9/02/2020

Soil Behaviour
An Overview on Engineering
Geology and Soil Mechanics

Hadi Khabbaz
Email: hadi.khabbaz@uts.edu.au
KUET, Khulna, Feb 2020

OUTLINE
 Introduction
 Engineering Geology
 Properties of soils and rocks
 Phase relationships and
compaction
 Stresses in soil, effective stress
concept
 Seepage and flow of water in soil
 Consolidation settlement and rate Karl Terzaghi (1883-1963)
of consolidation
 Shear strength of soils

1
 9/02/2020

QUIZ

Warming up Quiz

1365 = ?
0.99365 = ?
1.01365 = ?

2
 9/02/2020

Warming up Quiz

1365 = 1
0.99365 = 0.03
1% extra effort,
each day in one
year!

1.01365 = 38

Civil Engineers Characters

They have 4 Special Characters:

They are
under They are
They are They are Math
Stresses
Boring Pessimistic Buddies
and
Strains

3
 9/02/2020

Boring Engineers

A_Boreholes.m A_Boreholes_cal.m

Stress-Strain

Courtesy of Daily Liberal, Source: www.dailyliberal.com.au

4
 9/02/2020

Stress-Strain Analysis

A_HookesLaw_GUI.m A_HookesLaw_GUI_cal.m

QUIZ

3×4=?
Load Capacity: 3 MN Number of Piles: 4

5
 9/02/2020

Pessimistic People in Design

Pessimistic People in Design

A_Multiplication.m A_Multiplication_cal.m

6
 9/02/2020

Shear Stress

A_MonteCarlo_ShearStressGUI.m A_MonteCarlo_ShearStressGUI_cal.m

Love Mathematics (Math-Buddies)

clc, close all, clear % Equations for acceleration of a motion
Slope Stability figure('Color',[1 1 1],'Name',' Happy % Use cumsum (cumulative sum) to find:
Valentines Day ',... % velocity and distance based on
'NumberTitle','off','Menubar','none','P % acceleration in x and y directions.
osition',[100 100 700 700]); clc, clear, close all
[x,y]=meshgrid (-10:0.5:10); k = 0.005;
R=sqrt(x.^2+y.^2)+.2; t = 0 : k : 2*pi;
z=sin(R)./R; % acceleration in x and y directions
subplot('Position',[0.05 0 0.90 0.80]); ax=96*sin(t).*cos(t).^2-48*sin(t).^3;
surfc(z) ay=-13*cos(t)+20*cos(2*t)+18*cos(3*t)+…
axis on, axis off 16*cos(4*t);
title({'Mathematical Flower', 'Happy % velocity in x and y directions
Valentines Day',... vx=cumsum(ax);
'to My Beautiful Sweetheart'},... vy=cumsum(ay);
'FontName','Arial','FontSize',14); % distance in x and y directions
dx=cumsum(vx);
dy=cumsum(vy);
% plot
A Mathematical Flower plot(dx,dy,'color',[1 0 0],'LineWidth',4)
annotation('line',[0.181 0.524],[0.809
0.541],'LineWidth',3);
annotation('arrow',[0.681 0.816],…
Landslide covered the [0.418 0.316],'LineWidth',3);
National Highway in axis off
Taiwan
Circular Failure: A Mathematical
Circle Geometry Broken Heart

7
 9/02/2020

Love Mathematics (Math-Buddies)

A_slope_undrained.m A_slope_undrained_cal.m

Engineers Are:

Analytical Seeking for Technically Problem

and Logical Optimal Creative Solvers
Solutions

However, Engineers may require

additional skills.

8
 9/02/2020

 Incorporating Systems Analysis

 Conceptualisation and Modelling
 Holistic Thinking
 Effective Communication
 Team working
 Leadership

The need to bring subjective skills into

Decision Making

Basic Decision Framework

Decision Making

Engineering decisions: framework, process and concerns

Brown and Elms (2013)

9
 9/02/2020

Basic Decision Framework

Decision Making

Engineering decisions: framework, process and concerns

Brown and Elms (2013)

A Takeaway
Message

What to Do?
is more important than
How to Do?
Design Programs Can Facilitate This
Aspiration.

10
 9/02/2020

Mechanics for Civil Engineers

Solid Fluid
Mechanics Mechanics

Soil
Mechanics

QUIZ
What is soil?

11
 9/02/2020

Soil (gravel, sand, silt and clay):

A naturally occurring mixture of
• minerals
• organic matters
• bacteria
• water and air
that forms the surface of the land.

How do soil properties affect the design of

your geotechnical structures?

QUIZ
What is rock?

12
 9/02/2020

Rock:
A solid aggregate of one or more minerals forming part
of the surface of the earth such as
• granite (igneous rock)
• sandstone (sedimentary rock) and
• marble (metamorphic rock)

How do rock properties affect the design of

underground structures?

Geotechnical Materials

SOIL ROCK
Clay Sedimentary
Fine grained Formed by accumulation
< 2 mm of sediments
Silt
Fine grained
Metamorphic
2 mm – 60 mm Formed from rocks
Sand exposed to extreme
Coarse grained pressure and heat
60 mm – 2 mm
Gravel Igneous
Coarse grained Formed from cooling of hot
2 mm – 60 mm magma

13
 9/02/2020

Engineering Characteristics

SOIL ROCK
• Shear Strength • Strength
• Stiffness • Defect conditions
• Volume change • Weathering
• Seepage (permeability) • Rock mass properties
• Unit weight etc. • Geological structures etc.

Geotechnical Projects

14
 9/02/2020

Types of Foundations
Shallow Deep
Foundations Foundations

Wall Foundation Mat Foundation Piles

Types of Foundations

Deep
Deep Foundation
Shallow foundation
foundation (Piles with
(mat or raft foundation)
(piles) a pile cap)
Shallow Shallow
foundation foundation
(pat footing)

30

15
 9/02/2020

Construction of Shallow Foundations

Raft Slab House Foundation

Budhu - Soil Mechanics and Foundations, 2e

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Raft-slab.jpg

Waffle Mat Foundations

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Grade_Mat_Foundation_for_Expansive_Soils 8/8/2011

16
 9/02/2020

Pile Types

Pile Construction

17
 9/02/2020

Definition of
Shallow Foundations

The ratio of the embedment (Df) to the

minimum plan dimension (B = width) is:

D f  2.5B

Rock
Strength

18
 9/02/2020

ROCKS and Minerals

QUIZ

 What is the difference between Minerals and Rocks?

 Which mineral has the highest hardness?

ROCKS
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Basalt
Marble
Conglomerate

Granite

Sandstone Quartzite

Obsidian Slate
Shale

http://www.uwm.edu/Course/422-100/Mineral_Rocks

19
 9/02/2020

QUIZ

1. Which of the following rocks is sedimentary:

a) Limestone b) Gneiss c) Granite d) Basalt

2. Which of the following igneous rocks is intrusive:

a) Tuff b) Basalt c) Granite d) Obsidian

3. Which of the following rocks has the highest strength:

a) Sandstone b) limestone c) Basalt
d) Not enough information to say

Rock Strength

Rock failure:
Mainly shear failure (oblique failure plane under
unconfined compression test)

20
 9/02/2020

Rock Strength

Aspects of Rock Strength

Strength of Intact Rock Strength of Rock Mass

Strength of a sample the rock sample is a

of rock itself small part of rock mass

QUIZ

1. What is UCS

2. What is RQD?

3. What is RMR?

4. What is Tunnelling
Quality Index (Q Index)?

21
 9/02/2020

Rock Strength (UCS)

Strength Recognition and Description:
UCS: Unconfined Compressive Strength

Rock / Soil Description UCS (MPa) Field Properties

Very strong rock > 200 Firm hammering to break
Strong rock 100 – 200 Break by hammer in hand
Moderately strong rock 50 -100 Dent with hammer pick
Moderately weak rock 10 – 50 Cannot cut by hand
Weak rock 1.5 – 10 Crumbles under pick blows
Very weak rock 0.6 – 1.5 Break by hand
Very stiff soil 0.3 – 0.6 Indent by fingernail
Stiff soil 0.15 – 0.3 Cannot mould in fingers
Firm soil 0.08 – 0.15 Mould by fingers
Soft soil 0.04 – 0.08 Mould easily in fingers
Very soft soil < 0.04 Exudes between fingers

Intact Rock Strength Tests

Different Intact Rock Test Apparatus

 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)
 Point Load
 Brazilian
 Ring Shear
 Triaxial
 Schmidt Hammer

22
 9/02/2020

Strength of Intact Rock

More ductile failure when confined

Stress Dry condition

Peak strength
Typical brittle rock failure

Yield point
Dry condition
Residual strength

Increased pore water pressure

Strain

Strength of Different Rocks

Density Porosity Dry UCS Saturated Tensile Shear
Rock type (t/m3) (%) (MPa) UCS (MPa) strength strength
(MPa) (MPa)
Granite 2.7 1 200 15 35
Basalt 2.9 2 250 15 40
Greywacke 2.6 3 180 160 15 30
Sandstone - Carboniferous 2.2 12 70 50 5 15
1.9 25 20 10 1 4
Sandstone - Triassic
Limestone - Carboniferous 2.6 3 100 90 10 30
Limestone - Jurassic 2.3 15 25 15 2 5
1.8 30 15 5 0.3 3
Chalk
Mudstone - Carboniferous 2.3 10 40 20 1
Shale – Carboniferous 2.3 15 20 5 0.5
1.8 30 2 2 0.7
Claystone – Cretaceous
Coal 1.4 10 30 2
Gypsum 2.2 5 25 1
2.1 5 12
Salt
Hornfels 2.7 1 250
Marble 2.6 1 100 10 32
Schist 2.7 3 60 2

23
 9/02/2020

Rock Mass Rating (RMR)

• Intact Rock Strength (UCS)
• Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
– If RQD > 70%, generally sound rock
• Fracture conditions, spacing and orientations
– Roughness influences strength
– Fracture infills (often a clay gouge) may lower strength and
increase settlement.
• Groundwater Conditions
Very Very favourable
unfavourable

 core length  100 mm

Potential
slide
RQD 
length drilled

Orientation

Rock Mass Rating (RMR)

RMR classification of rock masses (Developed by Bieniawski, 1989)

Parameter Assessment of values and rating

Intact rock UCS, MPa >250 100-250 50-100 25-50 1-25

Rating 1 15 12 7 4 1
RQD (%) >90 75-90 50-75 25-50 <25
Rating 2 20 17 13 8 3
Mean fracture spacing >2 m 0.6-2 m 0.2-0.6 m 60-200mm <60mm
Rating 3 20 15 10 8 5
Fracture conditions Rough tight Open<1mm Weathered Gouge<5mm Gouge>5mm
Rating 4 30 25 20 10 0
Ground water state Dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
Rating 5 15 10 7 4 0
Fracture orientation v. Favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable v. Unfavourable
Rating 6 0 -2 -7 -15 -25

RMR is the sum of these SIX ratings.

24
 9/02/2020

Rock Mass Rating (RMR)

Rock Mass Rating (RMR) index can be determined

based on 6 ratings of 6 parameters:
1. Uniaxial Compression Strength (UCS)
2. Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
3. Spacing of Discontinuities
4. Condition of the Discontinuities
5. Groundwater Conditions
6. Fracture Orientation

RMR = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + R6

Strength of Rock Mass

Rock Mass Classification and Properties

Class I II III IV V
Description Very good Good rock Fair rock Poor rock Very poor
rock rock
RMR 80-100 60-80 40-60 20-40 <20

Friction angle, f, (o) >45 35-45 25-35 15-25 <15

Cohesion (kPa) >100 300-400 200-300 100-200 <100
SBP (MPa) 10 4-6 1-2 0.5 <0.2
Safe cut slope (o) >70 65 55 45 <40
Tunnel support None Spot bolts Pattern bolts Bolt+shotcrete Steel ribs
Stand up time for span 20 yr for 15m 1 yr for 10m 1wk for 5 m 12h for 2 m 30min for 1m

SBP: Safe Bearing Pressure

25
 9/02/2020

Strength of Rock Mass

A Core Box of Weathered Rock

Strength of Rock Mass

A Core Box of Fresh Rock

26
 9/02/2020

Support Systems in Tunnels

Rock class
<V V IV III II I
50
Inappropriate
20

10

0.5

Selection of Rock Excavation

Unconfined compressive strength (MPa)
1 5 10 50 100 200

Blast to Fracture 100

2 I
Fracture spacing (m)

II
0.6 90
III
RQD

0.2 IV Blast to loosen 75

V & Soil
0.06 25
Rip
0.02 Dig 0

0.1 0.3 1 3 10
Point load strength (MPa)

27
 9/02/2020

Tunnelling Quality Index (Q)

Barton et al. (1974) proposed a Tunnelling Quality Index for
determination of rock mass characteristics and tunnel support
requirement (i.e. selecting suitable combination of shotcrete
and rock bolts for rock mass reinforcement).

 RQD   Jr   Jw 
Q   
 n   Ja   SRF 
J

RQD = Rock Quality Designation Ja = Joint alteration number

Jn = Joint set number Jw = Joint water inflow reduction factor
Jr = Joint roughness number SRF = Stress reduction factor

Tunnelling Quality Index (Q)

This formula is based on drill and blast tunnelling method
(Barton et al.,1974 & 2002)

 RQD   Jr   Jw 
Q   
 n   Ja   SRF 
J

RQD = Rock Quality Designation * RQD/Jn is a measure of

Jn = Joint set number block size.
Jr = Joint roughness number * Jr /Ja is a measure of
Ja = Joint alteration number joint frictional strength.
Jw = Joint water reduction factor * Jw /SRF is a measure of
SRF = Stress reduction factor joint stress.

28
 9/02/2020

Range of Numbers and Factors for Tunnelling

Quality Index (Q)

Typically: 0.01 < Q < 100

Extremely poor Very Good

Example on Tunnelling Quality Index

GIVEN:

SOLUTION:

29
 9/02/2020

In Circular Tunnel: Span = Diameter

ESR = Excavation Support Ratio E = Energy absorption in fibre

RRS = Reinforced Ribs of Sprayed Concrete Sfr = Sprayed fibre reinforced concrete

Tunnel Support Categories

E = Energy absorption in sprayed fibre reinforced concrete (Sfr), B = Bolting

RRS = Reinforced ribs of sprayed concrete, CCA = Cast concrete lining, SB = Spot bolting

30
 9/02/2020

Q Index Limits

Palmstrom and Broch (2006)

 The Q system has several limitations, working best
between Q = 0.1 and Q = 40 for tunnels with spans
between 2.5 m and 30 m.
 Though there are input parameters for
overstressing, Q should be used with care in rock
bursting and especially in squeezing ground.
 The same is the case for weakness zones;
especially where swelling ground occurs.

A rock burst is a spontaneous, violent failure of rock that can

occur in high-stress mines.

Correlations between RMR and Q

Bieniawski (1989), Barton (1995) and others have suggested
various correlations between RMR and Q. FHWA suggested
Barton’s equation can be the most applicable correlation
between RMR and Q:

 RMR  50 
 
Q  10  15 

General form: Barton’s Suggestion

RMR  A ln Q  B RMR  6.5ln Q  50

RMR = 15log Q + 50

31
 9/02/2020

Rock Mass Deformation Modulus

Em is in MPa.

Summary
Engineering Geology

1. What are the main aspects of rock strength?

(i) Intact rock (ii) Rock mass

2. How do you calculate the rock quality designation (RQD) index?

3. What are the different factors in the rock mass rating (RMR)?

4. What is the Tunnelling Quality index (Q index)

5. What are the main rock support systems?

32
 9/02/2020

Phase Relationships
and Compaction

Basic Phases in Soil

SOIL GRAINS

WATER AIR

OIL,
CONTAMINANT, …

33
 9/02/2020

Phases
• Soil consists of solid particles and voids
– Voids may be filled with water and/or air
– Voids affect the engineering properties of soils

3 phases of soil

Air

Water

Soil grain

REVIEW: Void Ratio e

Vv
Common Vs
Vv
Volumetric Porosity n
V
and V
Degree of Saturation Sr  w
Gravimetric Vv
Ratios Ww
Moisture Content w
Ws
weight W
volume Unit Weight 
V
Va Air 0 W
Dry Unit Weight  dry  s
V
VW Water WW
Ws
Specific Gravity Gs 
Soil Particles Vs  w
VS WS
Va
Air Content A
V

34
 9/02/2020

RECAP
Solid Water Air

e n w Sr Gs
r 

Compaction

35
 9/02/2020

Compaction Standard Test

Proctor (1930)

Proctor Introduced dry density as a measure of

compaction.

 The water content of the soil is very likely to

vary from time to time, hence the field total
unit weight.

 Therefore, the dry unit weight of the soil is

always used as a means of reporting the test
results and eventually applying in real
applications.

Compaction Standard Test

Proctor (1930)

Compaction: Standard
Mass of hammer 2.7 kg
Height of hammer fall 300 mm
No. of Layers
3
No. of blows per layer
25
Compaction energy* 596 kJ/m3

36
 9/02/2020

Compaction Standard Test

Proctor (1930)

Compaction: Standard Modified

Mass of hammer 2.7 kg 4.9 kg
Height of hammer fall 300 mm 450 mm
No. of Layers 3 5
No. of blows per layer 25 25
Compaction energy 596 kJ/m3 ?? kJ/m3

Effect of Compaction on Soil Structure

Max. dry
density

Optimum
water content

37
 9/02/2020

Useful Relationships
Gs  w  Sr  e
Gs  r w
rdry 
Dry Density 1 e
r
rdry  wet
1 w
Zero Air Voids Dry Gs .r w
rzav 
Density 1  wGS

Unit Weights

Gs  e
 sat  w
1 e
Gs
 dry  w
1 e
(1  w )Gs
 tot  w
1 e

38
 9/02/2020

SOIL
CLASSIFICATION

Major Soil Types

• Based on grain size: Grain size (mm)
Soil type
– Coarse grained soils: Min Max
• Visible to naked eyes: sands, Gravel 2 60
gravels. Sand 0.06 2
– Fine grained soils: Silt 0.002 0.06
• Silts, clays, and organic soils. Clay - 0.002

• Based on major properties:

– Cohesive soils Highly plastic, poor drainage, compressible, soft.
• Clays
– Cohesionless soils Non-plastic, good drainage,
• Sands, Gravels, Silts less compressible.

39
 9/02/2020

Plasticity Chart

PI  0.73 (LL  20)

Soil Symbols
Soil Group Descriptor

Well-graded (W)
Gravel (G) Poorly-graded (P)
Sand (S) Silty (M)
Clayey (C)

Silt (M) Low plasticity (L)

Clay (C) High plasticity (H)
Organic (O) Medium plasticity (I)

Peat = Pt (more than 50% organic soils by weight)

40
 9/02/2020

Soil Symbol
Coarse Grained (AS1726)

Less than 5% fines,

GW SW

GP SP

GC SC

GM SM

More than 12% fines, but less than 35%

G: Gravel, S: Sand, M: silt, C: Clay, W: Well-graded, P: Poorly graded

Soil Symbol
Coarse Grained (AS1726)

5% < fines < 12%

GW-GC SW-SC

GW-GM SW-SM

GP-GC SP-SC

GP-GM SP-SM

Poorly Graded: Uniform or Gap Graded

G: Gravel, S: Sand, M: Silt, C: Clay, W: Well-graded, P: Poorly graded

41
 9/02/2020

Soil Symbol
Fine Grained (AS1726)

More than 35% of soil passes 60mm sieve.

Above A-Line Below A-Line

CL ML

CH MH

CI OL

35 < LL < 50 OH

M: Silt, C: Clay, O: Organic, H: High plasticity, L: Low Plasticity

Shape of Grading Curve

Coefficient of uniformity D60

Cu 
D10
2
Coefficient of curvature D30
Cc 
(D60 D10 )

Cu > 6 & 1 < Cc < 3 Well graded (sand)

Cu > 4 & 1 < Cc < 3 Well graded (gravel)

42
 9/02/2020

Example
Soil #1: 70% retained on 2.36 mm sieve;
4% passed 0.075 mm sieve;
Cu = 12, Cc = 1.2
Fines had low dry strength

Solution: Gravel: 70%

Sand: 26%
Fines: 4%
Well-graded sandy gravel with a trace of silt
AS1726 Symbol: GW

Soil
Effective
Stress

43
 9/02/2020

Stresses in Saturated Soil

• Effective stress concept in saturated soil:

sv = sv - u

Effective Total Pore water

stress stress pressure =w zw

sh = Ko  sv
Coefficient of earth pressure at rest

sh = sh + u

Stresses in Unsaturated Soil

• Effective stress concept in unsaturated soil :

sv = sv - ua + c (ua - uw)

𝐬𝐀 𝟎.𝟓𝟓
𝛘= Ref. Khalili & Khabbaz (1998), Geotechnique
𝐬

sA = Air entry suction of the soil, depending on soil type

c = the effective stress parameter (c = 1 if s < sA or soil is fully
saturated. c = 0 for fully dry soil)
ua = pore air pressure uw = pore ware pressure

44
 9/02/2020

Seepage and
Flow of Water
in Soil

Darcy’s Law (1856)

In one dimensional, water flows through a fully
saturated soil in accordance with Darcy’s empirical law

Q  vA v  ki Q  kiA
Q = flow rate (m3/s)
i = hydraulic gradient (DH/L) DH
DH = total head (m) i
L
L = soil length (m)
k = permeability coefficient or hydraulic conductivity (m/s)
A = cross sectional area (m2)
v = discharge velocity (m/s)

45
 9/02/2020

Darcy’s Law (1856)

dh DH
Q  kA  kA
dl L

Henry Darcy
France 1803 -1858
Taken from: Muni Budhu, 2011

Example on Darcy’s Law

In a constant head test the following results were obtained:
Duration of the test = 4 min
Quantity of water collected = 300 ml
Head difference in manometer = 50 mm
Length of the soil sample = 100 mm
Diameter of the test sample = 100 mm

Find the Permeability Coefficient.

46
 9/02/2020

Solution

d2   1002
A   7850 mm2
4 4
V 300
Q   1.25 ml / s
t 4  60
QL 1250  100
k   0.318 mm / s
DHA 50  7850

k  3.2  104 m / s sand

Stresses Induced by Flow

Effective stresses at depth z:
s = sub z - w iz s= sub z s = sub z + w iz
Reduction due to flow Increase due to flow

DH

DH
z
DL DL DL

Upward flow No flow Downward flow

47
 9/02/2020

Example on Seepage
The following figure shows a system of filter consisting of two layers
of soils.
The soils have the following properties:
Soil 1:
Cross sectional area: A = 0.25 m2, coefficient of permeability: k1 =
2×10-5 m/s and saturated unit weight: 1 = 20 kN/m3
Soil 2:
Cross sectional area: A = 0.25 m2, coefficient of permeability: k2 =
6×10-5 m/s and saturated unit weight: 2 = 19 kN/m3

a. Determine the expected amount of flow rate, Q in m3/s, passing

through the system.
b. Find the total head at point A.
c. Point B is located in the middle of Soil 2, 0.7 m below the soil
surface. What is the vertical effective stress at point B?

Inflow tank
0.9 m
Q

0.8 m
Soil 2

B 1.4 m

A
Soil 1 0.6 m
Datum 0.3 m

(Not to scale)

48
 9/02/2020

Solution
(a) Determine the expected amount of flow rate, Q in m3/s,
passing through the system.
L 2
ke   ke 
L1 L 2 0 .6 1 .4
 
k1 k 2 2  10 5
6  10 5

k e  3.75  10 5 m / s

DH 0 .9
Q k e A  3.75  10 5  0.25   4.219  10  6 m3 / s
L 2

Q  4.2  10 6 m3 / s

(b) Find the total head at point A.

Q  Q1  k 1 A 1 i1  4.219  10 6  2  10 5  0.25  i1

 i1  0.8438

DH1
i1   DH1  L1 i1  0.6  0.8438  0.5063 m
L1

HA  Ht  DH1  HA  4  0.5063  3.4937 m

H A  3 .5 m

49
 9/02/2020

(c) Point B is located in the middle of Soil 2, 0.7 m below the soil
surface. What is the vertical effective stress at point B?

sB   sub ZB   w i2 ZB

DH2 0.9  0.5063

i2    0.281
L2 1 .4

sB  (19  9.8) (0.7)  (9.8)(0.281)(0.7)  4.512 kPa

sB  4.5 kPa

Laplace’s Equation
A partial differential equation named after
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749 - 1827)

 2h  2h
 h0
2 or  0 if k x  k z
x 2 z 2

 2h  2h
kx 2  kz 2  0 if k x  k z
x z

50
 9/02/2020

An Example on Flow Nets

Nh = 11 DH
Nf = 4 Qk Nf
Nh
DH

Consolidation
and
Settlement

51
 9/02/2020

Shear Strength
of Soil

Introduction
• Soil strength needs to be evaluated in many problems.

A failure surface can be identified in many cases along

which shear stress reaches the shear strength of soil.

52
 9/02/2020

Introduction
• Soil strength needs to be evaluated in many problems.

A failure surface can be identified in many cases along

which shear stress reaches the shear strength of soil.

Introduction
• Soil strength needs to be evaluated in many problems.

A failure surface can be identified in many cases along

which shear stress reaches the shear strength of soil.

53
 9/02/2020

Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
• Shear strength of soil has 2 components:
– Friction
– Cohesion

tf = c + sn tan f

tf = shear strength of soil

sn = normal stress on failure plane
c = soil cohesion (unit of stress), a soil property
f = friction angle of soil grains, a soil property

Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
• In terms of principal stresses:
 1  sin f   cos f 
s1  s3    2c 
 1  sin f   1  sin f 

s1  s3 tan2 ( 45  f / 2)  2c tan( 45  f / 2)

Nf  tan2 ( 45  f / 2)
t
(s, t)
s1  s3Nf  2c Nf
(s1- s3) / 2

f
s3 s1 s
c cotf (s1+ s3) / 2

54
 9/02/2020

Peak Stress
Stress
t Peak

Residual Stress
Ultimate Stress

sn3
sn2

sn1

Dense Sand
Dh

Shear (Horizontal) Displacement

Select Peak Stress values for determining the value of f

and use Ultimate Stress values to find fcv

Direct Shear Test

Typical values of f:
fcv f(med. dense) f(Dense)
Uniform fine sand 26-30 30-34 32-36

Well graded sand 30-34 34-40 38-46

Non-plastic silt 26-30 28-32 30-34

Gravel 30-35 35-45 40-50

fcv = constant volume friction angle

55
 9/02/2020

Recap: Cohesionless Soil

Equation of failure envelope t f  c  sn tan f
(Mohr-Coulomb Law)

Shear Strength Parameters: c&f c & f fcv

c = cohesion, f = friction angle
c  0 kPa For Cohesionless Soils t f  sn tan f

Relationships between s1 and s3 at failure: s1  Nf s3

1  sin f
Nf   tan2 ( 45  f / 2)
1  sin f

Types of Triaxial Tests

Triaxial tests are designated by two letters

describing the drainage conditions of the 2
phases of loading.

 The most commonly tests are:

 UU (Unconsolidated Undrained)
 CU (Consolidated undrained)
 CD (Consolidated Drained)

56
 9/02/2020

CU Triaxial Test
 Relationship between consolidation stress and undrained
strength for normally consolidated clay is linear.
 Relationship between consolidation stress and undrained
strength for over-consolidated clay is bi-linear.

cu spc

O.C. N.C.
Consolidation stress

Unconfined Compressive Strength

• Unconfined Compressive Strength test:
– A quick method of assessing undrained strength.
– Soil is loaded quickly while cell pressure is zero.
– The deviator stress at failure is defined as UCS of the soil:

t (kPa)
s3 = 0
UCS/2
Cu = R = (s1- s3)/2
fu = 0
Cu = s1/2

s3 = 0 s1 = UCS s (kPa)

57
 9/02/2020

Example on Shear Strength

A vertical cut 5m deep has been made in a saturated clay. The tide
rises and falls on the cut face as shown and it may be assumed that
the water table in the clay follows the tide.
The following clay properties are P
known: 4m 1m

t = 20 kN/m3 cu = 100 kPa

fu = 0
4R/(3)

Find the line load P that causes 5m

rotational undrained failure by
the circle centered on the top of 1 to 4m
the slope.

58
9/02/2020

59
 9/02/2020

P = 780 kN/m

Thank
you

60
 9/02/2020

Worked Examples
and Discussion

Example 1: Square Footing

P1
Given:
H
1. A 2m by 2m square column
footing as shown in the opposite
figure. 1.5m 0.5m
1.3m
2. The column base is hinged.
3. The load on the footing from the
1m 1m
column (P1) is 270 kN.
4. The weight of concrete footing A

including pedestal and base pad is

45 kN.
5. The weight of backfill soil is 50 kN . 2m
6. The horizontal load (H) is 30 kN.
7. The allowable bearing capacity of
the supporting soil is 140 kPa
A
0.75m

61
 9/02/2020

Example 1: Square Footing

Required:
1. Maximum and minimum contact
pressures and soil pressure diagram A

2. Shear force and bending moment at

1m
Section A-A.
3. Factor of safety against sliding if the 2m
coefficient of friction between
0.25m
footing base and supporting soil is
0.404. (f = 33, d = 2/3f and c = 0
A
kPa) 0.75m

4. Factor of safety against overturning.

Solution 1
1. Contact pressures and soil pressure diagram

P Mx y My x
q  
A Ix Iy
P  P1  P2  P3  270  45  50  365kN
A  2  2  4 m2
My  30  1.5  45kNm Mx  0
4 4
B 2
Iy    1.33m4
12 12 57.4
kPa 125.1
365 45  (2 / 2) kPa
qmax    125.1kPa
4 1.33
365 45  (2 / 2)
qmin    57.4 kPa
4 1.33

62
 9/02/2020

Solution 1
2. Shear and moment at Section A-A.

0.75 Ds Ds A
 
2 (qmax  qmin ) (125.1  57.4)
2m

 Ds  25.39kPa

Fs = Shear force at Section A-A

Fs  (25.39)(0.75)(1 / 2)  (125.1  25.39)(0.75)

57.4
Fs  9.52  74.78  84.3kN kPa 125.1
kPa

M = Moment at Section A-A Ds  25.39

kPa
0.75m
M  (9.52)(0.75)(2 / 3)  (74.78)(0.75)(1 / 2)
A

M  32.67kNm

Solution 1
3. Factor of safety against sliding

P(c' tan d') (365)(0.404) P = 365 kN

FSliding    4.9 (total vertical load)
H 30 H = 30 kNm

4. Factor of safety against

overturning (OT) at point K. S =1.5 m

B = 2m K
P(B / 2) (365)(2 / 2)
FOT    8.1
H S (30)(1.5)

63
 9/02/2020

Example 2: Rectangular Foundation

M
Given:
1. A 2.25-m by 3-m rectangular P

column footing as shown in the H

opposite figure.
2. The column base is fixed into the
1.8m
foundation.
3. The total load (P) on the footing
1.5m 1.5m
including the column load, the
weight of concrete footing and the
weight of backfill soil is 360 kN.
4. The horizontal load (H) is 30 kN. x x 2.25m
5. The moment (M) acting on the
foundation is 40 kNm.
6. The allowable bearing capacity of 3m

the supporting soil is 90 kPa.

Example 2: Rectangular Foundation

M
Required: P

1. Maximum and minimum H

contact pressures
2. Soil pressure diagram 1.8m
3. Factor of safety against
overturning
1.5m 1.5m

y
B = 2.25m

x x

L = 3m

64
 9/02/2020

Solution 2
1. Contact pressures and soil pressure diagram
P Mx y My x
q  
A Ix Iy
P  360kN x  3 / 2  1.5m
A  3  2.25  6.75m2
My  30  1.8  40  94 kNm Mx  0

BL3 (2.25)(33 )
Iy    5.0625 m4 25.5
kPa 81.2
12 12 kPa
360 (94)(1.5)
qmax    81.2kPa L = 3m
6.75 5.0625

360 (94)(1.5)
qmin    25.5kPa
6.75 5.0625

Solution 2

2. Factor of safety against over turning (OT) at point K.

Resisting moments
Factor of Safety =
Disturbing moments
M = 40 kNm

P = 360 kN
H = 30 kNm (total vertical load)

(P)(L / 2) (360)(3 / 2)
FOT    5.7
(H)(S)  M (30)(1.8)  40
S =1.8 m

L=3m K

65
 9/02/2020

Example 3: Large Eccentricity

M
Given:
1. A 2.25-m by 3-m rectangular P

column footing as shown in the H

opposite figure.
2. The column base is fixed into the
1.8m
foundation.
3. The total load (P) on the footing
1.5m 1.5m
including the column load, the
weight of concrete footing and the
weight of backfill soil is 360 kN.
4. The horizontal load (H) is 30 kN. x 2.25m
5. The moment (M) acting on the
foundation is 150 kNm.
6. The allowable bearing capacity of 3m

the supporting soil is 90 kPa.

Example 3: Large Eccentricity

M
Required: P
1. Compute the contact pressure
H
2. Draw the soil pressure diagram
S = 1.8m

1.5m 1.5m

y
B = 2.25m

x x

L = 3m

66
 9/02/2020

Solution 3
1. Contact pressures and soil pressure diagram
P Mx y My x
q  
A Ix Iy
P  360kN x  3 / 2  1.5m L = 3m

A  3  2.25  6.75m2
My  30  1.8  150  204 kNm Mx  0 C

BL3 (2.25)(33 )
Iy    5.0625 m4
12 12 q

360 (204)(1.5) d
qmax    113.8 kPa
6.75 5.0625 L/2

360 (204)(1.5)
qmin    7.1kPa
6.75 5.0625

Solution 3
Because qmin has a negative value, the flexural formula is not applicable in
this case. Instead the contact pressure can be calculated according to the
basic equations of statics:
L = 3m
V  0  (0.5qd)(B)  P  0
MC  0  M  (H)(S)  (0.5qd)(B)(L / 2  d / 3)  0
C

(0.5qd)(2.25)  360  0
150  (30)(1.8)  (0.5qd)(2.25)(3 / 2  d / 3)  0 q
= 114.4 kPa

d = 2.8m
Solving these two equations simultaneously: L/2

d  2.8 m
q  114.3kPa

67
 9/02/2020

Example 4
y

The following data apply to a 2 1

square footing located at the
ground: xp
P
P = 270 kN L
B = L = 1.8 m x
Position of the column load: yp
xp = 1.2 m and yp = 1.2 m
4 3
B

(a) Calculate the contact pressure at the corners of the footing.

(b) Find out the equation of the zero pressure line.
(c) Determine the minimum size of the footing ensuring none of the
corners are in tension.

Solution (a)
(a) Calculate the contact pressure at the corners of the footing

B3L BL3 1.8 4

Ix  Iy     0.8748 m4
12 12 12
e x  e y  0 .3 m

Mx  My  P.e y  P.e x  0.3  270  81 kNm

P My M
s  x x y
A Iy Ix

P My M
q  Cx  x Cy
A Iy Ix

270 (81)(0.9) (81)(0.9)

smax  q1     250 kPa
1 .8 2 0.8748 0.8748

68
 9/02/2020

Solution (a)

270 (81)(0.9) (81)(0.9)

q1     83.33  83.33  83.33  250 kPa
1 .8 2 0.8748 0.8748

270 (81)(0.9) (81)(0.9)

q2     83.33  83.33  83.33  83.3 kPa
1.8 2 0.8748 0.8748

270 (81)(0.9) (81)(0.9)

q3     83.33  83.33  83.33  83.3 kPa
1 .8 2 0.8748 0.8748

270 (81)(0.9) (81)(0.9)

q4     83.33  83.33  83.33  83.3 kPa
1.8 2 0.8748 0.8748

Solution (b)
(b) Find out the equation of the zero pressure line.

y
P My M
s  x x y0
A 2
Iy Ix 2 1

270 (81)( x ) (81)( y ) P

  0
1.8 2 0.8748 0.8748 L
x

83.3  92.59 x  92.59 y  0

4 3
(83.3 / 92.59)  x  y  0 B

x  y  0.9

69
 9/02/2020

Solution (c)
(c) Determine the minimum size of the footing ensuring none of the
corners are in tension.
Find a new B for the square footing:
Area : A  B2 S  I / C  (B 4 / 12) /(B / 2)  B3 / 6

e  1 .2  B / 2  Mx  My  eP  P(1.2  B / 2)

P My Mx P 6My 6Mx
s   0   3 0
A Sy Sx B 2 B3 B

P 6P(1.2  0.5B)(2) 12P(1.2  0.5B)

2
 3
0 B  B  14.4  6B
B B P

B  2.06 m

Example 5
The following data apply to a
trapezoidal combined footing
a1
constructed on the ground:
C a2
qs = 200 kPa (Allowable bearing
B1 B2
capacity of soil) P1 P2
L=2m
k
P1 = 500 kN
P2 = 300 kN
a1 = a2 = 0.5 m
W = 50 kN (Assumed weight of the X
footing) L
Unit weight of concrete = 25 kN/m3

(a) Determine B1 and B2.

(b) Calculate the total area.
(c) Thickness of concrete slab (footing)

70
 9/02/2020

General Solution
𝐴 = 0.5 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐿
2(P1  P2  W )
B1  B 2  Eq. 1
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑊 qsL
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
𝑞𝑠 a1
C a2

B1 B2
P1 P2
Moment at P1 k

P2k X

C L

P1  P2 + W
𝑃2 𝑘 + 𝑊 𝐿 𝐵1 + 2𝐵2
𝑎1 + = Eq. 2
L  B  2B 2  𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑊 3 𝐵1 + 𝐵2
X   1 
3  B1  B 2 
Centroid of the trapezium
from the long edge (B1)
Find: B1 and B2
𝑊 = 0.5𝐿(𝐵1 + 𝐵2 ) 𝑡 𝛾𝑐

Numerical Solution

Given: qs, L, P1, P2, a1, a2 , thickness of concrete

footing (t) and unit weight of concrete (c)
Find: B1 and B2

%% Combined_Footing
clc, clear, close all
%% Inputs
qs = 200; % Assumed allowable bearing capacity of footing (kPa)
L = 2; % Length of the combined footing (m)
P1 = 500; % Larger load (kN)
P2 = 300; % Smaller load (kN)
a1 = 0.5; % Distance of larger load from the edge (m)
a2 = 0.5; % Distance of smaller load from the edge (m)
t = 0.5; % Assumed footing thickness (m)
gamma_concrete = 25; % Unit weight of concrete(kN/m3)

71
 9/02/2020

Numerical Solution
%% Calculations
s = gamma_concrete*t*L;
B = 2*(P1+P2)/(qs*L-s);
W = 0.5*s*B;
k = L-a1-a2;
c = P2*k/(P1+P2+W);
x_bar = a1+c;
B1 = 2*B-(3*B*x_bar)/L;
B2 = B-B1;
Area = (B1+B2)*L/2;
%% Outputs
disp(['B1(m) = ',num2str(B1)])
disp(['B2(m) = ',num2str(B2)])
disp(['Area(m2) = ',num2str(Area)])
disp(['Weight(kN) = ',(num2str(W))])

B1 (m) = 3.083
B2 (m) = 1.183
Area (m2) = 4.27
Weight (kN) = 53.33

Example on RQD
Rock coring commences at a depth of 4.5 m under the surface and when the
borehole depth is 7.2 m, the rock core is examined. The total length of rock
core extracted is 2.5 m. The distance to fractures (measured in metres from
one end on the core) are:
0.31, 0.35, 0.57, 0.62, 1.52, 1.84, 1.88, 1.92, 1.95, 2.0 and 2.5 m.
What is the rock quality designation (RQD) for this rock ?

RQD 
 core length  100 mm
length drilled
Length of different segments (mm):
310, 40, 220, 50, 900, 320, 40, 40, 30, 50, 500

Total length of the segments > 100 mm:

310 + 220 + 900 + 320 + 500 = 2250 mm = 2.25 m
2.25
Length drilled: 7.2 - 4.5 = 2.7 m RQD   0.833  83%
2.70

72
 9/02/2020

Rock Mass Classification

 Recognise cumulative effect of different geological features.

 Classification is based on an accumulation of weighted

values (ratings) given to selected geological features.

 Rock Mass Rating (RMR), a measure of rock mass quality, is

calculated as sum of the ratings.

 Rock masses are classified based on their RMR values.

 Approximate properties of rock masses can be found based

on their classification.

Example on RMR

A damp sandstone (Triassic) has RQD = 55% with

tight fracture spacing of 0.8 m - 1.2 m. The fracture
orientation is fair.

 What is the RMR for this rock?

 What is the safe bearing pressure of the rock

mass?

73
 9/02/2020

Strength of Intact Rocks

A damp sandstone (Triassic)
Density Porosity Dry UCS Saturated Tensile Shear
Rock type (t/m3) (%) (mean) UCS (MPa) strength strength
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Granite 2.7 1 200 15 35
Basalt 2.9 2 250 15 40
Greywacke 2.6 3 180 160 15 30
Sandstone - Carboniferous 2.2 12 70 50 5 15
Sandstone - Triassic 1.9 25 20 10 1 4
Limestone - Carboniferous 2.6 3 100 90 10 30
Limestone - Jurassic 2.3 15 25 15 2 5
Chalk 1.8 30 15 5 0.3 3
Mudstone - Carboniferous 2.3 10 40 20 1
Shale – Carboniferous 2.3 15 20 5 0.5
Clay – Cretaceous 1.8 30 2 2 0.7
Coal 1.4 10 30 2
Gypsum 2.2 5 25 1
Salt 2.1 5 12
Hornfels 2.7 1 250
Marble 2.6 1 100 10 32
Schist 2.7 3 60 2

UCS = 15 MPa
Parameter Assessment of values and rating
Intact rock UCS, MPa >250 100-250 50-100 25-50 1-25
Rating 15 12 7 4 1
RQD (%) >90 75-90 50-75 25-50 <25
Rating 20 17 13 8 3
Mean fracture spacing >2 m 0.6-2 m 0.2-0.6 m 60-200mm <60mm
Rating 20 15 10 8 5
Fracture conditions Rough tight Open<1mm Weathered Gouge<5mm Gouge>5mm
Rating 30 25 20 10 0
Ground water state Dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
Rating 15 10 7 4 0
Fracture orientation v. Favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable v. Unfavourable
Rating 0 -2 -7 -15 -25

74
 9/02/2020

RQD = 55%
Parameter Assessment of values and rating
Intact rock UCS, MPa >250 100-250 50-100 25-50 1-25
Rating 15 12 7 4 1
RQD (%) >90 75-90 50-75 25-50 <25
Rating 20 17 13 8 3
Mean fracture spacing >2 m 0.6-2 m 0.2-0.6 m 60-200mm <60mm
Rating 20 15 10 8 5
Fracture conditions Rough tight Open<1mm Weathered Gouge<5mm Gouge>5mm
Rating 30 25 20 10 0
Ground water state Dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
Rating 15 10 7 4 0
Fracture orientation v. Favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable v. Unfavourable
Rating 0 -2 -7 -15 -25

Fracture Spacing of 0.8m - 1.2m

Descriptive terms Joint spacing

Very widely spaced >2m

Widely spaced 600 mm –2 m
Medium spaced 200 – 600 mm
Closely spaced 60 – 200 mm
Very closely spaced
20 – 60 mm
Extremely closely spaced
< 20 mm

75
 9/02/2020

Fracture Spacing of 0.8m - 1.2m

Parameter Assessment of values and rating
Intact rock UCS, MPa >250 100-250 50-100 25-50 1-25
Rating 15 12 7 4 1
RQD (%) >90 75-90 50-75 25-50 <25
Rating 20 17 13 8 3
Mean fracture spacing >2 m 0.6-2 m 0.2-0.6 m 60-200mm <60mm
Rating 20 15 10 8 5
Fracture conditions Rough tight Open<1mm Weathered Gouge<5mm Gouge>5mm
Rating 30 25 20 10 0
Ground water state Dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
Rating 15 10 7 4 0
Fracture orientation v. Favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable v. Unfavourable
Rating 0 -2 -7 -15 -25

Tight Fracture
Parameter Assessment of values and rating
Intact rock UCS, MPa >250 100-250 50-100 25-50 1-25
Rating 15 12 7 4 1
RQD (%) >90 75-90 50-75 25-50 <25
Rating 20 17 13 8 3
Mean fracture spacing >2 m 0.6-2 m 0.2-0.6 m 60-200mm <60mm
Rating 20 15 10 8 5
Fracture conditions Rough tight Open<1mm Weathered Gouge<5mm Gouge>5mm
Rating 30 25 20 10 0
Ground water state Dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
Rating 15 10 7 4 0
Fracture orientation v. Favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable v. Unfavourable
Rating 0 -2 -7 -15 -25

76
 9/02/2020

Groundwater State: Damp

Parameter Assessment of values and rating
Intact rock UCS, MPa >250 100-250 50-100 25-50 1-25
Rating 15 12 7 4 1
RQD (%) >90 75-90 50-75 25-50 <25
Rating 20 17 13 8 3
Mean fracture spacing >2 m 0.6-2 m 0.2-0.6 m 60-200mm <60mm
Rating 20 15 10 8 5
Fracture conditions Rough tight Open<1mm Weathered Gouge<5mm Gouge>5mm
Rating 30 25 20 10 0
Ground water state Dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
Rating 15 10 7 4 0
Fracture orientation v. Favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable v. Unfavourable
Rating 0 -2 -7 -15 -25

Fracture Orientation Unknown (Fair)

Parameter Assessment of values and rating
Intact rock UCS, MPa >250 100-250 50-100 25-50 1-25
Rating 15 12 7 4 1
RQD (%) >90 75-90 50-75 25-50 <25
Rating 20 17 13 8 3
Mean fracture spacing >2 m 0.6-2 m 0.2-0.6 m 60-200mm <60mm
Rating 20 15 10 8 5
Fracture conditions Rough tight Open<1mm Weathered Gouge<5mm Gouge>5mm
Rating 30 25 20 10 0
Ground water state Dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
Rating 15 10 7 4 0
Fracture orientation v. Favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable v. Unfavourable
Rating 0 -2 -7 -15 -25

77
 9/02/2020

Summary of Rating

Parameter Rating
Intact rock UCS = 15 MPa (damp rock) 1
RQD = 55% 13
Fracture spacing = 0.8 - 1.2m 15
Fracture conditions: tight 30
Ground water: damp 10
Fracture orientation: unknown -7

RMR 62

Solution
RMR = 62

Class I II III IV V
Description Very good Good rock Fair rock Poor rock Very poor
rock rock
RMR 80-100 60-80 40-60 20-40 <20
Friction angle, f, (o) >45 35-45 25-35 15-25 <15
Cohesion (kPa) >100 300-400 200-300 100-200 <100
SBP (MPa) 10 4-6 1-2 0.5 <0.2
Safe cut slope (o) >70 65 55 45 <40
Tunnel support None Spot bolts Pattern bolts Bolt+shotcrete Steel ribs
Stand up time for span 20 yr for 15m 1 yr for 10m 1wk for 5 m 12h for 2 m 30min for 1m

Class II
Safe Bearing Pressure (SBP)  4 - 6 MPa

78