Government Engineering College Jagdalpur

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

TELECOMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING

ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP LABORATORY

SUB. CODE: 328462(28)

LABORATORY MANUAL

FOR THIRD SEMESTER B.E (ET&T)

Government Engineering College

Jagdalpur
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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

S. No. Name of Experiment Page No.

1 To understand the operational features of Analog and 03

Digital Multimeter.
2 To understand the operational features of Cathode Ray 09
Oscilloscope. (Calibration, Time/div, Volt/div, X-Y,
single channel, Dual channel)
3 To understand the operational features of Function 13
Generator ( Measurement of volt and frequency,
attenuation)
4 Measurement of capacitors (mica, ceramic, paper, 16
electrolytic and variable) using CRO and LCR Meter
and verify with color coding.
5 Measurement of resistors- Fixed (carbon, wire wound, 20
metal film and variable) using CRO and Multimeter and
verify with color coding and identification of special
resistors like Thermistor, LDR and VDR (FET)
6 To Identify measure inductor by using multimeter and 26
LCR meter
7 Study of Diodes (Ge and Si ), Zener diodes and LEDs. 33
( terminals, resistance and capacitance in forward biased
and reversed biased conditions).
8 To test transistor using multimeter,transistor tester and 41
CRO
9 To understand the types of PCB. 46

10 To understand PCB designing rules (Art Work and 49

layout) using EDA tools.

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

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OBJECTIVE- To understand the operational features of Analog and Digital Multimeter

APPRATUS-Digital multimeter, analog multimeter

THEORY- The multimeter is a device that combines the functions of an ammeter, voltmeter,
and ohmmeter. A multimeter is the most versatile and common meter used today. Multimeters
are mainly used to measure resistance, as well as DC/AC voltage and current. Common
multimeters can be divided into two types, desktop and handheld digital multimeters depending
on their sizes. Desktop digital multimeters are usually used in labs for high-precision
measurement and instrument calibration. Handheld digital multimeters are battery-powered
devices, often used for on-site debugging. In recent years, handheld digital multimeters have
gained tremendous improvement in measurement precision.
(I) Analog multimeter- Analog multimeters can measure a range of different electrical outputs,
such as voltage, current, and resistance,as done with digital multimeters, a function must be
selected and a corresponding range must be set. However, the way analog multimeters operate
is fundamentally different than how digital multimeters operate.Analog multimeters do take
some energy from the circuit they are testing, whereas digital multimeters operate independent
of circuit energy. In order to give an accurate reading analog multimeters need a high level of
sensitivity,otherwise, the results may be skewed. When testing for resistance, the multimeter
can rely on battery power.Ranges for typical analog multimeter use varies with each
application: For DC voltage, 0.5 V, 2.5V, 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V are all standard range
settings. For AC voltage, 10V, 50V, 250V, and 1000V are standard settings. Current is
measured in amperes, with standard DC settings of 2.5, 25, and 250 amperes. AC current is
hardly ever measured. Resistance, measured in ohms, has standard settings around 20, 200,
2000, 20,000, and 200,000 ohms. Analog meter resistance should be ten times the circuit
resistance to ensure accurate readings. A high sensitivity is necessary to prevent upsetting the
test circuit.

PROCEDURE- When using an analogue multimeter, measurements for voltage, current and
resistance need to be made in different ways. To illustrate the way in which these different tests
can be made using an analogue multimeter, the simple circuit shown below will be used:

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A)Voltage measurements: The two leads need to be connected across the area of the circuit
where the voltage measurement is to be made. Typically the "Common" or "COM" connection
on the multimeter is used for the negative voltage end of the measurement and the connection
marked "Volts" or similar goes to the positive end of the measurement. For some high or low
voltage measurements, there may be a separate connection available and this should be chosen.

Once the relevant connections of the multimeter have been chosen the switch can be turned to
the correct range and the measurement taken.
(B) Current measurements: When using a multimeter to make a current measurement, the meter
is placed in series with the circuit where the current measurement is to be made.

(C)Resistance measurements: For any resistance measurement, the component to be measured

should be removed from the circuit as other paths will be present that will distort the reading.
Also any power remaining within the circuit will add to the inaccuracies. Never measure
resistance when the circuit is powered, as power from the circuit will not only distort the
reading, but could damage the meter.

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Using analogue test meters can be every bit as easy as using digital multimeters. Their accuracy
is normally more than adequate and with a little care and understanding in their use they provide
an excellent for of multimeter.

ADVANTAGES- 1. Adequate resolution and is robust if not misused.

2.Requires no battery except in resistance range.
3.Can show unstable values and allow user to average this mentally.

DISADVANTAGES-
1.Not well protected. User has to be cautious using resistance ranges in
230V.
2. Has moving parts. These can get affected by an accidental drop to
Floor.
3. Has relatively less input resistance especially in low voltage ranges
Such as 3V.prone to parallax error.

(II) Digital multimeter-Digital multimeter (DMM) is a useful measurement tool. There are three
settings in a typical DMM; Voltmeter measures potential difference (voltage), Ohmmeter
measures resistance, and Ammeter measures current.A digital multimeter,also known as DMM,
is a electrical instrument which provides combined functionality of ammeter, voltmeter and
ohmmeter. It is most widely used because of its small size, price and ease in operation. A digital
multimeter has an analog/digital converter that provides a digital This increases the precision in

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reading the values cons of digital multimeters

PROCEDURE-(A) To measure potential difference (voltage), the voltmeter is connected in

parallel with the component.

The voltmeter is connected in parallel with a resistor.

(B) To measure current, the circuit must be broken to allow the ammeter to be connected in
series in the circuit. The ammeter becomes part of the circuit’s connection

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(C) To measure resistance, the component you are measuring must be removed or the power
source must be disconnected, and place the ohmmeter in parallel with the component.

ADVANTAGES – 1. They are more accurate than analog multimeters.

2They reduce reading and interpolation errors.
3.The ‘auto-polarity’ function can prevent problems from connecting the
meter to a test circuit with the wrong polarity
4.Parallax errors are eliminated. If the pointer of an analog multimeter is
viewed from a different angle, you will see a different value. This is
parallax error. A digital multimeter’s numerical display solves this problem
5.Digital multimeter displays have no moving parts. This makes them free
from wear and shock failures.

DISADVANTAGES- 1.The LCD display depends on a battery or external power source. When
the battery is low, the display will be dim, making it difficult to read.
2. In case of fluctuations or transients, it can record an error.
3.warming of the meter during its use can change its properties leading to
errors in measured value.
PRECAUTIONS -1.De-energize and discharge the circuit completely before connecting or
disconnecting amultimeter.
2.Never apply power to the circuit while measuring resistance with

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a multimeter.
3.Connect the multimeter in series with the circuit for current
measurements, and in parallel for voltage measurements.
4.Always start with the highest voltage or current range.
APPLICATIONS-

1. Both type of multimeters are used for voltage , current and resistance.

RESULT- Hence the analog and digital multimeter is studied

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EXPERIMENT NO.2

OBJECTIVE- To understand the operational features of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.

(Calibration, Time/div, Volt/div, X-Y, single channel, Dual channel)

APPRATUS-CRO, Patch cords

THEORY- An oscilloscope is a device that displays a graph of how a voltage signal varies over
time. The vertical axis represents voltage and the horizontal axis represents time. Using an
oscilloscope, the observation can be made for the waveforms in order to determine things like
the shape, amplitude, frequency and phase of a wave.

FRONT PANEL CONTROLS

1. POWER ON\OFF : Push button switch for supplying power to instrument.

2. INTENS : Controls the brightness of the trace.
3. FOCUS : Controls the sharpness of the trace.
4. XY : Switch when pressed cuts off the time base and allows to
access the Ext. Horizontal signal to be fed through Ch.

II (used for X – Y Display)

5. X-POS : Controls Horizontal position of the trace.
6. TR : Controls the alignment of the trace with graticule
( Screw driver adjustment )
7. X5 : Switch when pushed in wards gives 5 times
magnification of the X signal.
8. EXT. : Switch when pressed allows External triggering signal
to be fed from the socket marked TRIG. INP.
9. TV : Switch when pressed allows video signal at frame
frequency ( up to 20 KHz ) to be locked.
10. TIME / DIV : Switch selects Time base speeds.
11. VAR : Controls the time speed in between two steps of
TIME/DIV switch. For calibration put this fully
anti clock wise.
12. AT/ NORM : Switch selects Auto / Normal position. Auto is used to
get trace when no signal is fed at the input. In NORM
the trigger level can be varied from the positive peak to
negative peak with LEVEL Control.
13. LEVEL : Controls the trigger level from peak to peak amplitude of
signal.

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14. + / - : Switch selects the slope of triggering whether positive

Air Dielectric
going or negative going .
15. TRIG. INP : Socket provided to feed external trigger signal in EXT.
Mode
16. CALOUT : Socket provided for square wave output 200 mV : used
for probe compensation and checking vertical sensitivity
17. Y POS I & II : Controls provided for vertical deflection of trace for each
channel.
18. VOLTS /DIV : Switches select the sensitivity of each channel.
19. CT : Switch when pressed converts scope to Component Tester
20 CH.I(Y)&CH.II(X) BNC connectors serves as input connection for CH.I &
CH.II. Channel II input connector also serves and
input for Horizontal external signal.
21.DC /AC /GD : Input coupling switch for each channel. In AC the signal
is coupled through O. 1 MFD capacitor.
22. TRIG-I/TRIG-II : Switch when pressed triggers channel II.
23. MONO/DUAL : Switch selects the operation with channel I only, or both
the channels.
24. ALT / CHOP : Switch selects the trigger signal whether taken from CH
Ior CH II. For signal display in CH II this must be pressed
25. CT-IN : To test any component in the CT mode, put one test prob
N socket.

1)X-Y modes - Horizontal and vertical deflection plates are fitted between electron gun and
screen to deflect the beam according to input signal. Electron beam strikes the screen and
creates a visible spot. This spot is deflected on the screen in horizontal direction (X-axis) with
constant time dependent rate. This is accomplished by a time base circuit provided in the
oscilloscope. The signal to be viewed is supplied to the vertical deflection plates through the
vertical amplifier, which raises the potential of the input signal to a level that will provide
usable deflection of the electron beam. Now electron beam deflects in two directions, horizontal
on X-axis and vertical on Y-axis. A triggering circuit is provided for synchronizing two types of
deflections so that horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input vertical signal each
time it sweeps.
2) Callibration-The oscilloscope,a device for drawing calibrated graphs of voltage vs time very
quickly and conveniently. Such an instrument is useful for the design and repair of circuits in
which voltages and currents are changing with time.

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3) Voltage and Time division-There are 8 vertical divisions and 10 horizontal divisions
indicated with grid lines or graticules. A standard screen size is 8 cm by 10 cm. The screen is
coated with phosphor that emits light when struck by the electron beam

The slope of the rising phase varies with the frequency of the sawtooth and can be adjusted,
using the TIME/DIV control, to change the scale of the X-axis. Dividing the oscilloscope screen
into squares allows the horizontal scale to be expressed in seconds, milliseconds or
microseconds per division (s/DIV, ms/DIV, µs/DIV). Alternatively, if the squares are 1 cm
apart, the scale may be given as s/cm, ms/cm or µs/cm.

The Y-amplifier is linked in turn to a pair of Y-plates so that it provides the Y-axis of the the
V/t graph. The overall gain of the Y-amplifier can be adjusted, using the VOLTS/DIV control,

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so that the resulting display is neither too small nor too large, but fits the screen and can be seen
clearly. The vertical scale is usually given in V/DIV or mV/DIV.
4)Single channel and Dual channel CRO-
I.Single channel-A single-channel mode or single-trace mode is any waveform on the screen
that can be increased in height (or decreased) by changing the Volts/div control. The Volts/div
setting is a scale factor
II. Dual channel-Dual Trace Oscilloscopes have the capability of drawing two traces on the
screen at the same time .
ADVANTAGES- 1.General purpose CRO's are used for maintenance of electronic equipment
and laboratory work.
2. Amplitude of signals like voltage, current, power etc., can be measured
by it
3. It has an advantage over electro-mechanical measuring devices that it can
respond very well to high frequency signals because it is completely an
electronic device.
DISADVANTAGE- 1.Large size and weight, especially for bigger screens
2.Geometric distortion caused by variable beam travel distances.
3.High power consumption.
4.Hazardous to repair/service.
APPLICATIONS- 1. laboratory experiments
2.Electricians use them to view signal voltages, usually as a two
dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential differences
axis) plotted as a function of time or of some other voltage .

PRECAUTIONS- 1.An oscilloscope should be handled gently to protect its fragile (and
expensive) vacuum tube.
2.Oscilloscopes use high voltages to create the electron beam and these
remain for some time after switching off - for your own safety do not
attempt to examine the inside of an oscilloscope!

RESULT-Hence the CRO was studied.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 3

OBJECTIVE- To understand the operational features of Function Generator ( Measurement

of volt and frequency, attenuation).

APPRATUS-Function generator, connectors

THEORY- The function generator produces a time varying voltage signal at its output
terminal .It is capable of producing several standard waveforms (sinusoidal, square, triangle) as
well as special purpose user defined waveform. The operation is relatively simple and
everything is controlled from buttons on the front panel. The function generator is used to
generate a wide range of alternating-current (AC) signals. The front panel is divided into six
major control groups:
1) Frequency Selection Group;
2) Sweep Group;
3) Amplitude Modulation Group;
4) DC Offset Group;
5) Function, or Waveform Group; and
6) Output Group.
POWER ON-The power switch is on the upper left-hand corner of the unit. The green LED
will indicate that the unit is on.
1)Frequency measurement- To select the operating frequency of the function generator, the
frequency control knob and the eight frequency multiplier selection buttons are used.
Rotate the frequency control knob to 2.
2) Attenuation measurement- The attenuation buttons are used to attenuate (decrease) the
amplitude of the signal by a factor measured in decibels. The following relationship will assist
in working with the attenuation buttons:
(dB) = -10 * log10 (Pout / Pin) (if power is the unit of measurement)
or
(dB) = -20 * log10 (Vout / Vin) (if voltage is the unit of measurement)
Beginning with the equation defined above:
(dB) = -20 * log10 (Vout / Vin)
10dB = -20 * log10 (Vout / Vin)
-0.5 dB = log10 (Vout / Vin)
10-5 = Vou t/ Vin
Vout / Vin = 0.3162
From here, the output voltage can be stated in terms of the input voltage and vice-versa:
Vin = Vout / 0.3162
or
Vout = Vin * 0.3162

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3) Voltage measurement- If the operation is made for the sinusoidal signal , the amplitude can
be expressed either in the p-p volts or r.m.s voltsThe default units is p-p.
Vpp=2.828 Vr.m.s
PROCEDURE- 1. Press the power switch of the generator .After a short bootup sequence , the
generator will be in default state , a sine wave with 1V p-p amplitude and frequency of 1 MHz
will appear with there is no voltage being applied to the output of this point.
2.To change the parameters of the waveform , use the parameters button to select the
parameters. Frequency and amplitude are two things that can be changed frequently. The
display next to soft keys will change to reflect the parameter choice.
3. To change the waveform type , use the waveforms buttons that are located in the vertical
column to right of display.
ADVANTAGES- 1.Different waveform upto MHz freq. can be generated
2.It can be used to generate square,sine,triangular waveform.
3.Calibration is internal
LIMITATIONS- 1.The current available to the load is limited to the output current of the
function generator,since the load current must flow through both the
power supply and the function generator
2. Also, most function generators have a 50-ohm output impedance, meaning
any load current will flow through this resistance. This resistance will form
a voltage divider load impedance, so the adjustment of the the DC power
supply output voltage accordingly is to be made.

APPLICATIONS-1.Troubleshooting: identifying a bad subsystem in a system by injecting a

signal into the first subsystem and checking its output, moving to the next
subsystem and repeating.
2.Measuring the ESR of a capacitor in circuit (can use an AC voltmeter
instead of the scope).
3.Time domain reflectometry: It show scope traces of reflected pulses in a
network cable.
4.Response testing by sweeping.
5.Response testing using square waves, pulses, and noise.

PRECAUTIONS-
1. Use Proper Power Cord.
2. Connect and Disconnect Properly. Connect the probe output to the measurement instrument
before connecting the probe to the circuit under test. Disconnect the probe input and the
probe ground from the circuit under test before disconnecting the probe from the measurement
instrument.
3. Ground the Product. When operating with AC power, this product is grounded through the
grounding conductor of the power cord. To avoid electric shock, the grounding conductor must

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be connected to earth ground. Before making connections to the input or output terminals of the
product, ensure that the product is properly grounded.
4.Do Not Operate in Wet/Damp Conditions.
5.Do Not Operate in an Explosive Atmosphere.
6.Keep Product Surfaces Clean and Dry.

RESULTS-Hence function generator is studied.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 4

OBJECT:- Measurement of capacitors (mica, ceramic, paper, electrolytic and variable) using
CRO and LCR Meter and verify with color coding.

APPARATUS:- Various type of capacitors.

THEORY:- Capacitors are passive electronic component which have ability of storing
electrical energy. Basically capacitor of two conductive surfaces separated by an insulating
medium called as dielectric.

Types of capacitors:

1.Fixed Capacitors
A) Polarized
I.Electrolytic
B) Non polarized
I.Ceramic
II.Mica
III.Paper

2.Variable Capacitors
A) Air gang
B)Trimmer

S. N. COLOUR BAND DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE

1 0 X 100 /PF + 20% Black
Black
2 Brown 1 X 101 /PF + 10% White
3 Red 2 X 102 /PF + 5% Green
4 Orange 3 X 103 + 2% Red
5 Yellow 4 X 104 + 1% Brown
6 Green 5 X 105 + 0.05 PF Gray
7 Blue 6 X 106 + 0.25 PF Red
8 Violet 7 X 107 + 2% Red
9 Gray 8 X 108 + 5% Gold
10 White 9 X 109 + 10% Silver
Golden - X 10-1 +20%NoColour
Silver - X 10-2

PROCEDURE:- Find out the value of capacitor by writing the number for each strip on
capacitor from colour code table
1. 1 to 4 ---- Band
2. 5 ---- Voltage Code

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Vdc
Brown 100
Red 250
Yellow 400
Blue 630
3. 6---- Temp. Co-efficient
10 X 10-6 Black
150 X 10-6 Orange
750 X 10-6 Violet

1) Capacitance measurement using LCR meter-In high-performance LCR meters, the technique
used to find the value of a capacitor is that an AC signal of known frequency is applied through
an internal low value resistor and the capacitor under test in a series configuration. The AC
current flowing into the capacitor must also flow through the resistor, creating an AC voltage
across the resistor. The magnitude and phase of this voltage can be measured and compared to
the original AC signal, and the capacitance can be computed.
2)Capacitance measurement using CRO- To measure capacitance using an oscilloscope.

Use the setup to measure the magnitude of two signals. To calculate the capacitance without
measuring phase angle, the ratio of input voltage to output voltage is expressed as:

which you can put into the standard form:

After solving the equation for XC, the result is:

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Using the relationship

the basic equation for capacitance is:

Using the convenient ratio |VIN/VOUT|=2, then

To measure the value of a capacitor, measure the input voltage and then adjust the frequency of
the signal generator to make the output voltage one-half of the input voltage. You need not use a
2-to-1 ratio for VIN/VOUT. You can just measure the input voltage and the output voltage and use
one of the basic equations to calculate the value of the capacitance or inductance, but a ratio
close to 2-to-1 is a good choice.. Most modern oscilloscopes can accurately measure the signals
without loading the circuit, except for the capacitance of the probe. Capacitance is usually
marked on the probe. Use the previous equation to calculate the value of the capacitor. Subtract
the value of the probe capacitance from the result, and you have an accurate value for the
measured capacitance. Usually, you know the approximate value of the capacitance you want to
measure, so you can pick a starting value for the resistance, R, and the frequency, f, by using the
following equations:

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You can use a similar procedure to measure inductance. In this case,

and the basic equation for inductance is expressed as:

Set VIN/VOUT=2, then

and

RESULT: Hence various types of capacitor has been verified

CONCLUSION:- After study the various type of capacitor we identify the types of capacitor

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Experiment No.5

OBJECTIVE: . Measurement of resistors- Fixed (carbon, wire wound, metal film and variable)
using CRO and Multimeter and verify with color coding and identification of
special resistors like Thermistor, LDR and VDR (FET)

APPARATUS : Various types of resistors , multimeter, CRO

THEORY:

Resistor: - A resistor is a two-terminal electrical or electronic component that resists an

electric current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in accordance with Ohm's
law. :

The electrical resistance is equal to the voltage drop across the resistor divided by the current
through the resistor. Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits
Types of resistors:
1. Fixed Resistors

I. Carbon-composition- Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage values

II. Carbon film-- Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage values

III. Metal film- made by depositing pure metals, such as nickel, or an oxide film, such as tin-
oxide, onto an insulating ceramic rod or substrate

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IV. Wire wound- is made by winding a thin metal alloy wire (Nichrome) or similar wire onto
an insulating ceramic former in the form of a spiral helix similar to the film resistor above.

2. Variable Resistors Variable wire wound resistor-manufactured by nichrome wire-wound

on a ceramic core and covered with an insulating coating
I. Potentiometer-is a three terminal variable resistor, its middle terminal is variable and
outer terminal is fixed
II. Trimmer-are carbon composition, carbon film cermet and wire, trimmers are used in
electronic circuit to trim the circuit to the desired operating conditions by inserting a
small screw driver into a slot and turning one or more times
3. Non Linear Variable Resistors
I. Wire Wound Rotary
1/4 Watt   "Fixed" . Single Turn Trimmer "Pot" Multi-turn Trimmer
.

Fixed  Symbol . Potentiometer Symbol Potentiometer

In all Electrical and Electronic circuit diagrams and schematics, the most commonly used
symbol for a fixed value resistor is that of a "zig-zag" type line with the value of its resistance

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given in Ohms, Ω. Resistors have fixed resistance values from less than one ohm, ( <1Ω ) to
well over tens of millions of ohms, ( >10MΩ ) in value. Fixed resistors have only one single
value of resistance, for example 100Ω's but variable resistors (potentiometers) can provide an
infinite number of resistance values between zero and their maximum value.

COLOUR CODING FOR RESISTOR

S.N. COLOUR BAND DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE

1 Black 0 100 0
2 Brown 1 101 1%
3 Red 2 102 2%
4 Orange 3 103 -
5 Yellow 4 104 -
6 Green 5 105 0.5%
7 Blue 6 106 0.25%
8 Violet 7 107 0.1%
9 Gray 8 108 0.01%
10 White 9 109 -
Golden - 10-1 5%
Silver - 10-2 10%

PROCEDURE :

1. Find out the value of resister by writing the number for each strip on resister from
colour code table
1. This coding is used for 5%, 10%, and 20% tolerance resistors
2. The first three bands are used to denote the rated value
3. The fourth denotes how much the device may vary from the rated value
1st band is the first digit of the resistance value

2. Verify the values of resistors using multimeter and CRO

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OBSEVATION TABLE:

MEASURED VALUE
PRITED THROUGH
TYPES OF
S.NO. VALUE/CALCULATED DIFFRENCE
RESISTOR CR
VALUE MULTIMETER
O
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

RESULT: After taking different resistor

MEASURED VALUE
PRITED THROUGH
TYPES OF
S.NO. VALUE/CALCULATED DIFFRENCE
RESISTOR CR
VALUE MULTIMETER
O
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

PRECAUTIONS:

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1. Do not bend the terminals of resistance.

2. Take reading properly through multimeter /LCR meter

CONCLUSION:

(a)Advantages -

 Carbon composite resistors are very cheap to make and are therefore commonly used in
electrical circuits. However, due to their manufacturing process carbon type resistors
have very large tolerances so for more precision and high value resistances, film type
resistors are used instead.
 Metal Film Resistors have much better temperature stability than their carbon
equivalents, lower noise and are generally better for high frequency or radio frequency
applications. Metal Oxide Resistors have better high surge current capability with a
much higher temperature rating than the equivalent metal film resistors.
 Another type of film resistor commonly known as a Thick Film Resistor are generally
used for making small surface mount chip type resistors, multi-resistor networks in one
package for pcb's and high frequency resistors. They have good temperature stability,
low noise, and good voltage ratings but low surge current properties.
 Wire wound Resistor able to handle much higher electrical currents than other resistors
of the same ohmic value with power ratings in excess of 300 Watts. These high power
resistors are molded or pressed into an aluminum heat sink body with fins attached to
increase their overall surface area to promote heat loss and cooling. These types of
resistors are called "Chassis Mounted Resistors". They are designed to be physically
mounted onto heat sinks or metal plates to further dissipate the generated heat increasing
their current carrying capabilities even further.

(b)Disadvantage:

Resistors are "Passive Devices", that is they contain no source of power or amplification but
only attenuate or reduce the voltage or current signal passing through them. This attenuation
results in electrical energy being lost in the form of heat as the resistor resists the flow of
electrons through it.

USES:

The purpose of resistor is twofold firstly it controls the flow of electric current, secondly, it
provides desired amount of voltage in an electronic circuit

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VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Describe the important specifications of a resistor ‘

2. Define linear and non-linear resistor.
3. What are the different types of fixed resistors? Give the range of wattage for each
resistor.
4. Write down the short notes on-thermistors,photoresstor,varistors,in the following
points(a)definition(b)application
5. Up to what value tolerance is permitted by colour Gold & silver?
6. What de you mean by Tolerance?
7. Find the colour code for the following resistor(a)150 ohm±5%(b)56 k-ohm±20%
8. What is the use of resistor in the circuit?
9. Find the resistance and tolerance rating for the following colour code:yellow,violet,black
and gold
10. Give reason ,why rheostats possess high voltage
11. Which type of resistor are used in high frequency application

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Experiment No. 6

OBJECT-To identify measure inductor by using multimeter and LCR meter

APPRATUS REQUIRED-Inductors, LCR meter and multimeter

THEORY-INDUCTOR: These are passive electronic components used to minimize the

alternating current while permitting the flow of direct current

An inductor is a coil of wire wound on a tubular form. Many are the size of a dime or smaller.
The wire is made of copper with a thin insulating varnish. Some inductors have a cylindrical
iron core that fits inside the coil. Inductors have two leads, one at each end of the coil, used to
connect it to a circuit. Inductors exploit a property of electricity and magnetism called Faraday's
Law. For low frequencies, the inductor's electrical resistance is low. As the frequency increases,
its resistance increases. The smaller the inductor, the higher the frequency at which the
resistance begins to increase.

Use the Al-value to calculate inductance for various turns, or "N," of wire wrapped around the
core of the inductor using the formula: L = N^2 x Al. For example, if Al is 40nH/turns^2 and:

N = 20, L = (20^2)(40) = (400)(40) = 16,000 nH = 16 microhenry or 16uH.

N = 30, L = (30^2)(40) = (900)(40) = 36,000 nH = 36 microhenry or 16uH.

N = 50, L = (50^2)(40) = (2500)(40) = 100,000 nH = 100 microhenry or 16uH.

Coupled Inductors

Coupled inductors are types of inductors that share a magnetic path and influence each other.
Coupled inductors are often used as transformers to step up or step down voltage, provide
isolated feedback, and in applications where mutual inductance is required.

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Multi-layer Inductors

Multi-layer inductors get their name from the layers of coiled wire that is wound around a
central core. Adding additional layers of coiled wire to an inductor increases the inductance but
also increases the capacitance between the wires. These inductors trade off higher inductance
for a lower maximum operating frequency.

Molded Inductors

Inductors that are molded in to a plastic or ceramic housing are known as molded inductors.
Generally these inductors have a cylindrical or bar form factor and can be found with several
types of winding options.

Power Inductors

Power inductors are available in a wide variety of form factors and power levels from surface
mounts inductors that can handle a few amps to through-hole and chassis mount power
inductors that can handle tens to hundreds of amps. With the amount of current that power
inductors are often subjected to, large magnetic fields are created. To prevent these magnetic
fields from inducing noise in other parts of the circuit, it is recommended that magnetically
shielded inductors be used if possible.

RF Inductors

High frequency types of inductors, also called radio frequency of RF inductors, are designed to
operate at high frequencies. These inductors often have a higher resistance and lower current
rating. Most RF inductors have an air core rather than use a ferrite or other inductance boosting
core material due to the increase in losses when those core materials are used which would
reduce the operating frequency of the inductor.

Due to the operating frequency of the inductor, several sources of loss become important
including the skin effect, proximity effect, and parasitic capacitance. The skin and proximity
effects effectively increase the resistance of an inductor. Several techniques are used to help
reduce these losses including honeycomb coils and spider web coils to reduce parasitic
capacitance and litz wire is often used to reduce the skin effect

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MULTIMETER:A multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several

function in one unit and is used to measure voltage,current and resistance.

DIGITAL MULTIMETER:It is an electronic measuring instrument which shows measured

value in digital form and display automatically with decimal point,polarity,and the unit(v,a or
ohm).digital meters are generally easiar to use because they eliminate the human error that often
occurs in reading scales on an analog meter with a pointer

ANALOG MULTIMETER:It is an electronic measuring instrument which shows measured

value by deflection of moving pointer on printed scale.meterwith printed scale and a moving
pointer is called analog multimeter.it is less expensive and smaller in size as compared to digital
multimeter

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FUNCTIONAL AND PARAMETER TESTERS:- Components testers are the instruments,

which test the components either by measuring its parameter or by testing it functionally. so
component tester parameter terse classified as parameter testers and functional testers

LCR METER:LCR meter is the instrument which measures the value of passive
discomponents like resistor, inductor and capacitor. the value of the component is directly on
the front panel display.

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PROCEDURE-To test inductor:

1.Connect two probes of multimeter to two terminals of inductor
2.Select appropriate range and observe defection/reading
3.If multimeter shows finite resistance value but pracically zero value,then inductor is in good
condition
4.If multimeter shows infinite resistance,the inductor becomes open circuited

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MERURMENT OF PASSIVE COMPONENT:-

S.NO INDUCTOR PREDICTED VALUE VALUE ERROR

VALUE MEASURED BY MEASURED
MULTIMETER BY LCR
METER

RESULT: after measurement of different inductors through multimeter and LCR the result are;

S.NO INDUCTOR PREDICTED VALUE VALUE ERROR

VALUE MEASURED BY MEASURED
MULTIMETER BY LCR
METER
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

CONCLUSION:
USES- Since an inductor is a frequency-sensitive part, you can use it in circuits to produce or
eliminate specific frequencies in a signal. For example, radio tuner circuits and transmitters use
inductors. Cable television circuits also use them.
Inductors are used extensively with capacitors and resistors to create filters for analog circuits
and in signal processing. Alone, an inductor functions as a low-pass filter, since the impedance
of an inductor increases as the frequency of a signal increases. When combined with a capacitor,
whose impedance decreases as the frequency of a signal increase, a notched filter can be made
that only allows a certain frequency range to pass through. By combining capacitors, inductors,
and resistors in a number of ways advanced filter topologies can be created for any number of
applications. Filters are used in most electronics, although capacitors are often used rather than
inductors when possible since they are smaller and cheaper.

APPLICATION:

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VIVA QUESTIONS:
1.How many types of inductor
2.What do you understand by inductance of a coil
3.What do you mean by leakage of inductors
4.State different factor on which value of inductor depends
5.Explain the term self inductance and mutual inductance
6.Following are some application, identify type of inductors

Experiment No. 7

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OBJECTIVE: Study of Diodes (Ge and Si ), Zener diodes and LEDs.( terminals, resistance
and capacitance in forward biased and reversed biased conditions).

APPARATUS: Diodes, multimeter

THEORY:

Diode
Diode is two terminal device. It has anode and cathode. The practical use of diodes is to serve
as a one way valve. Current can flow only when positive voltage at the anode with respect to
cathode, provides forward voltage. This Feature is the basis for the general use of the diode as a
rectifier to change ac input to dc output. The cathode is always identified by a dot, ring or some
other mark.

Types of diode

Light Emitting Diode (LED): It is one of the most popular type of diodes and when this diode
permits the transfer of electric current between the electrodes, light is produced. In most of the
diodes, the light (infrared) cannot be seen as they are at frequencies that do not permit visibility.
When the diode is switched on or forward biased, the electrons recombine with the holes and
release energy in the form of light (electroluminescence). The color of light depends on the
energy gap of the semiconductor.

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Avalanche Diode: This type of diode operates in the reverse bias, and used avalanche effect for
its operation. The avalanche breakdown takes place across the entire PN junction, when the
voltage drop is constant and is independent of current. Generally, the avalanche diode is used
for photo-detection, wherein high levels of sensitivity can be obtained by the avalanche process.

Laser Diode: This type of diode is different from the LED type, as it produces coherent light.
These diodes find their application in DVD and CD drives, laser pointers, etc. Laser diodes are
more expensive than LEDs. However, they are cheaper than other forms of laser generators.
Moreover, these laser diodes have limited life.

Schottky Diodes: These diodes feature lower forward voltage drop as compared to the ordinary
silicon PN junction diodes. The voltage drop may be somewhere between 0.15 and 0.4 volts at
low currents, as compared to the 0.6 volts for a silicon diode. In order to achieve this
performance, these diodes are constructed differently from normal diodes, with metal to
semiconductor contact. Schottky diodes are used in RF applications, rectifier applications and
clamping diodes.

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Zener diode: This type of diode provides a stable reference voltage, thus is a very useful type
and is used in vast quantities. The diode runs in reverse bias, and breaks down on the arrival of
a certain voltage. A stable voltage is produced, if the current through the resistor is limited. In
power supplies, these diodes are widely used to provide a reference voltage.

Photodiode: Photodiodes are used to detect light and feature wide, transparent junctions.
Generally, these diodes operate in reverse bias, wherein even small amounts of current flow,
resulting from the light, can be detected with ease. Photodiodes can also be used to generate
electricity, used as solar cells and even in photometry.

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Varicap Diode or Varactor Diode: This type of diode feature a reverse bias placed upon it,
which varies the width of the depletion layer as per the voltage placed across the diode. This
diode acts as a capacitor and capacitor plates are formed by the extent of conduction regions and
the depletion region as the insulating dielectric. By altering the bias on the diode, the width of
the depletion region changes, thereby varying the capacitance.

Tunnel Diode

The tunnel diode is similar to a standard P-N junction except that the doping levels are high
with narrow depletion region. Tunneling is an effect that is caused by quantum mechanical
effects when electrons pass through a potential barrier. It can be found in many microwave
applications.

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PROCEDURE:
TO test PN junction diode, ZENER diode and LED
1. CONNECT THE PROBES OF MULTIMETER TO THE TWO TERMINALS OF DIODE
2. SALECT 1 M-OHM RANGE OF ANALOG MULTIMETER OR DIODE MODE IN
DIGITAL MERULTIMER
3. OBSERVE DEFLECTION/READING AND VERIFY THE TABLE GIVEN BELOW FOR
DIODE AND LED RESPECTIVELY

RESULT:

DEVICE RESISTANCE TYPE OF REMARK

TYPE BETWEEN DIODE
&NUMBER TERMINAL

PRECAUTIONS: Don’t bend their terminals

CONCLUSION:

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(A)ADVANTAGES-
 diode is used in rectifiers which are used in d.c.power supplies
 diode is used in wave shaping circuits such as clipper and clamper
(B)(DISADVANTAGES)
-if their terminals break they will not work properly

(C )USES
PN-junction diode-
 Rectifier circuits
 Clipping and clamping circuits
 Voltage multiplier
 A.M.generation
 Feedback diodes
 Freewheeling diodes
 Log and antilog amplifiers using op-amp
 Precision rectifier using op-amp
 Zener diodes are used in voltage regulator circuits
 Zener diode is used for meter protection against damage from
accidental application of excessive voltage
 Varactor diodes are used in radio and TV receivers
 Schottky diode rectify very frequency,as a switching device in digital
computers
 In clipping and clamping circuits
 In mixing and detecting circuits used in communication system

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect anode to positive terminal of multimeter and cathode to negative terminal.

2. Check continuity.
3. .Now change the polarity.
4. .1 .If in both the condition continuity is detected. Diode is shorted
2 .If in both the condition continuity is not detected .Diode is open.
3. If in one continuity is detected and in another continuity is not detected .
Diode is ok.

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VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is a PN junction diode?

2. How its terminals are identify?
3. Explain the effect of temperature on diode.
4. What is an ideal diode and real diode?
5. What are the important applications of a diode?

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Experiment No. 8

AIM- To test transistor using multimeter,transistor tester and CRO.

APPRATUS REQUIRED- Types of transistor ,CRO, multimeter, transistor tester

THEORY-
Transisitor is an abbreviated combination of two words”trans-conductance”of
“transfer”long”and “varistor”.the device logically belongs in the varistor family.the transistor is
called a bipolar junction transistor and is formed by two p-n junction formed with the subtrains
material,indicate by the middle latter in npn or pnp trasistor acts as a current amplifier in much
application for amplification and switching.the transistor is manufactured in diffrent shapes
having three leads(legs)namely base,emitter and collector.base terminal is responcible for
activating the transisitor.

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Conduct the following tests and note the respective resistance and voltages.
1.Connect +ve terminal of multimeter to lead 1 &connect –ve terminal to lead 2 and note the
resistance.it must be high
2.Reverse the above connection and note resistance.it must be high
3.Connect +ve terminal of multiplier to lead 1 &connect –ve terminal to lead 3 anfd note the
voltage.it must show nearly 0.655 volts.
4.Reverse the above connection and note resistance .it must be high.
5.Connect +ve terminal of multiplier to lead 2 &connect –ve terminal to lead 3 and note the
voltage.it must show nearly 0.621 volts
6.Reverse the above connection and note resistance.it must be high
In above test point 3&5 uses terminal 1-3 & 2-3,so 3 are common to both.hence the terminal 3
is the base.as this terminal in both above tests points 3 & 5 is connected to –ve terminals of the
multiplier hence it is n type and as base is n type so the unknown transistor is of pnp type,the
terminal 1 is emitter as the voltage between terminals 1&3 is more than the voltage between
2&3.the remaining 2 is collector.

TESTING OF TRANSISTOR USING MULTIMETER

The transistor can be using multimeter in which we have to measure the resistance,between the
emitter base junction,base collector junction and emitter collector junction.similarly it can be
check by measuring the voltage between the base emitter junction and base collector junction

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TESTING OF TRANSISTOR WITH THE HELP OF OSCILLOSCOPE

One of the most frequent uses of scope is troubleshooting malfunctioning electronic
equipments.it can graphically show signals where voltmeter may show totally unexpected
voltage.the transistor can be test with the help of oscilloscope in components testing mode

TRANSISTOR TESTER-
The transistor tster can check the transistor and diodes in circuits.it identifies npn or pnp
transistors of small or large power type

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STEPWISE PROCEDURE:

USING MULTIMETER

1.Set the multimeter meter to its ohms range

2.Measured the resistance between base and collector
3.Measured the resistance between base and collector
4.Measured the resistance between emitter and collector
5.Verify the outcome of above steps with following chart

USING CRO
1.Connect the probe of CRO to component testing
2.Set the CRO to component testing mode
3.Connect the red teminal of the probe to the emitter of the transistor and black terminal of the
probe to base and identify the pattern on the CRO

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4.Connect the red terminal of the probe to collector or the transistor and black terminal of the
probe to base and identify the pattern on the CRO
5.Connect the red terminal of the probe to the emitter of the transistor and black terminal of the
probe to collector and identify the pattern on the CRO using transistor tester
1.place the switch in the transistor position.
2.place the transistor in the socket or attach it to the C,B,and E leads
3.push the tests button and adjust the base current control so that the ok led lights up
4.If the ok lamps does not light up,this happens at the minimum or maximum position of the
control setting,this will indicate transistor type,place the switch to the npn position if the NP
lamp lights up,or place the switch to the pnp position if the PN lamp is light up
5.If no lamps light up,then the transistor is open or we have not identified the base lead.repeate
another lead as the base

RESULT:

TESTING USING MULTIMETER

1.RESISTENCE BETWEEN EMITTER &BASE RBE...................OHMS
2.RESISTANCE BETWEEN COLLECTOR &BASE RCB.....................OHMS
3.RESISTANCE BETWEEN COLLECTOR &EMITTER RCE..................OHMS

TESTING USING CRO

1. DRAW THE OBSERVED PATTERNS BETWEEN EMITTER AND BASE
2.DRAW THE OBSERVED PATTERNS BETWEEN COLLECTOR AND BASE
3.DRAW THE OBSERVED PATTERNS BETWEEN EMITTER AND COLLECTOR

TESTING USING TRANSISTOR TESTER

1.WHETHER THE GIVEN TRANSISTOR IS..........................(PNP/NPN)
2.WHETHER THE GIVEN TRANSISTOR IS ..............................(OPEN/SHORT)

CONCLUSION
1.WHETHER THE GIVEN TRANSISTOR (BY MULTIMETER TESTS)
IS................(NPN/PNP)

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EXPERIMENT 9

OBJECTIVE: To understand the types of PCB.

APPARATUS: Different types of PCBs.

THEORY: A printed circuit board is an electronic circuit in which the connections between the
components (like integrated circuits , resistors ,capacitors ,inductors , relays , etc.) are formed
by etching a metallic coating (usually copper) on one or both sides of the insulating board.

TYPES OF PCB: PCB’s can be divided into three main categories:

1. Single sided
2. Double sided
3. Multi layered

Single sided PCB: A single sided PCB contains copper tracks on one side of the board only.
Holes are drilled at appropriate points on the track so that each component can be inserted from
the non-copper side of the board. Each pin is then soldered to the copper track.

Double sided PCB: Doubled sided PCB’s have copper track on both sides of the board. The
track layout is designed so as not to allow shorts from one side to another. If it is required to
link points between two sides, electrical connections are made by small interconnecting holes
which are plated with copper during manufacture.

Multilayer PCB: In multi- layer PCB’s each side contains several layers of track patterns
which are insulated from one another. These are laminated under heat and high pressure.

Double Single Sided PCB Double Sided PCB

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Multi Layered PCB

Raw Materials

Excluding exotic products using special materials or processes all printed circuit boards
manufactured today can be built using the following four materials:

1. Laminates
2. Copper-clad laminates
3. Resin impregnated B-stage cloth (Pre-preg)
4. Copper foil

Laminates are manufactured by curing under pressure and temperature layers of cloth or paper
with thermoset resin to form an integral final piece of uniform thickness.

The substrate most commonly used in printed circuit boards is a glass fiber reinforced
(fiberglass) epoxy resin with a copper foil bonded on to one or both sides. PCBs made from
paper reinforced phenolic resin with a bonded copper foil are less expensive and are often used
in household electrical devices.

CONCLUSION:

Advantages-

1. Electronic circuit characteristics will be maintained without introducing parasitic

capacitance with a proper circuit board design.
2. PCB’s offer uniformity of electrical characteristics from assembly to assembly.
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3. The location of electronic parts is fixed and so it simplifies components identification

and maintenance of equipment.
4. Inspection time is reduced because printed circuitry eliminates the probability of error.
5. Chances of miswiring or short-circuited wiring are minimized.

Disadvantages-
1.Redesigning is required for the new type of circuit operation.
2. Etching of this PCB generates chemicals which are the harmful for the environment.

Applications-

1. Consumer Electronics
2. Telecommunications
3. Industrial Electronics and Instrumentation
4. Military Electronics
5. Aerospace Electronics

Viva Questions:

1. What is FR4?
2. Inlist the properties of FR4?
3. What are the types of PCB?
4. Give applications of PCB?
5. What are the advantages of PCB?
6. What is PCBA?
7. Explain SMD?
8. Give details about Laminates?
9. Explain Quality Control of PCB?
10. What are the materials used for PCB Design?

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EXPERIMENT 10

OBJECTIVE: To understand PCB designing rules (Art Work and layout) using EDA
tools.

APPARATUS: PCB design software, circuit diagram.

THEORY:
Electronic design automation (EDA or ECAD) is a category of software tools for designing
electronic systems such as printed circuit boards and integrated circuits.
Rules specified by the designer to ensure PCB integrity, are called PCB designing rules.
A printed circuit board is an electronic circuit in which the connections between the components
(like integrated circuits , resistors ,capacitors ,inductors ,relays , etc.) are formed by etching a
metallic coating (usually copper) on one or both sides of the insulating board.

Terms & Acronyms:

Tracks – Form the connections between your component and the track with solder.
Pads – Used to make connections between your component and the track with solder.
Plated Through Holes (PTH) – Drilled holes that are plated with conductive material (usually
copper).

Full Wave Rectifier

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PROCEDURE:
1. Install EDA software like PCB Wizard properly.
2. Place the components according to the circuit diagram from the component option.
3. Connect all the components from the connection option.
4. Complete the total circuit diagram
5. Click the track maker option to develop PCB layout.

RESULT: Designing of PCB has been verified.

PRECAUTIONS: Software should be installed properly
CONCLUSION:
ADVANTAGE-
1. We can design all the types of electronic circuits.
2. Software Reduces Designing Time.
3. With the use of Rules and Software we can get accurate and highly efficient circuits.
4. We can save record and data by using designing tools.
5. Error finding and correction is easy.

DISADVANTAGE- It is not recyclable.

Applications:
PCB designing process is a primary stage to design all types of electronic circuits and
simulations. We can apply PCB designing rules and use of software in following industries:

1. Consumer Electronics
2. Telecommunications
3. Industrial Electronics and Instrumentation
4. Military Electronics
5. Aerospace Electronics

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define EDA?
2. Define PCB?
3. What are advantages of the using EDA?
4. What are base materials used in PCB?
5. Give the thickness of the various PCB available?
6. How PCB board are constructed?
7. Name latest PCB designing software?
8. What is track?
9. Give some general PCB designing Rules?

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