 such that T (1, 0, 3) = (1, 1) and T (−2, 0, −6) = (2, 1)?

1
11. Let V and W be vector spaces, let T : V → W be linear, and let {w1 , w2 , ..., wk } be a linearly
independent subset of R(T ). Prove that if S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vk } is chosen so that T (vi ) = wi for
i = 1, 2, ..., k, then S is linearly independent.

12. Let V and W be vector spaces and T : V → W be linear.

(a) Prove that T is one-to-one if and only if T carries linearly independent subsets of V onto linearly
independent subsets of W .
(b) Suppose that T is one-to-one and that S is a subset of V . Prove that S is linearly independent
if and only if T (S) is linearly independent.
(c) Suppose β = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn } is a basis for V and T is one-to-one and onto. Prove that T (β) =
{T (v1 ), T (v2 ), ..., T (vn )} is a basis for W .

13. Recall the definition of P (R). Define

Z x
T : P (R) → P (R) by T (f (x)) = f (t)dt.
0

Prove that T is linear and one-to-one, but not onto.

14. Let T : P (R) → P (R) be defined by T (f (x)) = f ′ (x). Recall that T is linear. Prove that T is onto,
but not one-to-one.

15. Let V and W be finite-dimensional vector spaces and T : V → W be linear.

(a) Prove that if dim(V ) < dim(W ), then T cannot be onto.

(b) Prove that if dim(V ) > dim(W ), then T cannot be one-to-one.

16. Give an example of a linear transformation T : R2 → R2 such that N (T ) = R(T ).

17. Give an example of distinct linear transformations T and U such that N (T ) = N (U ) and R(T ) =
R(U ).

18. Let V and W be vector spaces with subspaces V1 and W1 , respectively. If T : V → W is linear,
prove that T (V1 ) is a subspace of W and that {x ∈ V : T (x) ∈ W1 } is a subspace of V .

19. Let V be the vector space of sequences in R described before. Define the functions T, U : V → V by

T (a1 , a2 , ...) = (a2 , a3 , ...) and U (a1 , a2 , ...) = (0, a1 , a2 , ...).

T and U are called the left shift and right shift operators on V , respectively.

(a) Prove that T and U are linear.

(b) Prove that T is onto, but not one-to-one.
(c) Prove that U is one-to-one, but not onto.

20. Let T : R3 → R be linear. Show that there exist scalars a, b, and c such that T (x, y, z) = ax + by + cz
for all (x, y, z) ∈ R3 . Can you generalize this result for T : F n → F ? State and prove an analogous
result for T : F n → F m .

21. Let T : R3 → R be linear. Describe geometrically the possibilities for the null space of T . Hint: Use
Exercise 20.
The following definition is used in Exercises 22-25 and in Exercise 28.

Definition (Projection). Let V be a vector space and W1 and W2 be subspaces of V such that
V = W1 ⊕ W2 . (Recall the definition of direct sum). A function T : V → V is called the projection
on W1 along W2 if, for x = x1 + x2 with x1 ∈ W1 and x2 ∈ W2 , we have T (x) = x1 .
2
22. Let T : R2 → R2 . Include figures for each of the following parts.

(a) Find a formula for T (a, b), where T represents the projection on the y-axis along the x-axis.
(b) Find a formula for T (a, b), where T represents the projection on the y-axis along the line
L = {(s, s) : s ∈ R}.

23. Let T : R3 → R3 .

(a) If T (a, b, c) = (a, b, 0), show that T is the projection on the xy-plane along the z-axis.
(b) Find a formula for T (a, b, c), where T represents the projection on the z-axis along the xy-plane.
(c) If T (a, b, c) = (a − c, b, 0), show that T is the projection on the xy-plane along the line L =
{(a, 0, a) : a ∈ R}.

24. Using the notation in the definition above, assume that T : V → V is the projection on W1 along
W2 .

(a) Prove that T is linear and W1 = {x ∈ V : T (x) = x}.

(b) Prove that W1 = R(T ) and W2 = N (T ).
(c) Describe T if W1 = V .
(d) Describe T if W1 is the zero subspace.

25. Suppose that W is a subspace of a finite-dimensional vector space V .

(a) Prove that there exists a subspace W ′ and a function T : V → V such that T is a projection
on W along W ′ .
(b) Give an example of a subspace W of a vector space V such that there are two projections on
W along two (distinct) subspaces.

The following definitions are used in Exercises 26-30.

Definition (Invariant subspace, Restriction). Let V be a vector space, and let T : V → V be linear.
A subspace W of V is said to be T -invariant if T (x) ∈ W for every x ∈ W , that is, T (W ) ⊆ W . If
W is T -invariant, we define the restriction of T on W to be the function TW : W → W defined by
TW (x) = T (x) for all x ∈ W .

Exercises 26-30 assume that W is a subspace of a vector space V and that T : V → V is linear.
Warning: Do not assume that W is T -invariant or that T is a projection unless explicitly stated.

26. Prove that the subspaces {0}, V , R(T ), and N (T ) are all T -invariant.

27. If W is T -invariant, prove that TW is linear.

28. Suppose that T is the projection on W along some subspace W ′ . Prove that W is T -invariant and
that TW = IW .

29. Suppose that V = R(T ) ⊕ W and W is T -invariant. (Recall the definition of direct sum.)

(a) Prove that W ⊆ N (T ).

(b) Show that if V is finite-dimensional, then W = N (T ).
(c) Show by example that the conclusion of (29b) is not necessarily true if V is not finite-dimensional.

30. Suppose that W is T -invariant. Prove that N (TW ) = N (T ) ∩ W and R(TW ) = T (W ).

31. Prove the following: Let V and W be vector spaces over a common field, and let β be a basis for V .
Then for any function f : β → W there exists exactly one linear transformation T : V → W such
that T (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ β.
3
 Exercises 32 and 33 assume the definition of direct sum.

32. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space and T : V → V be linear.

(a) Suppose that V = R(T ) + N (T ). Prove that V = R(T ) ⊕ N (T ).

(b) Suppose that R(T ) ∩ N (T ) = {0}. Prove that V = R(T ) ⊕ N (T ).

Above, be careful to say in each part where finite-dimensionality is used.

33. Let V and T be as defined in Exercise 19.

(a) Prove that V = R(T ) + N (T ), but V is not a direct sum of these two spaces. Thus the result
of Exercise 32a above cannot be proved without assuming that V is finite-dimensional.
(b) Find a linear operator T1 on V such that R(T1 ) ∩ N (T1 ) = {0} but V is not a direct sum of
R(T1 ) and N (T1 ). Conclude that V being finite-dimensional is also essential in Exercise 32b.

34. A function T : V → W between vector spaces V and W is called additive if T (x + y) = T (x) + T (y)
for all x, y ∈ V . Prove that if V and W are vector spaces over the field of rational numbers, then
any additive function from V into W is a linear transformation.

35. Let T : C → C be the function defined by T (z) = z. Prove that T is additive (as defined in Exercise
34) but not linear.

36. Prove that there is an additive function T : R → R (as defined in Exercise 34) that is not linear.
Hint: Let V be the set of real numbers regarded as a vector space over the field of rational numbers.
By theorem, V has a basis β. Let x and y be two distinct vectors in β, and define f : β → V by
f (x) = y, f (y) = x, and f (z) = z otherwise. By Exercise 31, there exists a linear transformation
T : V → V such that T (u) = f (u) for all u ∈ β. Then T is additive, but for c = y/x, T (cx) ̸= cT (x).

The following exercise requires familiarity with the definition of quotient space given in previous
exercises.

37. Let V be a vector space and W be a subspace of V . Define the mapping η : V → V /W by

η(v) = v + W for v ∈ V .

(a) Prove that η is a linear transformation from V onto V /W and that N (η) = W .
(b) Suppose that V is finite-dimensional. Use 37a and the dimension theorem to derive a formula
relating dim(V ), dim(W ), and dim(V /W ).
(c) Read the proof of the dimension theorem. Compare the method of solving 37b with a previous
method (that you know) of deriving the same result.

4
 From Friedberg.etal pp 123-127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38. Label the following statements as true or false. Assume that all vector spaces are finite-dimensional.

(a) Every linear transformation is a linear functional.

(b) A linear functional defined on a field may be represented as a 1 × 1 matrix.
(c) Every vector space is isomorphic to its dual space.
(d) Every vector space is the dual of some other vector space.
(e) If T is an isomorphism from V onto V ∗ and β is a finite ordered basis for V , then T (β) = β ∗ .
(f) If T is a linear transformation from V to W , then the domain of (T t )t is V ∗∗ .
(g) If V is isomorphic to W , then V ∗ is isomorphic to W ∗ .
(h) The derivative of a function may be considered as a linear functional on the vector space of
differentiable functions.

39. For the following functions f on a vector space V , determine which are linear functionals.

(a) V = P (R); f (p(x)) = 2p′ (0) + p′′ (1), where ′ denotes differentiation
(b) V = R2 ; f (x, y) = (2x, 4y)
(c) V = M2×2 (F ); f (A) = tr(A)
(d) V = R3 ; f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2
R1
(e) V = P (R); f (p(x)) = 0 p(t)dt
(f) V = M2×2 (F ); f (A) = A11

40. For each of the following vector spaces V and bases β, find explicit formulas for vectors of the dual
basis β ∗ for V ∗ .

(a) V = R3 ; β = {(1, 0, 1), (1, 2, 1), (0, 0, 1)}

(b) V = P2 (R); β = {1, x, x2 }

41. Let V = R3 , and define f1 , f2 , f3 ∈ V ∗ as follows:

f1 (x, y, z) = x − 2y, f2 (x, y, z) = x + y + z, f3 (x, y, z) = y − 3z.

Prove that {f1 , f2 , f3 } is a basis for V ∗ , and then find a basis for V for which it is the dual basis.

42. Let V = P1 (R), and, for p(x) ∈ V , define f1 , f2 ∈ V ∗ by

Z 1 Z 2
f1 (p(x)) = p(t)dt and f2 (p(x)) = p(t)dt.
0 0

Prove that {f1 , f2 } is a basis for V ∗ , and find a basis for V for which it is the dual basis.

43. Define f ∈ (R2 )∗ by f (x, y) = 2x + y and T : R2 → R2 by T (x, y) = (3x + 2y, x).

(a) Compute T t (f ).
(b) Compute [T t ]β ∗ , where β is the standard ordered basis for R2 and β ∗ = {f1 , f2 } is the dual
basis, by finding scalars a, b, c, and d such that T t (f1 ) = af1 + cf2 and T t (f2 ) = bf1 + df2 .
(c) Compute [T ]β and ([T ]β )t , and compare your results with (43b).

44. Let V = P1 (R) and W = R2 with respective standard ordered bases β and γ. Define T : V → W by

T (p(x)) = (p(0) − 2p(1), p(0) + p′ (0)),

where p′ (x) is the derivative of p(x).

5
 (a) For f ∈ W ∗ defined by f (a, b) = a − 2b, compute T t (f ).
∗
(b) Compute [T t ]βγ ∗ directly (i.e., without using a theorem).
(c) Compute [T ]γβ and its transpose, and compare your results with (44b).

45. Show that every plane through the origin in R3 may be identified with the null space of a vector in
(R3 )∗ . State an analogous result for R2 .

46. Prove that a function T : F n → F m is linear if and only if there exist f1 , f2 , ..., fm ∈ (F n )∗ such
that T (x) = (f1 (x), f2 (x), ..., fm (x)) for all x ∈ F n . Hint: If T is linear, define fi (x) = (gi T )(x) for
x ∈ F n ; that is, fi = T t (gi ) for 1 ≤ i ≤ m, where {g1 , g2 , ..., gm } is the dual basis of the standard
ordered basis for Fm .

47. Let V = Pn (F ), and let c0 , c1 , ..., cn be distinct scalars in F .

(a) For 0 ≤ i ≤ n, define fi ∈ V ∗ by fi (p(x)) = p(ci ). Prove that {f0 , f1 , ..., fn } is a basis for
V ∗ . Hint: Apply any linear combination of this set that equals the zero transformation to
p(x) = (x − c1 )(x − c2 ) · · · (x − cn ), and deduce that the first coefficient is zero.
(b) Show that there exist unique polynomials p0 (x), p1 (x), · · · , pn (x) such that pi (cj ) = δij for
0 ≤ i ≤ n. These polynomials are the Lagrange polynomials defined defined by

fi (x) := k̸=i cx−c

Q k
i −ck
, where fi (cj ) = δij .

(c) For any scalars a0 , a1 , ..., an (not necessarily distinct), deduce that there exists a unique poly-
nomial q(x) of degree at most n such that q(ci ) = ai for 0 ≤ i ≤ n. In fact,

q(x) = ni=0 ai pi (x).

P

(d) Deduce the Lagrange interpolation formula:

p(x) = ni=0 p(ci )pi (x)

P

for any p(x) ∈ V .

(e) Prove that
Rb Pn
a p(t)dt = i=0 p(ci )di ,

where Rb
di = a pi (t)dt.

Suppose now that

i(b−a)
ci = a + n for i = 0, 1, · · · , n.
For n = 1, the preceding result yields the trapezoidal rule for evaluating the definite integral
of a polynomial. For n = 2, this result yields Simpson’s rule for evaluating the definite integral
of a polynomial.

48. Let V and W be finite-dimensional vector spaces over F , and let ψ1 and ψ2 be the isomorphisms
between V and V ∗∗ and W and W ∗∗ , respectively, defined by the evaluation map

ψ1 : V → V ∗∗ , v 7→ ev , ev (f ) := f (v), ψ2 : W → W ∗∗ , w 7→ ew , ew (f ) := f (w).

Let T : V → W be linear, and define T tt = (T t )t , where

T t : W ∗ → V ∗ , f 7→ f ◦ T.

Prove that the diagram depicted in Figure 2.6 commutes (i.e., prove that ψ2 T = T tt ψ1 ).

6
 T
V W

ψ1 ψ2

T tt
V ∗∗ W ∗∗

Figure 2.6

49. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space with the ordered basis β. Prove that ψ(β) = β ∗∗ , where
ψ is the isomorphism

ψ : V → V ∗∗ , v 7→ ev , ev (f ) := f (v). (0.1)

In Exercises 50 through 54, V denotes a finite-dimensional vector space over F . For every subset S
of V , define the annihilator S 0 of S as

S 0 = {f ∈ V ∗ : f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ S}.

50. (a) Prove that S 0 is a subspace of V ∗ .

(b) If W is a subspace of V and x ̸∈ W , prove that there exists f ∈ W 0 such that f (x) ̸= 0.
(c) Prove that (S 0 )0 = span(ψ(S)), where ψ is the isomorphism (0.1).
(d) For subspaces W1 and W2 , prove that W1 = W2 if and only if W10 = W20 .
(e) For subspaces W1 and W2 , show that (W1 + W2 )0 = W10 ∩ W20 .

51. Prove that if W is a subspace of V , then dim(W ) + dim(W 0 ) = dim(V ). Hint: Extend an ordered
basis {x1 , x2 , ..., xk } of W to an ordered basis β = {x1 , x2 , ..., xn } of V . Let β ∗ = {f1 , f2 , ..., fn }.
Prove that {fk+1 , fk+2 , ..., fn } is a basis for W 0 .

52. Suppose that W is a finite-dimensional vector space and that T : V → W is linear. Prove that
N (T t ) = (R(T ))0 .

53. Use Exercises 51 and 52 to deduce that rank(LAt ) = rank(LA ) for any A ∈ Mm×n (F ).

54. Let T be a linear operator on V , and let W be a subspace of V . Prove that W is T -invariant if and
only if W 0 is T t -invariant.

55. Let V be a nonzero vector space over a field F , and let S be a basis for V . (Recall that every vector
space has a basis.) Let Φ : V ∗ → L(S, F ) be the mapping defined by Φ(f ) = fS , the restriction of f
to S. Prove that Φ is an isomorphism.

56. Let V be a nonzero vector space, and let W be a proper subspace of V (i.e., W ̸= V ). Prove that
there exists a nonzero linear functional f ∈ V ∗ such that f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ W . Hint: Use results
about extending linearly independent sets to bases.

57. Let V and W be nonzero vector spaces over the same field, and let T : V → W be a linear
transformation.

(a) Prove that T is onto if and only if T t is one-to-one.

(b) Prove that T t is onto if and only if T is one-to-one.

Hint: Parts of the proof require the result of Exercise 56 for the infinite-dimensional case.