VIII SEM

ACADEMIC YEAR (2021-2022)

ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION (EI8079 )

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

 PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION PAPERS ALONG WITH ANSWERS

UNIT – I BASIC CONCEPTS

PART – A

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define a Robot. (AU-Nov/Dec-2010)

RIA defines a robot as a ―programmable, multifunction manipulator designed to Move materials,
parts, tools or special devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of the variety of
tasks.

2. Explain the types of rotary joint notations (AU-Nov/Dec-2008)

​ Rotational joint (type R)
​ Twisting joint (type T)
​ Revolving joint (type V)

3. What is meant by Work space? (AU-Nov/Dec-2010)

The space in which the end point of the robot arm is capable of operating is called as
workspace in other words reach ability of robot arm is known as workspace.

4. What is meant by accuracy of robot?

The robot‗s ability to reach a reference point within the robot‗s full work volume is known as
accuracy of robot.

5. What are the benefits of industrial robots?

​ Increased Productivity
​ Significant Savings
​ Improved Quality
​ Better Safety
​ Competitive Edge

6. What is repeatability of robot?

Repeatability refers to robot‗s ability to return to the programmed point when it is commanded
to do so.

7. What is meant by pitch, yaw and roll? (AU-Nov/Dec-2008)

Pitch is rotation around the X axis, yaw is around the Y axis, and roll is around the Z axis. Yaw
is side to side swinging around an axis. Pitch is up and down movement about an axis and roll is
rotatory motion about an axis.
8. What is work volume? (AU-Nov/Dec-2008)
The volume of the space swept by the robot arm is called work volume.

9. What is meant by Quality of robot?

A Robot is said to be high quality when the precision and accuracy is more.

10. What is meant by robot anatomy? (AU-Nov/Dec-2009)

Study of structure of robot is called robot anatomy. Manipulator is constructed of a series of
joints and links. A joint provides relative motion between the input link and the output link.

11. What are the three degrees of freedom associated with the arm and body motion?
(AU-Nov/Dec-2009)
​ Right (or) left movement (X-axis motion)
​ In and out movement (Y-axis motion)
​ Vertical movement (Z-axis motion)

12. Define an Industrial Robot. (AU-Nov/Dec-2010)

An industrial robot is an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator
programmable in three or more axes. A programmable mechanical device that is used in place of
a person to perform dangerous or repetitive tasks with a high degree of accuracy.

13. Define payload capacity of Robot? (AU-Nov/Dec-2010)

The maximum load which can be carried by the manipulator at low or normal speed.

14. Define base and tool Coordinate system. (AU-Nov/Dec-2012)

A tool coordinates definition system capable of easily obtaining a transformation matrix for
defining a tool coordinates system of a robot. The tool coordinates system at the 0° position of
the robot is rotated around each axis so that the tool coordinates system becomes parallel to a
base coordinates system.

15. Name the important specifications of an industrial robot. (AU-Nov/Dec-2012)

​ Accuracy
​ Repeatability
​ Degree of Freedom
​ Resolution
​ Envelope
16. What are the four basic robot configurations available commercially?
(AU-Apr/May 2010)
​ Cartesian coordinate system
​ Cylindrical coordinate system
​ Polar or spherical coordinate system
​ Revolute coordinate system

17. Define the term work envelop? (AU-Apr/May-2010)

The work envelop is described by the surface of the work space.
 18. Define a Robot?
RIA defines a robot as a ―programmable, multifunction manipulator designed to
Move materials, parts, tools or special devices through variable programmed motions
for the performance of the variety of task‖.

19. What is mean by automation?

Automation is a technology that is concerned with the use of electronic mechanical
and computer based system in the operation control and production.

20. What is a robot?

Robot is an
​ Electro-mechanical device
​ Perform various task
​ May be human controlled or automated.
​ It finds its uses in all aspects of our life

21. What are the rules of robot?

​ Do not harm being
​ Obey human being
​ Protects itself from harm.

22. Why a robot used?

a. To reduce production cost
​ Fast
​ Accurate
​ Difficulties in human nature
b. To avoid 3-D jobs
​ Dirty
​ Dangerous
​ Difficult

23. What is meant by robot anatomy?

Robot anatomy means study of structure of robot. Manipulator is constructed of a
series of joints & links. A joint provides relative motion between the input link and the
output link. Each joint provides the robot with one degree of freedom.

24. Name the commonly used robot configuration system?

The commonly used robot configuration systems are
​ Cartesian coordinate system
​ Cylindrical coordinate system
​ Polar or spherical coordinate system
​ Revolute coordinate system
25. What are the types of automation?
​ Fixed automation
​ Programmable automation
​ Flexible automation

26. Write are the Benefits of industrial automation?

​ Improved product quality
​ Improved safety
​ Increased manufacturing flexibility
​ Improved operation reliability
​ Improved decision making

27. List the different types of robots?

​ Robotic Manipulator
​ Wheeled Mobile Robots
​ Legged Robots
​ Underwater Robots
​ Flying Robots
​ Robot Vision
​ Artificial Intelligence
​ Industrial Automation

28. Write Asimov’s laws of robotics?

Three rules written by science fiction author Isaac Asimov and later expanded upon. These
rules are built in to almost all positronic robots appearing in his fiction and cannot be
bypassed. The rules are introduced in his 1942 short story Runaround although they were
foreshadowed in a few earlier stories.

The Three Laws of Robotics are as follows:

I. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being
to come to harm.
II. A robot must obey any orders given to it by human beings, except where
such orders would conflict with the First Law.
III. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with the First or Second Law.

29. What is mean by workspace?

The space in which the end point of the robot arm is capable of operating is called as
a workspace in other words reachability of robot arm is known as workspace.
30. What is mean by work volume?
The volume of the space swept by the robot arm is called work volume

31. What is meant by work envelop?

The work envelop is described by the surface of the workspace.

32. What is meant by a accuracy of robot?

The robot‘s ability to reach a reference point within the robot‘s full work volume is
known as accuracy of robot.

33. What is meant by pay load capacity of robot?

The maximum load which can be carried by the manipulator at low or normal speed

34. What is meant by precision of robot?

It is the smallest increment of motion for which the robot can be controlled

35. What is repeatability of robot?

Repeatability refers to robot‘s ability to return to the programmed point when it is
commanded to do so.

36. What is meant by quality of robot?

A robot is said to be high quality when the precision and accuracy is more

37. Classify the motion control of Robot arm?

​ Limited sequence control
​ Point to point control
​ Continuous path control
​ Intelligent control

38. What are the Subsystems of industrial robot?

​ Actuators
​ Transmission systems
​ Power supplies & power storage system
​ Sensors
​ Microprocessors & controllers
​ Algorithms & softwares (higher level & lower level)

39. What is meant Degrees Of Freedom?

It is described as one of the variables required to define the motion of a body in
space. Each joint in a robotic system gives the robot one degree of freedom.
 40. How much encoder need for measure 45 degree of freedom?
45 encoders

41. What are the Advantages and disadvantages of robot?

Advantages
​ Greater flexibility, reprogrammability, adjustable kinematics dexterity
​ Greater response time to inputs than humans
​ Improved product quality
​ Maximize capital intensive equipment in multiple work shifts.

Disadvantages

​ Replacement of human labour

​ More unemployment
​ Significant retraining costs for both unemployed and users of new technology
​ Advertising technology does not always disclose some of the
hidden disadvantages

42. What are the limitations of robot?

Assembly dexterity does not match that of human beings, particularly where eye-
hand coordination required.
​ Payload to robot weight ratio is poor, often less than 5%
​ Robot structural configurations often constrain joint limits and thus
the work volume
​ Work volume can be constrained even further when parts of substantial
size are picked up when tooling/sensors added to the robot

The robot repeatability and/or accuracy can constrain the range of potential application

PART – B

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Briefly explain the different types of robots. (AU-Nov/Dec-2008)

Industrial robots
Industrial robots are robots used in an industrial manufacturing environment. Usually these are
articulated arms specifically developed for such applications as welding, material handling, painting
and others. If we judge purely by application this type could also include some automated guided
vehicles and other robots.
Domestic or household robots
Robots used at home. This type of robots includes many quite different devices such as robotic
vacuum cleaners, robotic pool cleaners, sweepers, gutter cleaners and other robots that can do
different chores. Also, some surveillance and telepresence robots could be regarded as household
robots if used in that environment.
Medical robots
Robots used in medicine and medical institutions. First and foremost - surgery robots. Also, some
automated guided vehicles and maybe lifting aides.
Service robots
Robots that dont fall into other types by usage. These could be different data gathering robots,
robots made to show off technologies, robots used for research, etc.
Military robots
Robots used in military. This type of robots includes bomb disposal robots, different
transportation robots, reconnaissance drones. Often robots initially created for military purposes can
be used in law enforcement, search and rescue and other related fields.
Entertainment robots
These are robots used for entertainment. This is a very broad category. It starts with toy robots
such as robosapien or the running alarm clock and ends with real heavyweights such as articulated
robot arms used as motion simulators.
Space robots
This type would include robots used on the International Space Station, Canadarm that was used
in Shuttles, as well as Mars rovers and other robots used in space.
Hobby and competition robots
Most of the hobbyist robots are mobile and made to operate by rolling around on wheels
propelled by electric motors controlled by an on board microprocessor.
Explorer robots
The majority of these robots are completely self-reliant due to their sensory systems, however
they may also be controlled by humans giving orders through computer commands. The other types
of explorer robots are underground mine exploring robots, seeing and walking undersea robots, and
even bomb defusing robots used by police.

Laboratory robots
Laboratory robotics is the act of using robots in biology or chemistry labs. For example,
pharmaceutical companies employ robots to move biological or chemical samples around to
synthesize novel chemical entities or to test pharmaceutical value of existing chemical matter.

Sequence robots
A manipulator which progresses successively through the various stages of an operation
according to the predetermined sequence.
Playback robots
The playback robots are capable of performing a task by teaching the position. These positions
are stored in the memory, and done frequently by the robot. Generally, these playback robots are
employed with a complicated control system. It can be divided into two important types, namely:
Point to Point control robots
Continuous Path control
robots

2. Sketch and explain the four basic robot configurations classified according to the
coordinate system.
Classification Based on Physical Configuration (or) Co-ordinate Systems:
• Cartesian configuration
• Cylindrical configuration
(AU-Nov/Dec-2009; 2010)
• Polar configuration
• Joint-arm
configuration

Cartesian Configuration:

Robots with Cartesian configurations consist of links connected by linear joints (L). Gantry
robots are Cartesian robots (LLL).

Cylindrical Configuration:
Robots with cylindrical configuration have one rotary (R) joint at the base and linear
(L) joints succeeded to connect the links.
 12
EIE/QB/IVYEAR/ROBOTICS & AUTOMATION
 The designation of the arm for this configuration can be TRL or TRR. Robots with the
designation TRL are also called spherical robots. Those with the designation TRR are also called
articulated robots. An articulated robot more closely resembles the human arm.

Joint-arm Configuration:
The jointed-arm is a combination of cylindrical and articulated configurations. The arm of the
robot is connected to the base with a twisting joint. The links in the arm are connected by rotary
joints. Many commercially available robots have this configuration.

Simple Comparison
13
3. Write short notes on Joint Notation Scheme. (AU-Nov/Dec-2009)
A robot joint is a mechanism that permits relative movement between parts of a robot arm.
The joints of a robot are designed to enable the robot to move its end-effector along a path from
one position to another as desired.

The basic movements required for a desired motion of most industrial robots are:
1. Rotational movement: This enables the robot to place its arm in any direction on a
horizontal plane.
2. Radial movement: This enables the robot to move its end-effector radially to reach
distant points.
3. Vertical movement: This enables the robot to take its end-effector to different heights.

These degrees of freedom, independently or in combination with others, define the complete
motion of the end-effector. These motions are accomplished by movements of individual joints of the
robot arm. The joint movements are basically the same as relative motion of adjoining links.
Depending on the nature of this relative motion, the joints are classified as prismatic or revolute.

Prismatic joints are also known as sliding as well as linear joints. They are called prismatic
because the cross section of the joint is considered as a generalized prism. They permit links to move
in a linear relationship.

Revolute joints permit only angular motion between links. Their variations include:

• Rotational joint (R)

• Twisting joint (T)

• Revolving joint (V)

In a prismatic joint, also known as a sliding or linear joint (L), the links are generally parallel to
one another. In some cases, adjoining links are perpendicular but one link slides at the end of the other
link. The joint motion is defined by sliding or translational movements of the links. The orientation of
the links remains the same after the joint movement, but the lengths of the links are altered.
A rotational joint (R) is identified by its motion, rotation about an axis perpendicular to the
adjoining links. Here, the lengths of adjoining links do not change but the relative position of the
links with respect to one another changes as the rotation takes place.
A twisting joint (T) is also a rotational joint, where the rotation takes place about an axis that is
parallel to both adjoining links.
A revolving joint (V) is another rotational joint, where the rotation takes place about an axis that
is parallel to one of the adjoining links. Usually, the links are aligned perpendicular to one another at
this kind of joint. The rotation involves revolution of one link about another.

14
4. Write short notes on technical specification in Robotics. (AU-Nov/Dec-2008; 2009)

Accuracy:
How close does the robot get to the desired point? When the robot's program instruct the robot to
move to a specified point, it does not actually perform as per specified. The accuracy measure such
variance. That is, the distance between the specified position that a robot is trying to achieve
(programming point), and the actual X, Y and Z resultant position of the robot end effector.
Repeatability:
The ability of a robot to return repeatedly to a given position. It is the ability of a robotic system
or mechanism to repeat the same motion or achieve the same position. Repeatability is is a measure of
the error or variability when repeatedly reaching for a single position. Repeatability is often smaller
than accuracy.
Degree of Freedom (DOF):
Each joint or axis on the robot introduces a degree of freedom. Each DOF can be a slider, rotary,
or other type of actuator. The number of DOF that a manipulator possesses thus is the number of
independent ways in which a robot arm can move. Industrial robots typically have 5 or 6 degrees of
freedom. 3 of the degrees of freedom allow positioning in 3D space (X, Y, Z), while the other 2 or 3
are used for orientation of the end effector (yaw, pitch and roll). 6 degrees of freedom are enough to
allow the robot to reach all positions and orientations in 3D space. 5 DOF requires a restriction to 2D
space, or else it limits orientations. 5 DOF robots are commonly used for handling tools such as arc
welders.
Resolution:
The smallest increment of motion or distance that can be detected or controlled by the robotic
control system. It is a function of encoder pulses per revolution and drive (e.g. reduction gear) ratio.
And it is dependent on the distance between the tool center point and the joint axis.
Envelope:
A three-dimensional shape that defines the boundaries that the robot manipulator can reach; also
Known as reach envelope.
Reach:
The maximum horizontal distance from the center of the robot base to the end of its wrist.
Maximum Speed:
A robot moving at full extension with all joints moving simultaneously in complimentary
directions at full speed. The maximum speed is the theoretical values which does not consider under
loading condition.
Payload:
The maximum payload is the amount of weight carried by the robot manipulator at reduced speed
15
 while maintaining rated precision. Nominal payload is measured at maximum speed while
maintaining rated precision. These ratings are highly dependent on the size and shape of the payload
due to variation in inertia.
5. Explain the various parts of a robot with neat sketch. (AU-Nov/Dec-2008)

Controller:
Every robot is connected to a computer, which keeps the pieces of the arm working together. This
computer is known as the controller. The controller functions as the "brain" of the robot. The
controller also allows the robot to be networked to other systems, so that it may work together with
other machines, processes, or robots.

Robots today have controllers that are run by programs - sets of instructions written in code.
Almost all robots of today are entirely pre-programmed by people; they can do only what they are
programmed to do at the time, and nothing else. In the future, controllers with artificial intelligence,
or AI could allow robots to think on their own, even program themselves. This could make robots
more self-reliant and independent.
Arm:
Robot arms come in all shapes and sizes. The arm is the part of the robot that positions the end-
affector and sensors to do their pre-programmed business.
Many (but not all) resemble human arms, and have shoulders, elbows, wrists, even fingers. This
gives the robot a lot of ways to position itself in its environment. Each joint is said to give the robot 1
degree of freedom. So, a simple robot arm with 3 degrees of freedom could move in 3 ways: up and
down, left and right, forward and backward.
Drive:
The drive is the "engine" that drives the links (the sections between the joints into their desired
position. Without a drive, a robot would just sit there, which is not often helpful. Most drives are

16
 powered by air, water pressure, or electricity.
End-Effector:
The end-effector is the "hand" connected to the robot's arm. It is often different from a human
hand - it could be a tool such as a gripper, a vacuum pump, tweezers, scalpel, blowtorch - just about
anything that helps it do its job. Some robots can change end-effectors, and be reprogrammed for a
different set of tasks.
Sensor:
Most robots of today are nearly deaf and blind. Sensors can provide some limited feedback to the
robot so it can do its job. Compared to the senses and abilities of even the simplest living things,
robots have a very long way to go.

The sensor sends information, in the form of electronic signals back to the controller. Sensors also
give the robot controller information about its surroundings and lets it know the exact position of the
arm, or the state of the world around it.

6. Explain the main Robot anatomy with neat sketch.

Robot anatomy is concerned with the physical construction and characteristics of the body, arm, and wrist,
which are the component of the robot manipulator.
- Base.-fixed are mobile
- The manipulator- arm which several degrees of freedom (DOF).
- The end-effector or gripper- holding a part or tool
- Drives or actuators – Causing the manipulator arm or end effector to move in a space.
- Controller – with hardware & software support for giving commands to the drives

17
 - Sensors - To feed back the information for subsequent action of the arm or grippers as
well as to interact with the environment in which the robot is working.
- Interface – Connecting the robot subsystem to the external world.

Which consist of a number of component that allowed be oriented in a verity of position movements
between the various components of the body, arm, and wrist are provided by a series of joints. These joint
movements usually involve either rotation or sliding motions.
7. Describe the types of joints used in robots.
The Robot Joints is the important element in a robot which helps the links to travel in different
kind of movements. There are five major types of joints such as:

• Rotational joint
• Linear joint
• Twisting joint
• Orthogonal joint
• Revolving joint

Rotational Joint:
Rotational joint can also be represented as R – Joint. This type will allow the joints to move in a
rotary motion along the axis, which is vertical to the arm axes.
Linear Joint:
Linear joint can be indicated by the letter L – Joint. This type of joints can perform both
translational and sliding movements. These motions will be attained by several ways such as
telescoping mechanism and piston. The two links should be in parallel axes for achieving the linear
movement.
Twisting Joint:
Twisting joint will be referred as V – Joint. This joint makes twisting motion among the output
and input link. During this process, the output link axis will be vertical to the rotational axis. The
output link rotates in relation to the input link.
Orthogonal Joint:
The O – joint is a symbol that is denoted for the orthogonal joint. This joint is somewhat similar
to the linear joint. The only difference is that the output and input links will be moving at the right
angles.
Revolving Joint:
Revolving joint is generally known as V – Joint. Here, the output link axis is perpendicular to the
rotational axis, and the input link is parallel to the rotational axes. As like twisting joint, the output
link spins about the input link.
18
8. Discuss the four types of robot controls. (AU-Apr/May-2010)

1. Point-to-point (PTP) control robot

2. Continuous-path (CP) control robot
3. Controlled-path robot
4. Stop-to-Stop

Point to Point Control Robot (PTP):

The PTP robot is capable of moving from one point to another point. The locations are recorded in the
control memory. PTP robots do not control the path to get from one point to the next point. Common
applications include:
• Component insertion
• Spot welding
• hole drilling
• Machine loading and unloading
• Assembly operations

Continuous-Path Control Robot (CP):

The CP robot is capable of performing movements along the controlled path. With CP from one
control, the robot can stop at any specified point along the controlled path. All the points along the path
must be stored explicitly in the robot's control memory. Applications Straight-line motion is the simplest
example for this type of robot. Some continuous-path controlled robots also have the capability to follow
a smooth curve path that has been defined by the programmer. In such cases the programmer manually
moves the robot arm through the desired path and the controller unit stores a large number of individual
point locations along the path in memory (teach-in).
Typical applications include:
• spray painting
• finishing
• gluing
• Arc welding operations

Controlled-Path Robot:
In controlled-path robots, the control equipment can generate paths of different geometry such as
straight lines, circles, and interpolated curves with a high degree of accuracy. Good accuracy can be
obtained at any point along the specified path.

Only the start and finish points and the path definition function must be stored in the robot's control
memory. It is important to mention that all controlled-path robots have a servo capability to correct their
path.
19
Stop-to-Stop:
• It is open loop system
• Position and velocity unknown to controller
• On/off commands stored as valve states
• End travel set by mechanical stops
20
 UNIT II POWER SOURCES AND SENSORS

PART- A (TWO MARKS)

1. Define End effector.

End effector is a device that is attached to the end of the wrist arm to perform specific task.

2. Give some examples of Robot End Effector.

​ Gripper
​ Tools
​ Welding equipments
​ End of arm Tooling (EOAT)
3. What is meant by Gripper?
Gripper is the End effector which can hold or grasp the object.

4. What is the difference between internal grippers and external grippers? (AU-Nov/Dec-2008)
In internal grippers, the finger pads are mounted on the inside of the fingers. This mounting
allows the pads to fit into the inside diameter of the part it must lift. The pads are pressed against the
inside wall of the part.

An external gripper is designed so that the finger pads press against the outside of the component.
Grips the exterior surface of the objects with closed fingers.
5. What are the types of Mechanical Grippers? (AU-Apr/May-2010)

​ Linkage actuation gripper

​ Gear and rack actuation gripper
​ Cam actuated gripper
​ Screw actuated gripper

6. List any two limitations of magnetic grippers

​ Residual magnetism
​ Side slippage
​ More than one sheet will be lifted by the magnet from a stack

7. List any four important factors to be considered in the selection and design of grippers.
(AU-Apr/May-2011)
​ The gripper must have the ability to reach the surface of a work part.
​ The change in work part size must be accounted for providing accurate positioning.
​ During machining operations, there will be a change in the work part size. As a result, the
gripper must be designed to hold a work part even when the size is varied.
​ The gripper must not create any sort of distort and scratch in the fragile work parts.

21
 8. Give some examples of tool as robot End effector.
​ Spot Welding Tools
​ Arc welding Torch
​ Spray painting nozzle
​ Water jet cutting tool
9. Name some feedback devices used in robotics.
​ Potentiometer
​ Resolver
​ Encoder
10. What are the types of encoders?
(a) Linear encoder
(b) Rotary encoder
(c) Absolute encoder
(d) Incremental encoder
11. List out the types of Drive systems used in Robots.
​ Electric motors like: Servomotors, Stepper
motors
​ Hydraulic actuators
​ Pneumatic actuators
12. Write the characteristics of actuating systems.
​ Weight
​ Power-to-weight ratio
​ Operating Pressure
​ Stiffness Vs. Compliance
13. List any two unique features of a stepper motor.
​ Moves in known angle of rotation.
​ Position feedback is not necessary.
​ Rotation of the shaft by rotation of the magnetic field.

14. What is a RCC device and for what purpose is it used in a robo.
In robotics, a Remote Center Compliance, Remote Center of Compliance or RCC is a mechanical
device that facilitates automated assembly by preventing peg-like objects from jamming when they are
inserted into a hole with tight clearance. In a naive design without an RCC, a robot might pick up a peg
with its gripper, center the peg over the hole and then push the peg along the axis of the hole.
22
15. Name the important parts of harmonic drive?
The important parts of harmonic drive are
​ Rigid circular spline with internal teeth
​ Flex spline with external teeth
​ Elliptical wave generation

16. State the advantages and limitation of a hydraulic drive?

Advantages:
​ It gives greater speed and strength
​ It gives highest power to weight ratio
​ It is used for heavy pay loads
​ It can be used for large working envelope
​ It is safe and reliable to work in wet and dirty conditions
​ It can be used in hazardous environment.

Disadvantages

​ It occupies more space

​ Maintenance should be done regularly

17. What are the types of hydraulic actuator?

The types of hydraulic actuators are
​ Linear hydraulic actuator
I. Single acting cylinder
II. Double acting cylinder
III. Double acting double rod cylinder
​ Hydraulic rotary actuator
I. Gear motor
II. Vane motor
III. Piston motor

18. What are the types of encoder?

I. Linear encoder
II. Rotary encoder
● Absolute encoder
● Incremental encoder
19. What is frame grabber?
It is hardware device used to capture and store the digital image.

20. What is the common imaging device used for robot vision system?
Block and White vidicon camera, charge coupled devices, solid state camera, charge
injection device.

23
21. What is pixel?
Picture elements are also known as pixels.
22. What is the frame of the vision data?

The digital image of the camera is called frame of the vision data

23. What is segmentation?

Segmentation is the method to group area of an image having similar characteristics or
features into distinct entities representing part of the image.
24. What is thresholding?
Thresholding is a binary conversion technique in which each pixel is converted into a binary
value either black or white.

25. What is region growing?

Region growing is collection of segmentation techniques in which pixels are grouped in
regions called grid elements based on attribute similarities

26. What are the functions of machine vision system?

​ Sensing and digitizing image data
​ Image processing and analysis
​ Application

27. What is application of machine vision system?

​ Inspection
​ Identification
​ Visual servoing and navigation

28. What is sensor?

A sensor is an electrical device that transfers a physical phenomenon into an
electrical signal. Sensors in robotics are used for both the internal feedback control and
external interaction with the outside environment

29. What is transducer?

Transducer is a device which converts the one form of the energy into another form
without changing the information content.

30. What are the basic classifications of sensors?

​ Tactile sensors
​ Proximity sensors
​ Range sensors
​ Voice sensors etc

24
31. What are the desirable features of sensors?
1. Good Accuracy,
2. High Precision,
3. Wide operating range,
4. Instant speed of response,
5. Good Repealibility,
6. Low cost, and easy in operation
32. What is the tactile sensor?
Tactile sensor is a device which indicates the contact between themselves and some
other solid objects.
33. List the different type of tactile sensor?
​ Digital(Touch) sensor
​ Analogue (force) sensor
34. What is touch sensor?
Sensor which senses the presence or absence of the object by having physical contact
between the object
35. List the component of the force wrist?
​ Metallic frame
​ Bracket for tool mounting
​ Strain gauges
36. What is a tactile array sensor?
Tactile array sensor is a special type of force sensor composed of a matrix of force
sensing elements.
37. What is the proximity sensor?
Sensor which senses the presence or absence of the object without having physical
contact between the object
38. What are the classifications of a proximity sensor?
​ Inductive sensor
​ Capacitive sensor
​ Ultrasonic sensor
​ Magnetic sensor
39. What is a range sensor?
Sensor which sense the range of the object
40. What is a voice sensor?
It is advanced sensor system used to communicate commands or information orally
to robot.
41. What is a vision sensor?
It is a advanced sensor system used in conjunction with pattern reorganization and other
technique to view and interpret event occurring in the robot work space.
42. What is potentiometer?
Potentiometer is an electrical meter to measure the unknown voltage.

25
43. What is inspection?
It is quality control operation in which the checking of part assembly or products for
conformance to certain criteria is specifying by the design engineering department.
44. What is meant by quantisation?
Each sampled discrete time voltage level is assigned to a finite no of amplitude levels. These
amplitude levels correspond to gray scale used in the system. The predefined amplitude levels are
characteristic to a particular A to D converter and consist of discrete values of voltage levels is
defined by
Number of quantization levels = 2 n
Where n is the no of bits of the A/D converter

45. What is meant by encoding?

Encoding is defined as the representation of an amplitude level by a binary digit sequence.

46. What is meant by sampling?

The given analog signal is sampled periodically to obtained a series of discrete
signals.

47. What are the basic lighting devices?

​ Diffuse surface device
​ Condenser projectors
​ Flood or spot projectors
​ Collimator
​ Imagers

48. What are the phases of A/D conversion?

​ Sampling
​ Quantization
​ Encoding

49. What are the various techniques in image processing & analysis?
​ Image data reduction
​ Segmentation
​ Feature extraction
​ Object recognition

50. What is meant by image data reduction?

The objective of image data reduction is to reduce the volume of the data

51. What are the schemes involved in image data reduction?

​ Digital conversion
​ Windowing

26
52. What is meant by windowing?
Windowing involves using only a portion of the total image stored in the frame
buffer for image processing and analysis this portion is called window.

53. What is by digital conversion?

Digital conversion reduces the no of gray levels used by the machine vision system.

54. What is meant by segmentation?

The object of segmentation is to group areas of an image having similar
characteristics or features into distinct entities representing parts of the image.
55. What are the techniques involved in segmentation?
​ Thresholding
​ Region growing
​ Edge detecting
56. What is meant by thersholding?
Thresholding is the binary conversion technique in which each pixel is converted into
a binary value.

57. What is meant by region growing?

Region growing is a collection of segmentation techniques in which each pixels are
grouped in regions called grid elements.

58. What is meant by edge detection?

Edge detection considering the intensity charge that occurs in the pixels at the
boundary or edge of the part

59. What is meant by feature extraction?

Feature extraction is usually accomplished by means of features that uniquely
characterize the object

60. What are the techniques used in object recognition?

​ Template matching technique
​ Structural technique

61. What is meant by template matching technique?

Template matching techniques are subsets of the motor general statistical pattern
recognition technique
62. What is meant by structural technique?
Structural techniques of pattern recognition consider relationship between the features or
edges of an object.
27
63. What are the electrical Drives in Manipulators
The term servo derived from phrase ―to serve‖, has meaning that ―the system that can
be controlled.‖ The electrical actuators that can be controlled are DC servomotors, AC servo
motors and stepper motors

64. Classified different types of stepper motor?

​ Variable reluctance motors ( soft steel rotor)
​ Permanent Magnet (PM) stepper motor
​ Hybrid Stepper Motor

PART – B

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Explain Mechanical drives system.

When the various driving methods like hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical servo motors and
stepping motors are used in robots, it is necessary to get the motion in linear or rotary fashion.
When motors are used, rotary motion is converted to linear motion through rack and pinion
gearing, lead screws, worm gearing or bail screws.

Rack and Pinion Movement:

The pinion is in mesh with rack (gear of infinite radius). If the rack is fixed, the pinion will
rotate. The rotary motion of the pinion will be converted to linear motion of the carriage.

Ball Screws:
Sometimes lead screws rotate to drive the nut along a track. But simple lead screws cause
friction and wear, causing positional inaccuracy. Therefore ball bearing screws are used in robots
as they have low friction. The balls roll between the nut and the screw. A cage is provided for
recirculation of the balls. The rolling friction of the ball enhances transmission efficiency to about
90%.

Gear Trains:
Gear trains use spur, helical and worm gearing. A reduction of speed, change of torque and
angular velocity are possible. Positional errors are caused due to backlash in the gears.

Harmonic Drive:

28
SSEC/EIE/QB/IVYEAR/ROBOTICS & AUTOMATION
 For speed reduction, standard gear transmission gives sliding friction and backlash.
Moreover, it takes more space. Harmonic drive due to its natural preloading eliminates backlash
and greatly reduces tooth wear. Harmonic drives are suitable for robot drives due to their smooth
and efficient action. The harmonic drive as shown in figure is made up of three major elements:
the circular spline, the wave generator and the flex spline. The circular spline is a rigid ring with
gear teeth machined on the inside diameter. The flex spline is a flexible ring with the teeth cut
on its outside diameter. The flex spline has fewer teeth (say 2 teeth less) than the circular spline.
The wave generator is elliptical and is given input motion. The wave generator is assembled into
the flex spline the entire assembly of. Wave generator and flex spline is placed into the circular
spline such that the outer tooth of flex spline is in mesh with the internal teeth of circular spline
If the circular spline has 100 teeth and the flex spline has 98 teeth, and if the wave generator
makes one complete revolution, the flex spline will engage 98 teeth of the circular spline. Since
circular spline has 100 teeth and only 98 teeth have been in engagement for one complete
rotation, the circular saline's position has been shifted by 2 teeth. Thus after 50 revolutions of the
wave generator, the circular spline will have made one full rotation. The ratio of harmonic drive is
2: 100 or 1: 50. The gear ratio is influenced by the number of teeth cut into the circular spline and
the flex spline. The harmonic drive has high torque capacity.

2. Explain Pneumatic actuators system with neat sketch.

Pneumatic systems use pressurized air to make things move. Basic pneumatic system consists
of an air generating unit and an air-consuming unit. Air compressed in compressor is not ready
for use as such, air has to be filtered, moisture present in air has to be dried, and for different
applications in plant pressure of air has to be varied. Several other treatments are given to the air
before it reaches finally to the Actuators. The figure gives an overview of a pneumatic system.
Practically some accessories are added for economical and efficient operation of system.
29
Compressor:
A device, which converts mechanical force and motion into pneumatic fluid power, is called
compressor. Every compressed-air system begins with a compressor, as it is the source of airflow
for all the downstream equipment and processes Electric Motor Electric motor is used to drive the
compressor.
Air Receiver:

It is a container in which air is stored under pressure. Pressure Switch. Pressure Switch is
used to maintain the required pressure in the receiver; it adjusts the High Pressure Limit and Low
Pressure Limit in the receiver. The compressor is automatically turned off when the pressure is
about to exceed

the high limit and it is also automatically turned on when the pressure is about to fall below the
low limit.
Safety Valve:
The function of the safety valve is to release extra pressure if the pressure inside the
receiver tends to exceed the safe pressure limit of the receiver.
Check Valve:
The valve enables flow in one direction and blocks flow in a counter direction is called Check
Valve. Once compressed air enters the receiver via check valve, it is not allowed to go back
even when the compressor is stopped.
Direction Control Valve:
Directional-control valve are devices used to change the flow direction of fluid within a
Pneumatic/Hydraulic circuit. They control compressed-air flow to cylinders, rotary actuators,
grippers, and other mechanisms in packaging, handling, assembly, and countless other
applications. These valves can be actuated either manually or electrically.
Pneumatic Actuator:
A device in which power is transferred from one pressurized medium to another without
intensification. Pneumatic actuators are normally used to control processes requiring quick
and accurate response, as they do not require a large amount of motive force. They may be
reciprocating cylinders, rotating motors or may be a robot end effectors.
30
3. Explain various types of Gripper mechanisms. (AU-Nov/Dec-2010)

Pivoting or Swinging Gripper Mechanisms:

This is the most popular mechanical gripper for industrial robots. It can be designed for limited
shapes of an object, especially cylindrical work piece. If actuators that produce linear movement
are used, like pneumatic piston- cylinders, the device contains a pair of slider-crank mechanisms.

When the piston 1 is pushed by pneumatic pressure to the right, the elements in the cranks 2 and
3, rotate counter clockwise with the fulcrum F and clockwise with the fulcrum F respectively,
when B < 1800. These rotations make the grasping action at the extended end of the crank
elements 2 and 3. The releasing action can be obtained by moving the piston to the left. An angle
B ranging from 160° to is commonly used.

This is the swing block mechanism. The sliding rod 1, actuated by the pneumatic piston
transmits motion by way of the two symmetrically arranged swing-block linkages 1--2--3--4 and
1—2—3‗—4‗ to grasp or release the object by means of the subsequent swinging motions of
links 4 and 4‗ at their Pivots F.

31
 A gripper using a rotary actuator in which the actuator is placed at the cross point of the two
fingers. Each finger is connected to the rotor and the housing of the actuator, respectively. The
actuator movement directly produces grasping and releasing actions.

The cam actuated gripper includes a variety of possible designs, one of which is shown.
A cam and follower arrangement, often using a spring-loaded follower, can provide the opening
and closing action of the gripper. The advantage of this arrangement is that the spring action
would accommodate different sized objects.

The screw is turned by a motor, usually accompanied by a speed reduction mechanism. Due to the
rotation of the screw, the threaded block moves, causing the opening and dosing of the fingers
depending on the direction of rotation of the screw.
32
4. Write note on Gripper selection and design (AU-Apr/May-2011)

33
 SSEC/DEPT.OF.EIE
5. Write a note on Magnetic
Grippers.

Magnetic grippers are used extensively on ferrous materials. In general, magnetic grippers offer
the following advantages in robotic handling operations
● Variations in part size can be tolerated
● Pickup times are very fast
● They have ability to handle metal parts with holes
● Only one surface is required for gripping
The residual magnetism remaining in the work piece may cause problems. Mother potential
disadvantage is the problem of picking up one sheet at a time from a stack. The magnetic
attraction tends to penetrate beyond the top sheet in the stack, resulting in the possibility that
more than a single sheet will be lifted by the magnet.

Magnetic grippers can use either electromagnets or permanent magnets. Electromagnetic grippers
are easier to control, but require a source of dc power and an appropriate controller. When the part
is to be released, the control unit reverses the polarity at a reduced power level before switching
off the electromagnet. This procedure acts to cancel the residual magnetism in the work plece
ensuring a positive release of the part. The attractive force, P of an electromagnet is found from
Maxwell‗s equation given by

34
 Permanent magnets do not require an external power and hence they can be used in hazardous
and explosive environments, because there is no danger of sparks which might cause ignition in such
environments. When the part is to be released at the end of the handling cycle, in case of permanent
magnet grippers, some means of separating the part from the magnet must be provided. One such
stripping device is shown in figure.

6. Explain the various drive system used with an industrial robot and compare
their features,merits and demerits. (AU-Nov/Dec-2010)
35
7. Explain the working of a stepper motor. (AU-Nov/Dec-2010)

A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into discrete
mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments
when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. The motors rotation has
several direct relationships to these applied input pulses. The sequence of the applied pulses is
directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts rotation is
directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of rotation is directly related to the
number of input pulses applied.
This mean that a digital signal is used to drive the motor and every time it receives a
digital pulse it rotates a specific number of degrees in rotation.

● Each step of rotation is the response of the motor to an input pulse (or digital
command).

● Step-wise rotation of the rotor can be synchronized with pulses in a command-pulse train,
assuming that no steps are missed, thereby making the motor respond faithfully to the
pulse signal in an open-loop manner.

● Stepper motors have emerged as cost-effective alternatives for DC servomotors in high-

speed, motion-control applications (except the high torque-speed range) with the
improvements in permanent magnets and the incorporation of solid-state circuitry and
logic devices in their drive systems.

● Today stepper motors can be found in computer peripherals, machine tools, medical
equipment, automotive devices, and small business machines, to name a few applications.
36
Advantages of Stepper Motors:

● Position error is noncumulative. A high accuracy of motion is possible, even under

open-loop control.
● Large savings in sensor (measurement system) and controller costs are possible when
the open-loop mode is used.
● Because of the incremental nature of command and motion, stepper motors are easily
adaptable to digital control applications.
● No serious stability problems exist, even under open-loop control.
● Torque capacity and power requirements can be optimized and the response can be
controlled by electronic switching.
Brushless construction has obvious advantages.

37
 UNIT III MANIPULATORS, ACTUATORS AND GRIPPERS

PART-B (TWO MARKS)

1. What is the common imaging device used for robot vision systems?
Black and white videocon camera, charge coupled devices, solid-state camera, charge
injection devices.
2. What is segmentation? (AU-Nov/Dec-2009)
Segmentation is the method to group areas of an image having similar characteristics or
features into distinct entities representing part of the image.
3. What is thresholding?
Thresholding is a binary conversion technique in which each pixel is converted into a binary
value either black or white.
4. What are the functions of machine vision system?
​ Sensing and digitizing image data
​ Image Processing and analysis
​ Application
5. Define sensors and transducer.
Sensor is a transducer that is used to make a measurement of a physical variable of
interest.
Transducer is a device that converts the one form of information into another form
without changing the information content.
6. What are the basic classifications of sensors?
​ Tactile Sensors,
​ Proximity Sensors,
​ Range sensors,
​ Voice sensors etc.,
7. What is a tactile sensor? (AU-Apr/May-2011)
Tactile sensor is device that indicates the contact between themselves and some other solid
objects.
8. What is meant by Region growing?
Region growing is a collection of segmentation techniques in which pixels are grouped in
regions called grid elements based on attribute similarities.

9. What is meant by Feature Extraction?

In vision applications distinguishing one object from another is accomplished by means of
features that uniquely characterize the object. A feature (area, diameter, perimeter) is a single
parameter that permits ease of comparison and identification.
38
10. What are the various techniques in image processing and analysis?
​ Image data reduction
​ Segmentation
​ Feature extraction
​ Object recognition

11. Give an application example of a proximity sensor.

​ Ground proximity warning system for aviation safety
​ Vibration measurements of rotating shafts in machinery
​ Sheet break sensing in paper machine.
​ Roller coasters
​ Conveyor systems

12. Brief on the working of inductive type proximity sensor. (AU-Nov/Dec-2009)

Inductive proximity sensors operate under the electrical principle of inductance.

Inductance is the phenomenon where fluctuating current, which by definition has a magnetic
component induces an electromotive force (emf) is a target object.
To amplify a devices inductance effect, a sensor manufacturer twists wire into a tight coil and
runs a current through it.

13. Name some feedback devices used in robotics.

​ Position Sensors
​ Velocity Sensors

14. What are the types of encoders?

​ Incremental encoders
​ Absolute encoders

15. What is frame grabber?

It is a hardware device used to capture and store the digital image.
16. Classify the position sensors. (AU-Nov/Dec-2009)
​ Incremental encoders
​ Absolute encoders
​ Resistive position sensors
​ Linear variable differential transformer.
​ Encoders
​ Potentiometer
​ Resolver.

17. What is a tactile array sensor?

Tactile array sensor is a special type of force senor composed of a matrix of force sensing elements

39
18. Define End effector:
End effector is a device that is attached to the end of the wrist arm to perform specific task.

19. What is meant by manipulator?

Manipulator is a machine has a function similar to those of the human upper limbs and moves
an object spatially from one location to another.
20. Give some example of robot End effector:
​ Gripper
​ Tools
​ Welding equipment‘s
​ End of arm tooling(EOAT)

21. What is meant by gripper?

Gripper is a End effector which can hold or grasp the object

22. What are the types of gripper?

​ Magnetic gripper
​ Mechanical gripper
​ Hooking gripper
​ Vacuum gripper

23. What is a stripping device?

A device used to remove workspace from the magnetic gripper

24. What are the types of mechanism gripper?

​ Linkage actuation gripper
​ Gear and rack actuation gripper
​ Cam actuation gripper
​ Screw actuation gripper

25. What are the advantages and disadvantages of magnetic gripper?

Advantages
​ Pickup time very fast
​ Variation in part size can be tolerated. The gripper do not have to be designed for one
particular work part
​ They have ability to handle metal parts with holes
​ They require only one surface for gripping
Disadvantages
​ Residual magnetism
​ Side slippage
​ More than one sheet will be lifted by magnet from a stack
40
26. Write different types of magnetic gripper?
There are two of magnetic gripper
​ Electromagnetic gripper
​ Permanent magnet gripper
27. What is Adhesive gripper?
Adhesive gripper in which an adhesive substance performs the grasping action for
handling fabrics and other lightweight material are called adhesive gripper

28. Limitation of Adhesive gripper?

​ Adhesive substance losses his tackiness on repeated usage
​ Reliability is diminished with successive operations

29. List the advantages and features of suction cup gripper?

​ Require only one surface of the part for grasping
​ Applies uniform pressure distribution on the surface of the part
​ Relatively a lightweight gripper
​ Applicable to a variety of different material.

30. Give some examples of tool as robot End effector

​ Shop welding tools
​ Arc welding tools
​ Spray painting nozzle
​ Water jet cutting tool

31. What is transfer function?

The transfer function relates the Laplace transformation of the system output to the
Laplace transformation of the system input.

32. What is controller?

Controller is information processing device whose input are both desired and
measurement position, velocity (or) other pertinent variables in a process and whose outputs
are drive signals to a motor (or) actuators.
33. Write control techniques of robot?
All industrial robots are either servo or non-servo controlled
​ Non servo (open loop) control
​ Servo (closed loop) control
34. What is actuator?
​ They convert the electrical energy into meaningful mechanical work
​ Mechanical output can be rotational or linear
​ Motor provide motion
​ Electromagnets provide linear motion
41
 35. What is summing junction
Summing junctions may have any number of arrows entering but only one leaving.
36. What is a take point?
Take of point permit signals and variables to be shared among more than a single component
37. What is a functional block?
Function block represents one of the components of the system and contains the transfer
function for the component.
38. What is a single arrow?
Single arrow indicates the direction of variables and signals in the diagram.
39. Name some feedback device used in Robotics?
​ Potentiometer
​ Resolver
​ Encoder
40. List the various actuating mechanism used in mechanical gripper?
​ Linkage actuation gripper
​ Gear and rack actuation gripper
​ Cam actuation gripper
​ Screw actuation gripper
41. Which type of robot is commonly used for pick and place operation?
Cylindrical coordinate robot is commonly used for pick and place operation
42. What do you meant by material transfer application?
Material transfer application are defined as operation in which the primary objective is move
a part from one location to another location
43. What is pick and place operation?
Pick and place operation involved tasks in which the robot picks the part at one location and
move it another location
44. What is meant by PID control?
The PID controller produces an output signal consisting of three terms-one proportional to
error signal, another one proportional to integral of error signal and the third one proportional to
derivative of error signal.

42
 PART – B SSEC/DEPT.OF.EIE

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Briefly explain the characteristics of Sensors.

Resolution:
It is the minimum step size within the range of measurement of a sensor.in a wire-wound
potentiometer, it will be equal to resistance of one turn of wire. In digital devices with ‗n‗ bits,
resolution is ‗Full range/2n‗.
Sensitivity:
● It is defined as the change in output response divided by the change in input response.
● Highly sensitive sensors show larger fluctuations in output as a result of fluctuations in
input.
Linearity:
● It represents the relationship between input variations and output variations.
● In a sensor with linear ouput, any change in input at any level within the range will
produce
the same change in output.
Range:
It is the difference between the smallest and the largest outputs that a sensor can provide, or
the difference between the smallest and largest inputs with which it can operate properly.
Response time:
● It is the time that a sensor‗s ouput requires to reach a certain percentage of total change.
● It is also defined as the time required to observe the changein output as a result of
change in input for example, ordinary mercury thermometer responsetime and digital
thermometer
response time.
Frequency response:
● The frequency response is the range in which the system‗s ability to resonate to the
input remains relatively high.
● The larger the range of frequency response, the better the ability of the system to
respond to
varying input.
Reliability:
● It is the ratio between the number of times a system operates properly and the number of
times it is tried.
● For continuous satisfactory operation, it is necessary to choose reliable sensors that last
43
 long while considering the cost as well SSEC/DEPT.OF.EIE
as other requirements.

Accuracy:
● It shows how close the output of the sensor is to the expected value.
● For a given input, certain expected output value is related to how close the sensor‗s
output
value is to this value.
Repeatability:
● For the same input if the output response is different each time, then repeatability is
poor. Also, a specific range is desirable for operational performance as the performanve
of robots depends on sensors.
● Repeatability is a random phenomenon and hence there is no compensation.

Interfacing:

● Direct interfacing of the sensor to the microcontroller/microprocessor is desirable while

some add-on circuit may be necessary in certain special sensors.
● The type of the sensor output is equally important. An ADC is required for analogue
output

sensors for example, potentiometer ouput to microcontroller.

Size,weight and volume:
● Size is a critical consideration for joint displacement sensors.

● When robots are used as dynamic machines, weight of the sensor is important.

● Volume or spaces also critical to micro robots and mobile robots used for surveillance.

● Cost is important expecially when quantity involved is large in the end application.

2. Briefly explain the working principle of position sensors with neat sketch.

Position sensors are used to monitor the position of joints. Information about the position is
fed back to the control systems that are used to determine the accuracy of positioning.
In most cases in robots, a primary interest is to control the position of the arm. There is a
large variety of devices available for sensing position. However, the most popular angular-
position sensors are the following devices:
● Encoders
● Synchros
● Resolvers
● Potentiometers
44
 Types of Position Sensor:
Position sensors use different sensing principles to sense the displacement of a body.
Depending upon the different sensing principles used for position sensors, they can be classified
as follows:

1. Resistance-based or Potentiometric Position sensors

2. Capacitive position sensors
3. Linear Voltage Differential Transformers
4. Magnetostrictive Linear Position Sensor
5. Eddy Current based position Sensor
6. Hall Effect based Magnetic Position Sensors
7. Fiber-Optic Position Sensor
8. Optical Position Sensors

Potentiometric Position Sensors:

Potentiometric position sensor use resistive effect as the sensing principle. The sensing element is
simply a resistive (or conductive) track. A wiper is attached to the body or part of the body whose
displacement is to be measured. The wiper is in contact with the track. As the wiper (with the
body or its part) moves, the resistance between one end of the track and the wiper changes. Thus,
the resistance becomes a function of the wiper position. The change in resistance per unit
change in wiper position is linear.

Resistance, proportional to wiper position, is measured using voltage divider arrangement. A

constant voltage is applied across the ends of the track and the voltage across the resistance
between the wiper and one end of the track is measured. Thus, voltage output across the wiper
and one end of the track is proportional to the wiper position.
The conductive track can be made linear or angular depending upon the requirements. The tracks
are made from carbon , resistance wire or piezo resistive material.
45
3. Briefly explain the working principle of Range sensors with neat sketch.

The distance between the object and the robot hand is measured using the range sensors Within it
is range of operation. The calculation of the distance is by visual processing. Range sensors find
use in robot navigation and avoidance of the obstacles in the path. The - location and the general
shape characteristics of the part in the work envelope of the robot S done by special applications
for the range sensors. There are several approaches like, triangulation method, structured lighting
approach and time-of flight range finders etc. In these cases the source of illumination can be
light-source, laser beam or based on ultrasonic.

Triangulation Method:

This is the simplest of the techniques, which is easily demonstrated in the Figure. The object is swept over
by a narrow beam of sharp light. The sensor focussed on a small spot of the object surface detects the
reflected beam of light. If ‗8‗ is the angle made by the illuminating source and ‗b‗is the distance between
source and the sensor, the distance ‗c of the sensor on the robot is given as
46
Structured Lighting Approach:
This approach consists of projecting a light pattern the distortion of the pattern to calculate
the range. A pattern in use today is a sheet of light generated narrow slit.
As illustrated in. Figure, the intersection of the sheet with objects in the‗ work space yields a light
stripe which is viewed through a television camera displaced a distance B from the light source. The
stripe pattern is easily analyzed by a computer to obtain range information. For example, an inflection
indicates a change of surface, and a break corresponds to a gap between surfaces.

Specific range values are computed by first calibrating the system. One of the simplest arrangements
is shown in Figure, which represents a top view of Figure. In this, arrangement, the light source and
camera are placed at the same height, and the sheet of light is perpendicular to the line joining the
origin of the light sheet and the center of the camera lens. We call the vertical plane containing this
line the reference plane. Clearly, the reference plane is perpendicular to the sheet of light, and any
vertical flat surface that intersects the sheet Will produce a vertical stripe of light in which every point
will have the same perpendicular distance to the reference plane. - The objective of. the arrangement
shown in Figure. is to position the camera so that every such vertical stripe also appears vertical in the
image plane. In this way, every point, the same column in the ‗image will be known to have the same
distance to the ‗reference plane.
47
4. Briefly explain the working principle of Proximity sensors with neat sketScShE.C/DEPT.OF.EIE

Proximity Sensors:
The output of the proximity sensors gives an indication of the presence of an object with in the
vicinity job operation. In robotics these sensors are used to generate information of object
grasping and obstacle avoidance. This section deals with some of the important proximity sensors
used in robotics.
Proximity sensor is a sensor, which senses the presence or absence of the object without having
physical contact between the objects.

Inductive Proximity Sensors:

The ferromagnetic material brought close to this type of sensor results in change in position of the
flux lines of the permanent magnet leading to change in inductance of the coil. The induced
current pulse in the coil with change in amplitude and shape is proportional to rate of change of
flux line in magnet.
Construction:
The proximity inductive sensor basically consists of a wound coil located in front of a permanent
magnet encased inside a rugged housing. The lead from the coil, embedded in resin is connected
to the display through a connector.The effect of bringing the sensor in close proximity to a
ferromagnetic material causes a change in the position of the flux lines of the permanent magnet.

48
5. Explain the Machine vision systems of Robot. (AU-Nov/Dec-2009)
● Machine vision system consists of: Lighting, camera, A/D convertor, frame grabber, computer
processor, robot controller and robot manipulator.

● The hardware and software for perfomring the function of sensing and processing the image and
utilising the results obtained to command the robot.

● The sensing and digitizing functions involve the input of vision data by means of a camera focused on
the scene of interest. Special lighting techniques are frequently used to obtain an image of sufficient
contrast for later processing.

● The image viewed by the camera is typically digitized and stored in computer memory. The digital
image is called a frame of vision data, and is frequently captured by a hardware device called a frame
grabber.

● These devices are capable of digitizing images at the rate of 30 frames per second. The frames consist
of a matrix of data representing projections of the scene sensed by the camera.

● The elements of the matrix are called picture elements, or pixels. The number of pixels are
determined by a sampling process per formed on each image frame.

● A single pixel is the projection of a small portion of the scene which reduces that portion to a single
value. The value is a measure of the light intensity for that element of the scene.

● Each pixel intensity is converted into a digital value. (We are ignoring the additional complexities
involved in the operation of a color video camera.)
● The digitized image matrix for each frame is stored and then subjected to image processing and
analysis functions for data reduction and interpretation of the image.

● These steps are required in order to permit the real-time application of vision analysis required in
robotic applications.

● Typically an image frame will be thresholded to produce a binary image, and then various feature
measurements will further reduce the data representation of the image.
● This data reduction can change the representation of a frame from several.

50
6. Explain the various techniques in Image Processing and Analysis.

In the industrial applications the algorithms and programs are developed to process the images
captured, digitized and stored in the computer memory.
The size of data to be processed is huge, of the order of 106 which is to be substantially executed
in seconds.
The difficult and time consuming task of processing is handled effectively by the following
techniques.
(1) Image data reduction
(2) Segmentation
(3) Feature extraction
(4) Object recognition.

Image Data Reduction:

The purpose of image data reduction is to reduce the volume of data either by ellimination of
some or part processing, leading to the following sub-techniques.
(a) Digital conversion
Digital conversion is characterized by reduction in number of gray levels. For a 8-bit register each
pixel would have 28=256 gray levels. When fewer bits are used to represent pixel intensity the digital
conversion is reduced, to suit the requirements.

An image can be broken into regions that can then be used for later calculations. In effect this
method looks for different self contained regions, and uses region numbers instead of pixel intensities.
51
 A simple segmentation algorithm might be,
1. Threshold image to have values of 1 and 0.
2. Create a segmented image and fill it with zeros (set segment number variable to one).
3. Scanning the old image left to right, top to bottom.
4. If a pixel value of 1 is found, and the pixel is 0 in the segmented image, do a flood fill
for the pixel onto the new image using segment number variable.
5. Increment segment # and go back to step 3.
6. Scan the segmented image left to right, top to bottom.
7. If a pixel is found to be fully contained in any segment, flood fill it with a new segment
as in steps 4 and 5.

Object Recognition:
Form Fitting
It can sometimes help to relate a shape to some other geometric primitive using compactness,
perimeter, area, etc.
- ellipse
- square
- circle
- rectangle

52
7. With suitable applications brief explain the following: (AU-Nov/Dec-2010)

(i) Optical encoders

(ii) Laser range meters
(iii) Capacitive type touch sensors
(iv) Ultrasonic proximity sensors

(i) Optical encoders:

The absolute optical encoder employs the same basic construction as incremental optical encoders
except that there are more tracks of stripes and a corresponding number of receivers and transmitters.
Usually, the stripes are arranged to provide a binary number proportional to the shaft angle. The first
track might have two stripes, the second four, the third eight, and so on. In this way the angle can be
read directly from the encoder without any necessary counting. Figure illustrates an absolute optical
encoder.
(ii) Laser range meters:

53
A pulsed-laser system described by larvis [produces a two-dimensional array with values proportional to
distance. The two-dimensional scan is accom plished by deflecting the laser light via a rotating mirror. The
66 working range of this device is on the order of I to 4 m, with an accuracy of ± 0.25 cm. Figure shows a
collection of three-dimensional objects, and Figure is the corresponding sensed array displayed as art image
in which the intensity at each point is proportional to the distance between the sensor and the reflecting
surface at that point (darker is closer). The bright areas around the object boundaries represent discontinuity
in range determined by post processing in a computer An alternative to pulsed light is to use a continuous-
beam laser and measure the delay (i.e., phase shift) between the outgoing and returning beams.
(iii) Capacitive type touch sensors:

Unlike inductive and Hall-effect sensors which detect only ferromagnetic materials, capacitive sensors are
potentially capable (with various degrees of sensitivity) of detecting all solid and liquid materials. As their
name implies, these sensors are based on detecting a change in capacitance induced by a surface that is
brought near the sensing element.
The basic components of a capacitive sensor are shown in Figure. The sensing element is a capacitor
composed of a sensitive electrode and a reference electrode. These can be, for example, a metallic disk and
ring separated by a dielectric material. A cavity of dry air is usually placed behind the capacitive element to
provide isolation. The rest of the sensor consists of electronic circuitry which can be included as an integral
part of the unit, in which case it is normally embedded in a resin to provide sealing and mechanical support.

There are a number of electronic approaches for detecting proximity based on a change in capacitance. One
of the simplest includes the capacitor as part of anOscillator circuit designed so that the oscillation starts only
when the capacitance of the sensor exceeds a predefined threshold value. The start of oscillation is then
translated into an output voltage which indicates the presence of an object. This method provides a binary
output whose triggering sensitivity depends on the threshold value.A more complicated approach utilizes the
capacitive element as part of a circuit which is continuously driven by a reference sinusoidal waveform. A
change in capacitance produces a phase shift between the reference signal and a signal derived from the
capacitive element. The phase shift is proportional to the change in capacitance and can thus be used as a
basic mechanism for proximity detection.
54
(iv) Ultrasonic proximity sensors:

The previously discussed proximity sensors are useful for detection of ferro-magnetic matter only. If the robot
has to handle other type of materials ultrasonic sensors find the application.
Construction:
The main part in this type of sensor is the transducer which can act both as transmitter and receiver. The sensor is
covered by a resin block which protects from dust and humidity. For the acoustic damping, absorber material is
provide as shown in Figure. Finally a metallic housing gives general protection
55
 UNIT IV KINEMATICS AND PATH PLANNING

PART B (TWO MARKS)

1. What is kinematics?
Kinematics will enable us to calculate what each joint variable must be if we desire the hand to be
located at a particular point and have a particular orientation.

2. Define statics.
Statics deals with force which acts on the various parts which are assumed to be rest.

3. What is link?
A link may be defined as a member (or) a combination of member of mechanism connecting other
members and having motion to them.
Link of machine may transfer both power and motion

4. What is forward kinematics?

It is a scheme to determine joint angle by robot knowing its position in the world coordinate system

5. What is reverse kinematics?

It is a scheme to determine the position of the robot in the world coordinate system by knowing the
joint angles and the link parameter of the robot.

6. Define manipulator kinematics.

Manipulator kinematics is connected with the position and orindation of the robot‘s end of arm or
end effector attached to it as a function of time but without regard for the effects of force (or) mass.

7. Write about transformation.

● Transformation of frames introduced to make modelling the relocation of object easier.
● An object is described with respect to a frame located in the object, and this frame is
reloaded with transformation.

8. Explain kinematic model.

● Before a robot can move its hand to an object must be located relative to it. There
is currently no simple method for measuring the location of the robot hand.
● Most robot calculated the position of their hand using kinematic model of their arm.

9. Write steps to drive kinematics model?

1) Assign D-H coordination frame
2) Find link parameter
3) Transformation matrices of adjacent joints
4) Calculate kinematic matrix
5) When necessary, Euler angle representation
56
10. Give a method to salve forward kinematic problems?
Denavid-Hartenberg conversion

11. Give a method to salve inverse kinematic problems?

● Closed form (or) Analytical solutions
● numerical solutions

12. What is the principle of vacuum cup?

The principle used in vacuum pump and venture

13. What are the methods of robot programming?

● Lead through methods
● Texual robot languages
● Mechanical programming

14. What are ways of accomplishing lead through programming?

● Power lead through
● Manual lead through

15. What is teach pendent?

The teach pendant is usually a small handheld control box with combinations of toggle switches,
dials and buttons to regulate the robot‘s physical movements and program capabilities.
16. What are the methods of teaching?
● Joint movement
● X-Y-Z coordinate motions
● Tool coordinate motion
17. What are the basic mechanisms of legged robot?
● Slider
● Liver

18. What are the benefits that can be obtained with a legged robot?
● Better mobility
● Better stability on the platform
● Better energy efficiency
● Smaller impact on the ground

19. What is APAS?

Adaptable programmable system was developed by national science foundation & westing house
Electric Corporation. The purpose was to advance the state of the art in automated batch assembly.
20. Write the different type of kinematics analysis of mechanism?
● Graphical Position Analysis Method
● Algebraic Position Analysis of Linkages
● Complex Algebra Method for Position Analysis

57
21. When a robot singularity will occurs?
A robot singularity occurs when robot axes are redundant (more axes then necessary to cause
the same motion) or when the robot is in certain configurations that require extremely high joint
rates to move at some nominal speed in Cartesian space

22. Write the two modes of lead through programming?

● Teach mode
● Run mode
23. Write end effector command
● OPEN
● CLOSE
● OPEN I
● CLOSED I

24. List out basic modes of operation in robot language structure.

The three basic modes of operations are

● Monitor mode
● Run mode
● Edit mode

25. State that robot language element.

● Constant, variables
● Motion command
● End effector and sensor command
● Computation and operations.

26. What are the methods of robot programming?

● Lead through methods
● Textual robot languages
● Mechanical Programming

27. What are the ways of accomplishing lead through programming?

● Powered Lead through
● Manual Lead through

28. What is teach pendant?

The teach pendant is usually a small handheld control box with combinations of toggle switches,
dials and buttons to regulate the robot‗s physical movements and program capabilities.

29. What are the methods of teaching?

● Joint movements
● X-Y-Z coordinates motions
● Tool coordinate motions

58
30. What is robot kinematics?
Forward kinematics
It is a scheme to determine joint angles of a robot by knowing its position in the world coordinate
system.

Reverse kinematics
It is a scheme to determine the position of the robot in the world coordinate system by knowing the
joint angles and the link parameters of the robot.

31. What is trajectory planning?

It is defined as planning of the desired movements of the manipulator.

32. Define degrees of freedom.

The number of independent ways by which a dynamic system can move without violating any
constraint imposed on it, is called degree of freedom. In other words, the degree of freedom can be
defined as the minimum number of independent coordinates which can specify the position of the system
completely.

33. Explain joint mode of teaching robots.

The teach pendant has a set of toggle switches (or similar controlled devices) operate each joint
either of it to directions until the endeffector has been positioned to the desired point.

34. Explain the reasons for defining points in a program.

● To define a working position for the endeffector
● To avoid obstacles

35. What is position representation?

The position of the end of the arm may be represented by the two joint angles q1 and q2.this is
known as position representation.
Pj = (q1,q2)

36. Define servo controlled robots.

Servo controlled robots, which are programmed by lead through an textual language methods tend to
actuate all axes simultaneously.

37. What is circular Interpolation?

Circular Interpolation requires the programmer to define a circle in the robot‗s workspace which is
done by specifying three points that lie along the circle.

38. What are irregular smooth motions?

The segments in manual lead though programming are sometimes approximately straight sometimes
curved and sometimes back and forth motions. These motions are called irregular smooth motions.
59
39. What is manual lead through programming?
In manual lead through programming the programmer moves the manipulated wrist to teach spray-painting or arc
welding. The movements consist of combination of smooth motion segments

PART – B

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Derive the forward and reverse transformation of 2-Degree of freedom and 3- degree of
freedom arm.

60
Adding Orientation: A 3-Degree of Freedom Arm in (2D) Two Dimensions

The arm we have been modeling is very simple; a two-jointed robot arm has little practical value
except for very simple tasks. Let us add to the manipulator a modest capability for orienting as well as
positioning a part or tool. Accordingly, we will incorporate a third degree of freedom into the
previous configuration to develop the RR:R manipulator shown in Fig. 4-5. This third degree of
freedomwillrepresent a wrist joint. The world space coordinates for the wrist end would

62
 SSEC/DEPT.OF.EIE
2. Briefly explain the Robot Programming
Languages in detail.

● Robot languages have been developed for ease of control of motions of robots having
different structures and geometrical capabilities.
● Some of the robot languages have been developed by modifying the existing general-
purpose computer languages and some of them are written in a completely new style.
● Programming languages have been developed by the pioneer efforts of various
researchers at Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory; research laboratories of IBM
Corporation, under U.S. Air Force sponsorship, General Electric Co., Unimation and
many other robot manufacturers.
WAVE and AL:

● WAVE, developed at Stanford, demonstrated a robot hand—eye coordination while it

was implemented in a machine vision system.
● Later a powerful language AL was developed to control robot arms. WAVE incorporated
many important features.
● Trajectory calculations through coordination of joint movements, end-effector positions
and touch sensing were some of the new features of WAVE. But the algorithm was too
complex and not user-friendly.

● They could not be run in real-time and on-line. On the other hand, trajectory calculations
are possible at compile time and they can be modified during run time.
AML:
● A manufacturing language, AML was developed by IBM. AML is very useful for
assembly operations as different user—robot programming interfaces are possible.
● The programming language AML is also used in other automated manufacturing
systems.
● The advantage of using AML is that integers, real numbers and strings can be specified
in the same aggregate which is said to be an ordered set of constants or variables.
MCL:
● US Air force ICAM project led to the development of another manufacturing control
language known as MCL by McDonnel—Douglas.

● This is a modification of the popular APT (Automatically Programmed Tooling)

language used in CNC machine tools as many similar commands are used to control
machine tools in
CAM applications.
RAIL:

● RAIL was developed by Automatic for robotic assembly, inspection, arc welding and
machine vision. A variety of data types as used in PASCAL can be used.
63
 ● An interpreter is used to convert the language into
machine language commands. It uses
● Motorola 68000 type microcomputer
system; It supports many commands and
HELP: control of the vision system.

● HELP was developed by General Electric Company. It acts more or less like RAIL.
● It has the capability to control two robot arms at the same time. The structure of the
language is like PASCAL.
JARS:
● JARS was developed by NASA JPL. The base of the language is PASCAL. JARS can be
interfaced with PUMA 6000 robot for running robotic programs.
RPL:
● RPL was developed at SRI International. A compiler is used to convert a program into the
codes that can be interpreted by an interpreter. Unimation PUMA 500 can be controlled with
the help of RPL. The basic ideas of LISP (an Al language) have been organized into a
FORTRAN-like syntax in RPL. It is modular and flexible.

● Besides these, there are some other languages like PAL, ADA etc. PAL has been written by
Richard Paul by modifying WAVE and incorporating features of PASCAL. But the
representations of syntaxes used in the program are difficult to handle. ADA developed by
the Department of Defense (DOD) in USA is a real-time system that can be run on several
microcomputers like Zilog, VAX, Motorola 68000, etc. ADA is convenient for controlling
the robots used in a manufacturing cell.

● Different textual robot languages have different attributes. Far example, VAL, HELP and
MC though powerful for many simple tasks, do not have the same structured modular
programming capability like AL, AML, JARS and ADA or VAL II. In a manufacturing cell,
multiple robots or robotic equipment work in unison. Control of two or more operations
done by the robots in a coordinated manner is complex.

● Synchronizing the motions of the robots requires necessary software commands. AL, ADA,
AML, MCL have the capability of controlling multiple arms. The programming language
must be capable of expressing various geometric features like joint angles, coordinate
transformations such as rotation, translation, and vector quantities. Homogeneous matrices
are used to specify the rotation. Rotation can also be specified by Euler angles. AML, RAIL
and VAL use Euler angles while AL manipulates homogeneous matrix for control. AL is
very suitable for assembly tasks wherein many sensors are employed, though other
languages like AML and HELP are flexible enough to run various subroutines. Slewing and
straight- line motions control are available with most of the languages.

64
3. Explain the teach pendant for Robot system (AU-Nov/Dec-2010)

● The teach pendant has the following primary functions:

● Serve as the primary point of control for initiating and monitoring operations.
● Guide the robot or motion device, while teaching locations.
● Support application programs.
● The Teach Pendant is used with a robot or motion device primarily to teach.
● Robot locations for use: in application programs. The Teach Pendant is also used with
custom. Applications that employ ―teach routine's that pause execution at specified
points and allow an Operator to teach * re-teach the robot locations used by the program.
There are two styles of Teach Pendants: the programmer‗s pendant, which is designed
for use while an application is being written and debugged, and the operator‗s pendant,
which is designed for use during normal system operation.

● The operator‗s pendant has a palm-activated switch, which is connected to the remote
emergency stop circuitry of the controller. Whenever this switch is released, arm power
is removed from the motion device. To operate the Teach Pendant left hand is put
through the opening on the left-hand side of the pendant and the left thumb is used to
operate the pendant speed bars. The right hand is used for all the other function buttons.

The major areas of the Teach Pendant are:

1. Data Entry Buttons:
The data entry buttons are used to input data, normally in response to prompts that appear on
the pendant display The data entry buttons include YES/NO, DEL, the

65
 numeric buttons, the decimal point and the REC/DONE button, which behaves like the
Return or Enter key on a normal keyboard. In many cases, application programs have
users press the REC/DONE button to signal that they have completed a task.
2. Emergency Stop Switch:
The emergency stop switch on the Teach Pendant immediately halts program execution and
turns off arm power.
3. User LED:
The pendant is in background mode when the user LED is in not lit and none of the
predefined functions are being used. The user LED is lit whenever an application program is
making use of the Teach Pendant.
4. Mode Control Buttons:
The mode control buttons change the state being used to move the robot, switch control
between the Teach Pendant and the application programs and enable arm power when
necessary.
5. Manual Control Buttons:
When the Teach Pendant is in manual mode, these buttons select which robot joint will
move, or the coordinate axis along which the robot will move.

6. Manual State LEDs:

The manual state LEDs indicates the type of manual motion that has been selected.
7. Speed Bars:
The speed bars are used to control the robot‗s speed and direction. Pressing the speed bar
near the outer ends will move the robot faster, while pressing the speed bar near the center
will move the robot slower.
8. Slow Button:
The slow button selects between the two different speed ranges of the speed bars.
9. Predefined Function Buttons:
The predefined function buttons have specific, system- wide functions assigned to them, like
display of coordinates, clear error, etc.
10. Programmable Function Buttons:
The programmable function buttons are used in custom application programs, and their
functions will vary depending upon the program being run.
11. Soft Buttons:
The ―soft‖ buttons have different functions depending on the application program being
run, or the selection made from the predefined function buttons.
66
4. Write down the capabilities and limitations of Lead through methods.
(AU-Nov/Dec- 2009)

During this programming method, the traveling of robots is based on the desired movements,
and it is stored in the external controller memory. There are two modes of a control system in this
method such as a run mode and teach mode. The program is taught in the teach mode, and it is
executed in the run mode. The leadthrough programming method can be done by two methods
namely:
● Powered Leadthrough Method
● Manual Leadthrough Method

Powered Leadthrough Method:

The powered leadthrough is the common programming method in the industries. A teach
pendant is incorporated in this method for controlling the motors available in the joints. It is also
used to operate the robot wrist and arm through a sequence of points. The playback of an
operation is done by recording these points. The control of complex geometric moves is
difficultto perform in the teach pendant. As a result, this method is good for point to point
movements. Some of the key applications are spot welding, machine loading & unloading, and
part transfer process.

Manual Leadthrough Method:

In this method, the robot‗s end effector is moved physically by the programmer at the desired
movements. Sometimes, it may be difficult to move large robot arm manually. To get rid of it
ateach button is implemented in the wrist for special programming. The manual leadthrough
method is also known as Walk Through method. It is mainly used to perform continuous path
movements. This method is best for spray painting and arc welding operations.

Limitation:

● Lead through programming is not readily compatible with modern computer based
technology.
● Robot cannot be used in production, while it is being programmed.

67
5. With an example differentiate forward and inverse kinematics. (AU-Nov/Dec-2009)

Forward kinematics:
The transformation of coordinates of the end-effector point from the joint space to the world
space is known as forward kinematic transformation.
Reverse kinematics:
The transformation of coordinates from world space to joint space is known as backward or reverse
kinematic transformation.

Robot Kinematics:
Robot arm kinematics deals with the analytic study of the motion of a robot arm with respect to a
fixed reference coordinate system as a function of time. The mechanical manipulator can be modelled
as an open loop articulated chain with several rigid links connected in series by either ‗revolute‗ or
68
‗prismatic‗ joints driven by the actuators.
For a manipulator, (the position and orientation of the end-effector are derived from the given
joint angles and link parameters, the scheme is called the forward kinematics problem If, on the other
hand, the joint angles and the different configuration of the manipulator are derived from the position
and orientation of the endeffector, the scheme is called the reverse kinematics problem. F 2.1
illustrates the scheme of forward and reverse kinematics.
Representing the Position
Considering the revolute type of joint only, the position of the end-effector can be represented by
the joint
angles, 0 02,...,. 0,, as,

The position of the end-effector can also be defined in world space as,

69
6. Derive the expression for direct and inverse kinematics of 4 degrees of freedom
robot manipulator.

A 4-Degree of Freedom Manipulator in (3D) Three Dimensions:

The configuration of a manipulator in three dimensions. The manipulator has 4 degrees -of
freedom: joint I (type T joint) allows rotation about the z axis; joint 2 (type R) allows rotation about
an axis that is perpendicular to the z axis; joint 3 is a linear joint which is capable of sliding over a
certain range; and joint 4 is a type R joint which allows rotation about an axis that is parallel to the
joint 2 axis. Thus, we have a TRL: R manipulator.

Let us define the angle of rotation of joint I to be the base rotation 0; the angle of rotation of joint
2 will be called the elevation angle 4.; the length of linear joint 3 will be called the extension L (L
represents a combination of links 2 and 3); and the angle that joint 4 makes with the x — y plane will
be called the pitch angle 4. These features are shown in Fig. 4-6.
The position of the end of the wrist, P, defined in the world coordinate system for the robot, is
given by

70

SSEC/EIE/QB/IVYEAR/ROBOTICS & AUTOMATION

 SSEC/DEPT.OF.EIE

7. List the commands used in VAL II programming and describe its functions.
(AU-Nov/Dec- 2009)
SSEC/EIE/QB/IVYEAR/ROBOTICS & AUTOMATION
 SSEC/DEPT.OF.EIE

SSEC/EIE/QB/IVYEAR/ROBOTICS & AUTOMATION

 UNIT V CASE STUDIES

PART B (TWO MARKS)

1. What is meant by SCARA?

SCARA is a robot – This also has a cylindrical work space. RRP main body. Such robots
were used to assemble the SONY Walkman.

2. Write some industrial application of robot?

a). Material handling application
● Material transfer application
● Machine loading/unloading
application b). Processing application
● Welding
● Painting
● Assembly
● Inspection
3. What are the benefits of industrial robot?
Industrial robot offers the following benefits

● Increase productivity
● Improve product quality
● More consistent product quality
● Reduce scrap and waste
● Reduce reworking costs
● Reduce raw goods inventory
● Direct labour cost saving
● Saving in overhead cost such as lighting, heating and cooling

4. What is palletizing?
Palletizing is the operation in which the robot picks cartons from conveyor and places them
on to a pallet

5. What is depalletizing?
Depalletizing operation is the reverse of palletizing operation in which the robot removes
cartons from the pallet and places them on to conveyor or other location

6. What are the different types of material handling operation?

● Picking and placing
● Palletizing and depalletizing
● Machine loading and unloading
● Parts feeding , storage and retrival
● Sorting of the parts from conveyors

73
 7. What are the gantry robots?
If the robots are mounted over head they are called gentry robots
8. How the workpieces are fed to the robot by some mechanical feeding
device? The workpieces are fed to the robot by some mechanical feeding device or
conveyor in a known location and orientation
9. What is the interpretation of manufacturing system?
Manufacturing system is defined as the system which converts the input into a ` suitable
output
10. What are the technologies used in manufacturing system?
● Computer aided design/computer aided manufacturing
● FMS
● CIM
● AGILE
● LEAN
11. Define the term “CIM”
The term CIM denotes the use of computer pervasive use of computer system to design the
product, plan the product, control the operations and perform the various business related
function
12. Write down some elements of CIM?
LAN, Database, FEM, QC, CNC, TOOL DESIGN, MARKETING, COMPUTER AIDED
DESIGN, ANALYSIS, ROBOT SCHEDULING

13. What are parts feeding, storage and retrieval process?

● Parts feeding means feeding the part to the
machine
● Storage means storing different types of object in the pallet
● Retrieval is the process of taking the object from the pallet

14. What is pallet?

Pallet is a storage area which consists of a number of cells to store workpiece of different
size.

15. Differentiate palletizing and depalletizing

Palletizing Depallatizing

a. The pickup point is constant a. The pickup point is different

b. The delivery point is different b. The delivery point is constant

16. Application of robot in loading and unloading?

● Die casting
● Injection moulding
● Forming, stamping
● Trimming process
74
17. What is assembly?

The term assembly is defined to mean the fitting of two or more discrete parts to form a new
subassembly

18. Defined part presentation.

In order to perform an assembly task the part that is to be assembled must be presented to
robot this is part presentation

19. Explain bowl feeders?

Bowl feeders are devices used for feeding and orienting small parts in automated assembly
operations. They are made two main components
● The bowl
● The vibrating base

20. What are the types of assembly operation?

● Parts mating
● Parts joining

21. Basic configuration of assembly systems?

● A single workstation assembly
● A series of work station assembly
● Combination of both

22. Explain designing for robot assembly.

● Certain assembly tasks are very difficult for the robot to perform than others.
If possible this difficulty factor should be consider in the design of product
● Another consideration in the design of an assembly is the direction in which the parts
are to be added in the assembly operation

75
 PART – B

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Briefly explain AGV & RGV types of robots in detail. (AU-Nov/Dec-2010)

Automated Guided Vehicles:

An AGV is a computer controlled, driverless vehicle used for transporting materials from point-
to-point in a manufacturing setting. They represent a major category of automated materials
handling devices. They are guided along defined pathways in the floor. The vehicles are powered
by means of on-board batteries that allow operation for several hours between recharging. The
definition of the pathways is generally accomplished using wire embedded in the floor or
reflective paint on the floor surface. Guidance is achieved by sensors on the vehicles that can
follow the guide wires or paint. When it arrives at the proper destination, the material is off
loaded onto another conveyor or the workstation. The vehicle is then dispatched to the next
location or to home to await further orders. A computer controls its motion.
The key terms in AGV are
Guide path — The term guide path refers to the actual path the AGV follows in making its
rounds through manufacturing plant. The guide path may be of the embedded wire type or optical
devices.
Routing — It is the ability of the AGV to make decisions that allow it to select the
appropriate route as it moves across the shop floor.
Towing vehicles — These are the most widely used type of AG V‗s and are called the work
horse. They are most commonly used for transporting large amounts of bulky and heavy materials
from the warehouse to various locations in the manufacturing plant, e.g. driverless train

76
 Unit load vehicles —
They are used in settings with short guide paths, high volume, and need for independent
movement and versatility. Warehouses and distribution centres are the most likely settings for
these vehicles. They can operate in an en vironinent where there is not much room and movement
is restricted.
Rail Guided Vehicles:

Motorised vehicles that are guided by a fixed rail system constitute a third category of material
transport systems. If the system uses just one rail it is called a monorail system; whereas it can
also consist of a two-rail system. Monorails typically operate from a suspended position
overhead, while two-rail systems are generally found on the plant floor. Vehicles operate
asynchronously and are driven by an on-board electric motor, with power being supplied by an
electrified rail. This removes the necessity of stoppages owing to battery-power wear-out, as with
AGVs, but it presents a new safety hazard in the form of the electrified rail.
Routing variations are possible in rail systems through a combination of turntables, switches, and
other specialised track sections. This allows different loads to travel different routes, in a similar
manner to an AGVS. Rail-guided systems are generally considered to be more versatile than
conveyor systems, but less versatile than AGVS. Considerable use is made of the system in the
automotive industry where overhead monorails move large components and subassemblies in its
manufacturing operations.

Sorting Transfer Vehicle (STV) is a fast, flexible and easily installed material transport system.
STVs can be used to move loads of all sizes in a warehouse. For example, a STV may be used as
a sorting tool for goods coming out of storage and heading to shipping. STV features sorting and
collecting capabilities for multiple AS/RS aisle conveyor stations. It enables picking by order line
and sorting by destination to one.

77
 Separate input/output stations enable the STV to perform multiple tasks at one time. STVs are
compact and move agilely over a track system, enabling higher throughput than conveyors. The
STV track can be arranged in a loop or straight line to accommodate a variety of applications,
such as mixed SKU pallet picking, cycle counting, quality inspection, load sorting and truck
loading. Advantages of STVs include: fewer motors, no single point of failure, high-speed, high-
throughput and expansion flexibility to handle future growth.

2. Briefly explain the economic analysis of Robots in detail (AU-Nov/Dec-2008 )

In addition to the technological considerations involved in applications engineering for a

robotics project, there is also the economic issue. Will the robot justify itself economically? The
economic analysis for any proposed engineering project is of considerable importance in most
companies because management usually decides whether to install the project on the basis of this
analysis. In the present chapter, we consider the economic analysis of a robot project. We discuss
the various costs and potential benefits associated with the robot installation, and we describe
several methods for analyzing these factors to determine the economic merits of the project.
To perform the economic analysis of a proposed robot project, certain basic information is
needed about the project. This information includes the type of project being considered, the cost
of the robot installation, the production cycle time, and the savings and benefits resulting from the
project.

Type of Robot Installation:

There are two basic categories of robot installations that are commonly encountered. The first
involves a new application. This is where there is no existing facility. Instead, there is a need for a
new facility, and a robot installation represents one of the possible approaches that might be used
to satisfy that need. In this case, the various alternatives are compared and the best alternative is
selected, assuming it meets the company‗s investment criteria. The second situation is the robot
installation to replace a current method of operation. The present method typically involves a
production operation that is performed manually, and the robot would be used somehow to
substitute for the human labor. In this situation, the economic justification of the robot installation
often depends on how inefficient and costly the manual method is, rather than the absolute merits
of the robot method.

In either of these situations, certain basic cost information is needed in order to perform the
economic analysis. The following subsection discusses the kinds of cost and operating data that
are used to analyze the alternative investment projects.
78
 Cost Data Required for the Analysis
The cost data required to perform the economic analysis of a robot project divide into two types:
investment costs and operating costs.

Investment costs:
1. Robot purchase cost—The basic price of the robot equipped from the manufacturer with
the proper options (excluding end effector) to perform the application.
2. Engineering costs— The costs of planning and design by the user company‗s engineering
staff to install the robot.
3. Installation costs— This includes the labor and materials needed to prepare the
installation site (provision for utilities, floor preparation, etc.)
4. Special tooling— This includes the cost of the end eflector, parts position and other
fixtures and tools required to operate the work cell
5. Miscellaneous costs—This covers the additional investment costs not included by any of
the above categories (e.g., other equipment needed for the cell).

Operating costs and savings:

6. Direct labor cost—The direct labor cost associated with the operation of the robot cell.
Fringe benefits are usually included in the calculation of direct labor rate, but other
overhead costs are excluded.

7. Indirect labor cost—The indirect labor costs that can be directly allocated to thc operation
of the robot cell. These costs include supervision, setup, programming, and other
personnel costs not included in category 6 above

8. Maintenance—This covers the anticipated costs of maintenance and repair for the robot
cell. These costs are included under this separate heading rather than in category 7
because the maintenance costs involve not only indirect labor (the maintenance crew)
but also materials (replacement parts) and service calls by the robot manufacturer. A
reasonable ‗rule of thumb‖ in the absence of better data is that the annual maintenance
cost for she robot will be approximately 10 percent of the purchase price (category I).

9. Utilities—this includes the cost of utilities to operate the robot cell (e.g., electricity, air
pressure, gas). These are usually minor costs compared to the above items.
10. Training—Training might be considered to be an investment cost because much of the
training required for the installation will occur as a first cost of the installation. However,
training should he a continuing activity, and so it is included as an operating cost.
79
 Costs include the purchase cost of the robot and the engineering costs associated with its
installation in the work cell. In many robot application projects. the engineering costs can equal or
exceed the purchase cost of the robot. The operating costs include the cost of any labor needed to
operate the cell, maintenance costs, and other expenses associated with the robot cell operation. lhe
table lists most of the major operating costs for a robot application project. In the case of the operating
costs, it is often convenient to identify the cost savings that will result from the use of a robot as
compared to an existing method, rather than to separately identity the operating costs of the
alternative methods. Material savings, scrap reductions. and advantages resulting from more
consistent quality arc examples of these savings. Items 6 through should he interpreted to allow for
this possible method of declaring cost savings between the alternatives.
80
3. Briefly explain the Safety sensors and safety monitoring of Robots in detail
(AU-Nov/Dec- 2008)

81
SSEC/DEPT.OF.EIE
 SSEC/DEPT.OF.EIE

4. Briefly explain the Workplace design consideration for safety of

Robots in detail

83
 SSEC/DEPT.OF.EIE

SSEC/EIE/QB/IVYEAR/ROBOTICS & AUTOMATION

 SSEC/DEPT.OF.EIE
5. Briefly explain the various steps involved
for implementing the robot in industries.

85
6. Write a critical note on any two method for economic analysis of
industrial robots. (AU-Nov/Dec-2010)
 OTHER QUESTIONS (PART B)
UNIT-I

1. a) Define a robot. With help of sketch describe pitch, yaw and roll motion of a robot wrist.
b) Discuss the origin and various generations of robots. Sketch and explain the work
envelope of a cylindrical robot.

2. a) Define the terms accuracy and cycle time in relation to a robot. Sketch and
explain the joints and degree of freedom of a jointed arm robot.
b) Differentiate between open loop and closed loop servo systems. With the aid of diagrams
explain the working principle of directional control and flow control valve.

3. a) Compare the various attributes of robot with those of human being. Explain a robot structure with a
sketch.
b) What are the various types of joints used in robots? Sketch the following robots indicating the
joints and degree of freedom.
i) SCARA robot. ii) Gantry robot.

4. a) How do you specify a robot? Is robotics automation? Discuss the different classification systems of
robots.
b)Discuss the differences between servo controlled and non-servo controlled robots. Sketch and explain
the servo control system for point to point positioning.

5. a) Define a robot. Is robotics an automation? Discuss the various types of joints used in robots.
b) Discuss the various generations of robots. Sketch and explain the typical configuration and
degrees of freedom of wrist assembly.
6. a) What is the work envelope of a robot, Sketch and explain two views to indicate the work envelope
of a
i) Cartesian robot. ii) Polar robot.
b) Explain the concept of accuracy and repeatability of a robot. What are the different
configurations of robots? Which of these configurations would be most suitable for
i) Placing an object in an oven for heat-treatment.
ii) Painting a motor car body.

7. a) What do you understand by degree of freedom(DOF)? How many DOFs are required to position an
end effector at any point in 3-D space?
b) What is the work envelope of a robot sketch and explain two views to indicate the work
envelope of a
i) Cylindrical robot. ii) Anthropomorphic robot.

8. a) What are the basic components of a robotic system? Explain the functions of each of the
components with a neat sketch.
b) State the laws of robotics and discuss the various mechanical design considerations of robots.

9. Write short notes on any about the following

a) Dynamic stabilization of robots
b) Asimov‘s laws of robotics.
c) Degrees of freedom.
 UNIT-II

1. a) What are the merits and demerits of moving coil dc motors. Sketch and explain the working of
stepper motors.
b) What is pattern recognition? Describe a sensing device to generate the contour picture of a work
piece.

2. a) What is robot vision? Describe a vision sensor used to take the image of an object.
b) Discuss response, accuracy and sensitivity in relation to robot sensors. Explain the working of
proximity and range sensors.

3. a) Distinguish between shunt wound motor and series wound motor. Sketch and explain the principle
of operation of stepper motor.
b) Distinguish between tactile and non-tactile sensors. Sketch and explain the working of an acoustic
sensor.

4. a) Compare stepper motor and D.C. motor drives for a robot. Sketch and explain a hydraulic drive
system used for robots.
b) A stepper motor is used to drive a linear axis of a robot. The motor is connected to a screwed
shaft having a single start thread of pitch 2.5 mm. The resolution desired for the controlled motion is
0.5 mm. Determine:
i) Step angles that are required on the motor to obtain the resolution.
ii) Pulse rate required to drive the axis if the velocity is 80 mm/s.
5. a) What is pattern recognition? Briefly describe a sensing device to generate the contour picture of a
work piece.
b) What are the different types of sensors? Classify them. Sketch and explain the use of a proximity
sensor.

6. a) What are the advantages of hydraulic actuator systems over electrical motors? Sketch and explain a
pneumatic power drive used for robots.
b) What are the functions of sensors? How do you sense the positional accuracy of a robot? Describe
the suitable type of sensor used to measure the position.

7. Write short notes on any about the following

a) Hydraulic drives.
b) Machine Vision.
c) Tractile sensors.
 UNIT-III

1. a) What are the different types of actuators used for robots? Explain the working of a hydraulic
actuator system.
b) Classify the robot end-effector from the view point of control. Sketch and explain a cam actuated
gripper used for robots.
2. a) How is a robot end-effector specified? Discuss the design considerations in the robot end-of-the-
arm tooling.
b) What is the function of a manipulator? Discuss the working of a robotic manipulator arm with a sketch.
3. a) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different types of actuators. Explain the working of
hydraulic actuator system.
b) Discuss the functions of gripper with the help of a sketch. Explain the working of magnet grippers
used for robots.
4. a) Compare and contrast the end-effectors from the view-point of their functions. Sketch and explain
a gripper based on slider crank mechanism.
b) Discuss the functions of manipulators. Sketch and explain a pneumatic manipulator control circuits
used for robots.
5. a) Distinguish between two-point and three-point centering of robot gripper. Explain any two types of
grippers used for robots.
b) What is the function of a manipulator? Sketch and explain a robotic manipulator arm.
6. Write short notes on any about the following
a) Magnetic grippers.
b) Vaccum Grippers.

UNIT-IV

1. a) Discuss the different inputs to an inverse kinematics algorithm? Explain the solution of a simple
inverse kinematic algorithm.
b) What is homogenous transformation of coordinates? Write the homogenous transformation matrix
for translation in 3D.

2. a) What is robot software? Discuss the software elements of robot and different teaching methods of
robot.
b) List the advantages and disadvantages of off-line programming? Explain the different robot all
layouts.

3. a) What is homogenous transformation of coordinates? Write homogenous transformation matrices

for translation followed by rotation.
b) Discuss the various inputs to an inverse kinematics algorithm. Explain the functioning of an inverse
kinematic algorithm.

4. a) Discuss the relative merits and demerits of different textual robot languages. Explain the different
program instructions.
b) What is robot software and explain common software elements of a robot. Discuss what is motion
programming and how it is achieved.
 5. a) What is homogenous transformation of coordinates? Write homogenous transformation matrices
for rotation in 3D.
b) Determine a T matrix that represents a rotation through an angle α about OX axis, followed by a rotation
of φ about the OY axis.

6. a) Write the homogenous transform matrix for a rotation of 90o about the z axis followed by a rotation
of -90o about the axis, followed by a translation of ( 3,7,9 )
b) What are the various inputs to an inverse kinematics algorithm? Explain functioning of an inverse kinematic
algorithm.

7. a) Explain the geometric based direct kinematic analysis of articulated robot.

b) Distinguish between first generation and second generation robot languages. Discuss the various
instructions used in programming
8. Write short notes on any about the following
a) Hill climbing techniques.
b) Jacobian work envelope.

UNIT-V

1. a) Enumerate the non-manufacturing areas where robots are expected to be used. Discuss
robot application for welding and machine loading.
b) State characteristics of work which promote application of robots. Discuss robot application for
assembly and inspection

2. a) What is meant by robot cell? Explain the different robotic cell layouts.
b) What is spot welding? Describe briefly the operations involved in robotic spot welding. What are
the advantages of robotic welding over manual welding?

3. Write short notes on any about the following

a) Robot applications in manufacturing.
b) Robot cell design.

4. Write short notes on any about the following

a) Robot cell layouts.
b) Selection of a robot.