1.

How to close a project

2. Project Closure
At the end of the execution phase, all required deliverables will have
been constructed and accepted by the customer as complete.
The project should have achieved the objectives and delivered the
business benefits described in the business case.
3. Characteristics of closing a project
 Normal The most common circumstance for project closure is simply a
completed project. The finish a project, such as a building a new facility,
is marked by the transfer of ownership to the customer.
 Premature For a few projects, the project may be completed early
with some parts of the project eliminated. For example, in a new product
development project, a marketing manager may insist on production
models before testing: Give the new product to me now, the way it is.
Early entry into the market will mean big profits! I know we can sell a
bazzillion of these. If we don’t do it now, the opportunity is lost!
4. Characteristics of project closure
 Perpetual Some projects never seem to end. The major characteristic
of this kind of project is constant “add-ons,” suggesting a poorly
conceived project scope.
 At some point the review group should recommend methods for
bringing final closure to this type of project or the initiation of another
project.
 For example, adding a new feature to an old project could replace a
segment of a project that appears to be perpetual.
5. Characteristics of project closure
 Failed Project Failed projects are usually easy to identify and easy for
a review group to close down.
 However, every effort should be made to communicate the technical
(or other) reasons for termination of the project; in any event project
participants should not be left with an embarrassing stigma of working
on a project that failed.
 Many projects will fail because of circumstances beyond the control of
the project team
6. Characteristics of project closure
 Changed Priority Organizations’ priorities often change and strategy
shifts directions. For example, during the 2008–10 financial crisis
organizations shifted their focus from money-making projects to cost
savings projects. Projects in process may need to be altered or
cancelled.
  Thus, a project may start with a high priority but see its rank erode or
crash during its project life cycle as conditions change. When priorities
change, projects in process may need to be altered or cancelled.
7. Project Closing Activities
1. Getting delivery acceptance from the customer.
2. Conduct evaluation
3.Write a report
4. Celebrating
8. Customer Acceptance
 At this juncture it is the role of the project manager to demonstrate
that the deliverables meet the client specifications
 In small projects this acceptance can be informal and ceremonial or it
can very formal, involving extensive acceptance testing against client’s
specifications
 Formal acceptance occurs in projects for which you and the client
have written an acceptance test procedure i.e. computer applications
development.
9. Evaluation
 The evaluation is done in order to find out if the goals of the project
and activity achievement are according to project plan, budget, time
deadlines, quality of deliverables, specifications and client satisfaction,
10. Why do projects fail to perform proper project evaluation?
 Lack of time
 Managers do not want to pay the cost
 It is not a priority
11. Questions to be answered
 Was the project goal achieved?
 Does it do what the project team said it would do?
 Does it do what the client said it would do?
 Was the project work done on time, within budget, and according to
specification?
 Was the client satisfied with the project results?
 Was the business value realised? (check the success criteria)
12. Questions
 What lessons were learned were learned about your project
management methodology?
 What worked and what didn’t ?
13. Writing a report
 The final report acts a memory or history of the project.
  It is the file that others can check to study the progress and
impediments of the project.
14. Format of the report
 Executive Summary
 This summary simply highlights the key findings and facts relating to
the project implementation. For example, the project goals for the
customer were met, or not.
 Are stakeholders satisfied that their strategic intents have been met?
 What has been user reaction to quality of the deliverables?
 Are the project deliverables being used as intended and providing the
expected benefits?
 Final time, cost, and scope performances are listed.
 Any major problems encountered and addressed are noted.
15. Format of the report  Review and Analysis
 Analysis examines in detail the underlying causes of problems,
issues, and successes.
 The analysis section includes brief, factual review statements of the
project—for example, project mission and objectives, procedures and
systems used, and organizational resources used.
 Strength and weaknesses of the project processes
16. Format of the report  Recommendations
 Usually, review recommendations represent major improvement actions
that should take place.
 They are often technical in nature and focus on solutions to problems
that surfaced.
17. Format of the report  Lessons Learned
 Perhaps lessons learned are the most valuable contribution of the
closure process.
 Given the process evaluation and input from the stakeholder
meetings, lessons learned should be briefly and clearly set out.
18. Format of the report  The appendixes may include:
 backup data or details of analysis that would allow others to follow up if
they wished.
19. Celebrate completion of the project
 It is recommended that there must be recognition for the project team at the
end of the project.  Why  You have brought new products to clients 
Friendships have developed  Mentor relationships have been established 
Team members have grown professionally  It’s a source of loyalty,
motivation, and commitment in their professional staff
Project Closure Checklist
1. Project Closure Checklist

Ensure formal project conclusion and hand-off completed product

2. “How far would Moses have gone if he had taken a poll in Egypt?” - Harry S.
Truman

3. Post Implementation Review (PIR)

Have positive as well as negative lessons learned been captured?

Was feedback solicited from a diverse audience?

Were original requirements reviewed to check for success of meeting them?

Is the PIR readily available for others to review?

Has an archive location, such as a lessons learned database or library been

established?

4. Staffing Transfer / Release

Is there a plan and has the approach been approved by human resources?

Have all project staff been released or re-allocated?

Is the Project Management Office (PMO) prepared for the influx?

Are all staff employment files updated?

5. Financial Closure
Have vendors and staff been notified of financial closing date?

Have all acceptance criteria been met prior to final payments to contractors?

Have all invoices and financial obligations been resolved?

Have all assets been transferred or disposed?

Has the contracts office been notified?

Have the procedures for retaining the financial records been implemented?

6. Project Archive:

Have the hard copy artefacts been stored or archived according to rganizational
standards?

Does the project library folder structure used to store electronic artefacts and
available for future projects?

Does the maintenance team have access to all the artefacts that could help them
maintain the project's deliverables? Have the Lessons Learned & documents
been stored in the lessons learned electronic library?

7. Celebrate

Have significant milestones been successfully met without a celebration?

Is the planned celebration consistent with acceptable professional and ethical

standards?

“Some persons are very decisive when it comes to avoiding decisions.”

Project audit & closure

Tasks of Project Closure

 Evaluate if the project delivered the expected benefits to all

stakeholders.
 Was the project managed well?
 Was the customer satisfied?
 Assess what was done wrong and what contributed to successes.
 Identify changes to improve the delivery of future projects.
Project Monitoring Activities

• A review of why the project was selected.

• A reassessment of the project’s role in the organization’s priorities.
• A check on the organizational culture to ensure it facilitates the type of
project being implemented.
• An assessment of how well the project team is functioning well and if it is
appropriately staffed.
• A check on external factors that might change where the project is heading or
its importance.
• A review of all factors relevant to the project and to managing future projects.
Types of Project Closure
 – Normal

– Premature
– Perpetual
– Failed Project
– Changed Priority
• Close-out Plan:

Questions to be asked:

– What tasks are required to close the project?

– Who will be responsible for these tasks?
– When will closure begin and end?
– How will the project be delivered?
1. Getting delivery acceptance from the customer.
2. Shutting down resources and releasing to new uses.
3. Reassigning project team members.
4. Closing accounts and paying all bills.
5. Evaluating the project team, project team members, and the project manager.
Creating the Final Report
• Executive Summary
– Project goals met/unmet
– Stakeholder satisfaction with project
– User reactions to quality of deliverables
• Analysis
– Project mission and objective
– Procedures and systems used
– Organization resources used
• Recommendations
– Technical improvements
 – Corrective actions
• Lessons Learned
– Reminders
– Retrospectives
• Appendix
– Backup data
– Critical information
Project Performance Evaluations
Reasons for Poor-Quality Project Performance Evaluations:
–Evaluations of individuals are left to supervisors of the team member’s home
department.
–Typically measure team performance only on time, cost, and specifications.
Pre-Implementation Conditions: Team
• Are standards and goals for measuring performance clear, challenging, and
attainable? Lead to positive consequences?
• Are responsibilities and performance standards known by all team members?
• Are team rewards adequate?
Management believes teams are important?
• Is there a career path for successful project managers?
• Does the team have discretionary authority to manage short-term difficulties?
• Is there a high level of trust within the organization culture?
• Are there criteria beyond time, cost, and specifications?
Individual Project Performance Evaluation: Individual
• Performance Assessment Responsibilities:
–Functional organization or functional matrix: the individual’s area manager.
• The area manager may solicit the project manager’s opinion of the individual’s
performance on a specific project.
–Balanced matrix: the project manager and the area manager jointly evaluate an
individual’s performance.
–Project matrix and project organizations: the project manager is responsible for
appraising individual performance.
Conducting Performance Reviews
• Begin by asking the individual to evaluate his or her own performance.
• Avoid drawing comparisons with other team members; rather, assess the individual
in terms of established standards and expectations.
• Focus criticism on specific behaviors rather than on the individual personally.
• Be consistent and fair in treatment of all team members.
• Treat the review as one point in an ongoing process.
Individual Performance Assessment
• Multirater appraisal (“360-degree feedback)
–Involves soliciting feedback concerning team members’ performance from all of the
people that their work affects Project managers, area managers, peers, subordinates,
and customers.
Retrospectives
• Lessons Learned
–An analysis carried out during and shortly after the project life cycle to capture
positive and negative project learning
—“what worked and what didn’t?”
• Goals of Retrospectives
–To reuse learned solutions
–To stop repetitive mistakes
• Barriers to Organizational Learning
–Lack of post-project time for developing lessons
–No post-project direction or support for teams
–Lessons become blame sessions
–Lessons are not applied in other locations
–Organizational culture does not recognize value of learning
The Value of Retrospective Analyses
• Making Retrospectives Effective:
–Use an independent facilitator to guide the project team through the analysis project
activities.
–Include a minimum of three in-process learning gates during the life project cycle.
–Designate a team member as owner for each point in the retrospective.
–Develop an easy-to-use learning repository to ensure future utilization of
retrospective lessons.
–Mandate use of retrospectives as part of the normal process for all projects.
Characteristics of a Facilitator
1. No direct involvement or direct interest in the project.
2. Perceived as impartial and fair 3. Respect of senior management and other project
stakeholders.
4. Willingness to listen.
5. Independence and authority to report results without fear of recriminations from
special interests.
6. Perceived as having the best interests of the organization in making decisions.
7. Broad-based experience in the organization or industry.

Initiating the Retrospective Review

• Have automatic times or points when reviews will take place. Avoid
surprises.
• Conduct reviews carefully and with sensitivity
• Review staff must independent from the project.
• Review reports need to be used and accessible.
• Reviews support organizational culture
• Project closures should be planned and orderly.
• Certain “core conditions” must be in place to support team and individual
evaluation.
• Conduct individual and team evaluations separate from pay or merit reviews.
Conducting a Retrospective Analysis
• Initiation and Staffing
• Data Collection and Analysis
• Reporting
Project Process Review Questionnaire.
Were the project objectives and strategic intent of the project clearly and
explicitly communicated?
2. Were the objectives and strategy in alignment?
3. Were the stakeholders identified and included in the planning?
4. Were project resources adequate for this project?
5. Were people with the right skill sets assigned to this project?
6. Were time estimates reasonable and achievable?
7. Were the risks for the project appropriately identified and assessed before the
project started?
8. Were the processes and practices appropriate for this type of project? Should
projects of similar size and type use these systems? Why/why not?
9. Did outside contractors perform as expected? Explain.
10. Were communication methods appropriate and adequate among all
stakeholders? Explain.
11. Is the customer satisfied with the project product?
12. Are the customers using the project deliverables as intended? Are they
satisfied?
13. Were the project objectives met?
14. Are the stakeholders satisfied their strategic intents have been met?
15. Has the customer or sponsor accepted a formal statement that the terms of
the project charter and scope have been met?
16. Were schedule, budget, and scope standards met?
17. Is there any one important area that needs to be reviewed and improved
upon? Can you identify the cause?

Organizational Culture Review Questionnaire

1. Was the organizational culture supportive for this type of project?
2. Was senior management support adequate?
3. Were people with the right skills assigned to this project?
4. Did the project office help or hinder management of the project? Explain.
5. Did the team have access to organizational resources (people, funds,
equipment)?
6. Was training for this project adequate? Explain.
7. Were lessons learned from earlier projects useful? Why? Where?
8. Did the project have a clear link to organizational objectives? Explain.
9. Was project staff properly reassigned?
10. Was the Human Resources Office helpful in finding new assignments?

• Classifying of Projects:
– Project type
– Size
 – Staffing
– Technology level
– Strategic or support
– Issues and problems
– Project mission and objectives
– Procedures and systems used
– Organization resources used

Project Closing Process

Closing a project is a process of finalizing all activities across all the project

management groups to formally close the project or a project phase.

Two procedures are developed to establish the interaction necessary to perform the
closure activities across the entire project or for a project phase:
◦ Closing Procurements
◦ Closing Project or Phase (Administrative Closure)
The process also includes activities to investigate and document the reasons if a
project is terminated before completion.
Procurement closure involves:
 Verification that all work and deliverables were acceptable
 Administrative activities such as finalizing open claims, updating records to
reflect final results and archiving such information for future use
Note—the above is applicable for all contracts applicable to the project.
Administrative closure includes:
• Close each phase of the project
• Collect and summarize project results, compare to plan time, cost, scope and
technical approach
• Gathering the lessons learned
• Formal documented acceptance by customer
 • Archive and index project records for future reference
The data to be documented includes:
 Administrative closure
 Product verification
 Early contract termination conditions
 Payment terms
 Formal acceptance documentation
 Project files
 Project closure documents
 Historical information
Assignment
Explain the importance of documenting lessons learned.
Explain the formal way of closing the project after archiving the project records

Project execution and implementation

1. 2. Project Implementation  Process whereby “project inputs are converted to
project outputs”. May be looked at as: Putting in action the activities of the
project. Putting into practice what was proposed in the project document (i.e.
transforming the project proposal into the actual project.) Management of the
project or executing the project intentions. 2
2. 3. Project Implementation (cont.) Implementation usually done by
implementing agency (organization) that prepared the project and received
funding for it. Other organizations that participate in the implementation of
 the project by way of collaboration, say by according good working
relationship, extending technical advice or seconding their staff to the project
are referred to as co-operating agencies. 3
3. 4. Project Implementation phase involves:  Project activation, and  Project
operation Project activation  This means making arrangements to have the
project started. It involves coordination and allocation of resources to make
project operational. Project operation  This is practical management of a
project. Here, project inputs are transformed into outputs to achieve immediate
objectives. 4
4. 5. Project operation and maintenance Operation and maintenance  To attain
value and maximum returns, the district/municipality or the beneficiaries
organize for the facility to have the project properly managed and maintained
regularly.  An operation and maintenance manual is prepared by the
contractor and handed to the district / beneficiaries. 5
5. 6. Approaches to project implementation Top-down approach 
Implementation mainly done by agencies from outside the community with
limited involvement by the beneficiaries. Bottom-up approach  Beneficiaries
implement the project. Outside agencies may provide the financial resources
and technical assistance. Collaborative participatory approach  Both top-down
and bottom-up approaches to project implementation are applied in the process.
6
6. 7. Project implementation plan (PIP)  If PIP not carried out during the project
design process and embodied in the project documents, it is carried out at the
project activation stage.  This is Similar to a Work plan / Action Plan or a
Gantt. Chart. 7
7. 8. Project implementation plan includes: 8 a) The project implementation
schedule This is concerned with: What activities can produce expected project
outputs? What is the sequence of these activities? What is the time frame for
these activities? Who will be responsible for carrying out each activity?
8. 9. Project implementation plan includes: 9  The following methods may be
used to answer the above questions:  Gantt chart  Critical Path Method
(CPM) or Net work analysis  Project Evaluation and Review Techniques
(PERT)  Simple formats
9. 10. What is a GANTT Chart?  The Gantt chart is also referred to as the
progress chart/ A tabulated Action Plan/ Work plan showing Tasks to achieve
and timelines.  It is a chart showing the timing of project activities using
horizontal bars.  It is one of the techniques of project scheduling, which
depicts the frequency of activities and determines the period of time for
implementation. 10
10.11. The Simple Format 11 ACTIVITY STARTING DATE ENDING DATE
COST RESPONSIBLE PERSON REMARKS - Preparing seed bed - Planning
- Weeding - Harvesting - Storage - Threshing - Marketing
11.12. Project implementation plan (cont.) d) Organizational structure and staffing
Here the following are sought:  Project structure for purposes of management
 Qualifications and skills for the staff  Job descriptions and specifications for
the staff  Technical assistance if needed e) Financial management This looks
at funds management, accounting period, financial reports and statements and
how often they will be made? 12
12.13. Project implementation plan (cont.) f) Reporting system This looks at who
will be reporting to whom and how often. There is need to design standard
reporting formats. g) Sustainability The concept of sustainability is based on
belief that project should result in benefits that have lasting effect. Project
should be sustained beyond the life of funding - especially if it is a grant.
Project should not exhaust the available resources like raw materials and labor.
13
13.14. Project implementation plan (cont.) Time control and remedial action Time
taken to implement project activities is one measure of successfulness of
supervision or monitoring of project implementation. Supervisor pays
particular attention to time control measures, time scheduling and its
supervision, time extension and postponement, damages for non-completion
and defect or warranty period. 14
14.15. Project implementation plan (cont.) Supervision of implementation of
project schedule This involves a set of checks and balances to ensure that the
schedule is being adhered to. To ensure that the time schedule is being adhered
to, the project activity time listing can be of great importance. 15
15.16. Factors affecting project implementation  Factors that lead to success of
projects  Political Commitment  Simplicity of Design  Careful preparation
 Good management  Involvement of beneficiaries/communit y  Factors and
problems that lead to failure of projects  Financial Problems  Management
problems  Technical problems  Political problems 16
16.17. Factors affecting project implementationOther typical implementation
problems  Poor scheduling of projects leading to delays in  Poor scheduling
of projects leading to delays in implementation.  Misallocation of funds 
Delay and sometimes lack of counterpart funding  Lack of accountability and
transparency  Bureaucracy in decision-making. 
Selfishness/nepotism/favoritism by some project managers. 17
17.18. Factors affecting project implementationOther typical implementation
problems (cont.)  Weak monitoring systems  Natural calamities like drought,
earthquakes, landslides, and hailstorms.  Policy changes  Migration of
 beneficiaries  Lack of team work  Lack of incentives for implementers.  etc
18
18.19. Characteristics of a good project manager A good project manager should:
 have working knowledge in several fields  be able to understand general
managerial problems  have active interest in training and developing
subordinates  be able to delegate some tasks to subordinates 19
19.20. Characteristics of a good project manager (cont.) A good project manager
should:  know the project and understand its objectives  know the systematic
process for managing projects  be able to answer the following questions:
What is the project for? Why is it required? Whom does it serve? How
is it justified? How is it going to be used? 20
20.21. Thanks 21

Project implementation
Aug. 08, 2017
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Bishnu Deo Yadav

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Description Transcript

1. 1. 1 Project Implementation and management Module 5 Session 7

2. 2. 2 Summary  This session covers the aspects of project implementation and
management from activation onwards, including factors that affect project
implementation.  Project management as a concept is considered.  The
characteristic of a good project manager are discussed.
3. 3. 3 Contents  Introduction to Project Implementation  Project Activation 
Project Operation  Approaches to Project Implementation  Project
Implementation Plan  Factors Affecting Project Implementation  Project
 Management Defined  Aspects of Project Management  Characteristics of a
good Project Manager
4. 4. 4 Project Implementation  Process whereby “project inputs are converted to
project outputs”. May be looked at as:  Putting in action the activities of the
project.  Putting into practice what was proposed in the project document (i.e.
transforming the project proposal into the actual project.)  Management of the
project or executing the project intentions.
5. 5. 5 Project Implementation (cont.)  Implementation usually done by
implementing agency (organization) that prepared the project and received
funding for it.  Other organizations that participate in the implementation of
the project  by way of collaboration, say by according good working
relationship, extending technical advice or seconding their staff to the project
are referred to as co-operating agencies.
6. 6. 6 Project Implementation phase involves:  Project activation, and  Project
operation Project activation  This means making arrangements to have the
project started. It involves coordination and allocation of resources to make
project operational. Project operation  This is practical management of a
project. Here, project inputs are transformed into outputs to achieve immediate
objectives.
7. 7. 7 Project operation and maintenance Operation and maintenance  To attain
value and maximum returns, the district/municipality or the beneficiaries
organize for the facility to have the project properly managed and maintained
regularly.  An operation and maintenance manual is prepared by the
contractor and handed to the district / beneficiaries.
8. 8. 8 Approaches to project implementation Top-down approach 
Implementation mainly done by agencies from outside the community with
limited involvement by the beneficiaries. Bottom-up approach  Beneficiaries
implement the project. Outside agencies may provide the financial resources
and technical assistance. Collaborative participatory approach  Both top-down
and bottom-up approaches to project implementation are applied in the process.
9. 9. 9 Project implementation plan (PIP)  If PIP not carried out during the
project design process and embodied in the project documents, it is carried out
at the project activation stage.
10.10. 10 Project implementation plan includes: a) The project implementation
schedule This is concerned with:  What activities can produce expected
project outputs?  What is the sequence of these activities?  What is the time
frame for these activities?  Who will be responsible for carrying out each
activity?
11.11. 11 Project implementation plan includes:  The following methods may be
used to answer the above questions:  Gantt chart  Critical Path Method
 (CPM) or Net work analysis  Project Evaluation and Review Techniques
(PERT)  Simple formats
12.12. 12 What is a GANTT Chart?  The Gantt chart is also referred to as the
progress chart.  It is a chart showing the timing of project activities using
horizontal bars.  It is one of the techniques of project scheduling, which
depicts the frequency of activities and determines the period of time for
implementation.
13.13. 13 How to determine a GANTT chart  Determine the parts or
implementation phases of the project and the sequence in which the associated
activities shall be carried out  Then estimate the amount of time required for
each activity  List the activities that can be carried out at the same time and
identify those to be carried out sequentially
14.14. 14 How to construct a GANTT chart  Time represented on the horizontal
axis, and activities on the vertical axis.  Bars are entered to indicate the time
period allocated for each activity and the state of progress at any particular
point in time.
15.15. 15 Example: Maize farming project Activity  Marketing  Threshing 
Harvesting  Weeding  Planting  Preparing seedbed J F M A M J J A S O N
D Time period/ months
16.16. 16 The Simple Format ACTIVITY STARTING DATE ENDING DATE
COST RESPONSIBLE PERSON REMARKS - Preparing seed bed - Planning
- Weeding - Harvesting - Storage - Threshing - Marketing
17.17. 17 Practical Develop  a Gantt chart  Simple Format project
implementation schedules in relation to the identified projects in the project
identification session.
18.18. 18 Project implementation plan (cont.) b) The role of the implementing
agency  The specific responsibilities of the key staff during project
implementation and monitoring are outlined. c) Beneficiary participation  The
involvement of the beneficiaries in planning and implementation and what is
expected of them is spelt out.
19.19. 19 Project implementation plan (cont.) d) Organizational structure and
staffing Here the following are sought:  Project structure for purposes of
management  Qualifications and skills for the staff  Job descriptions and
specifications for the staff  Technical assistance if needed e) Financial
management This looks at funds management, accounting period, financial
reports and statements and how often they will be made?
20.20. 20 Project implementation plan (cont.) f) Reporting system This looks at
who will be reporting to whom and how often. There is need to design standard
reporting formats. g) Sustainability The concept of sustainability is based on
belief that project should result in benefits that have lasting effect. Project
 should be sustained beyond the life of funding - especially if it is a grant.
Project should not exhaust the available resources like raw materials and labor.
21.21. 21 Project implementation plan (cont.) Time control and remedial action
Time taken to implement project activities is one measure of successfulness of
supervision or monitoring of project implementation. Supervisor pays
particular attention to time control measures, time scheduling and its
supervision, time extension and postponement, damages for non-completion
and defect or warranty period.
22.22. 22 Project implementation plan (cont.) Supervision of implementation of
project schedule This involves a set of checks and balances to ensure that the
schedule is being adhered to. To ensure that the time schedule is being adhered
to, the project activity time listing can be of great importance.
23.23. 23 Project Activity Time Listing Activity earliest time Activity latest time
Activity code Activity Description Activity duration Start Finish Start Finish
Progress remark

 24 Practical  Using the Project Activity Time Listing, develop a Project Activity
Time Listing table in relation to the Identified project in project identification
session, and fill it in.

25 Factors affecting project implementation  Factors that lead to success of

projects  Political Commitment  Simplicity of Design  Careful preparation
 Good management  Involvement of beneficiaries/community  Factors and
problems that lead to failure of projects  Financial Problems  Management
problems  Technical problems  Political problems

 26 Factors affecting project implementation Other typical implementation problems 

Poor scheduling of projects leading to delays in  Poor scheduling of projects leading
to delays in implementation.  Misallocation of funds  Delay and sometimes lack of
counterpart funding  Lack of accountability and transparency  Bureaucracy in
decision-making.  Selfishness/nepotism/favoritism by some project managers.

27 Factors affecting project implementation Other typical implementation problems

(cont.)  Weak monitoring systems  Natural calamities like drought, earthquakes,
landslides, and hailstorms.  Policy changes  Migration of beneficiaries  Lack of
team work  Lack of incentives for implementers.  etc

 28 Project management Management may be defined as;  Getting things done from
the available resources, the way you want them to be done. Project management
defined  Project Management is an all-embracing term covering the management of
every detail of a project (Project cycle) and may be defined as, “the process of
planning and directing a project from its inception to its final completion”.

29 Project management (cont.) Project management decisions - a necessary function

for setting up a project. It is concerned with:  Forecasting  Setting objectives 
Policy making Planning - determines success/failure of project. It has three (3) main
aspects:  Programming  Scheduling and  Budgeting

 30 Project management (cont.) Project control - To control is to compare actual with
planned achievements and take action to correct any adverse deviations. It involves: 
Plans of Operation These are the result of the planning process of Project
management.  Review and Updating Review is necessary to determine whether the
project is proceeding according to plan or not. Updating is recording the state of the
project as shown by the reviews, or of making amendments.

 31 Project management (cont.) Project Action - When review has shown a
project to be deviating from plan, action is required to restore the operation to
its planned characteristics.

 32 A good project manager should:  have working knowledge in several fields  be
able to understand general managerial problems  have active interest in training and
developing subordinates  be able to delegate some tasks to subordinates
Characteristics of a good project manager

33 A good project manager should:  know the project and understand its objectives 
know the systematic process for managing projects  be able to answer the following
questions:  What is the project for?  Why is it required?  Whom does it serve? 
How is it justified?  How is it going to be used? Characteristics of a good project
manager (cont.)
Project: Monitoring
Monitoring- collecting, recording, and reporting information concerning project
performance that project manager and others wish to know.
• Collecting
• Recording
• Reporting
What are to be monitored/what do we monitor?
 Inputs: Time, Money/cost, Resources, Material Usage, Tasks
quality/Technical Performance, Risks, Human Resources.
 Outputs: Progress, Costs, Job starts, job completion, Engineering / Design
changes, Variation order (VO)
These elements encompass the fundamental objectives of the project
Purpose of monitoring/ why we do project monitoring & controlling?
1. To detect and react appropriately to deviations and changes to plans
2. The goal of doing this is ensuring that the project is on time and on budget
and/or highlight any deviation from the plan
3. Monitoring is a management function.
When do we monitor?
 While there is still time to react
 As soon as possible
 At task completion
 At pre-planned decision points (milestones)
Benefits of monitoring
1. Early detection of potential project over run
2. Improved project status dissemination
3. Information pertinent to proper evaluation of employee work performance.
Why monitoring?
Implementations of development projects within time and cost is one of the weakest
area in project management. This is due to:
• Inadequate consideration of the organizational, managerial and administrative
aspects of the project.
• Non-scheduling of project activities
• Inadequacy of the progress reporting and feedback procedures impeding flow of
information
• Absence of system supervision of the project by the higher management.
• Lack of response from lower management levels to feed information to higher level.
Who are monitors?
The project managers and/or or his unit managers are the inside monitors. The insiders
have advantages over outsiders:
 They know the project more than anybody else
 They are not antagonistic to the project
 Their views carry weight to higher level concerned with project
management
 The monitor from outside may be top management.
 Their views are independent
 They may have preconceived notion about the project
PROJECT CONTROL

What is Project Controlling is the process of making things happen in an ordered

manner or according to plan.

Control the triple constraints

 Time (schedule)
 Cost (budget, expenses, etc.)
 Performance (specifications, testing results, etc.)
Schedule: Was the project completed on time? (How long did we take?)
 Cost: Did the project come in at cost? (How much did we spend?)
Functionality: Do project deliverables have the expected capability? (What
can they do?)
Quality: Do the deliverables perform as well as promised? (How well can they
do it?)
PROJECT CONTROL CYCLE PLAN
 Specifications
 Project Schedule
 Project budget
 Resource plan
 Vendor contracts

MONITOR: Record status Report progress Report cost

COMPARE: Actual status against plan -Schedule -Cost
ACTION: Correct deviations from plan RE-PLAN as necessary

INFORMATION NEEDS

• Everyone concerned with project should be appropriately tied into the project

reporting system.

• The monitoring system ought to be constructed so that it addresses every level of

management.
• But reports should not be of same depth or at the same frequency at the same level.
• Lower level management have a need for detail information about individual tasks
and the factors affecting such tasks. Report frequency is usually high.
• For senior management level the reports should be concise and in aggregated form.
• Frequency is less.
Reporting
 • The nature of monitoring reports should be consisting with the logic of the
planning, budgeting system of the project.
• There is no need for burdening operating people with planning information
Benefits of reporting
• Mutual understanding about the goals of project
• Awareness of the progress parallel activities and of the problems associated
with coordination among activities.
• More realistic planning for the needs of all groups and individuals working on
the project
• Understanding the relationships of individual tasks to one another and to the
overall project.
• Early signals of potential problems and delays in the project
• Faster management action in response to unacceptable or inappropriate work.
• Higher visibility to top management including attention directed to immediate
needs of the project
• Keeping the client and other interested outside parties up to date on project
status about costs, milestone and deliverables.
Types of Reports
• -Routine report
• -Exception report
• -Special analysis report
Regular Report

• -Reports that are issued on regular basis

• -Regular does not always refer calendar

• -It may be on milestone basis
• -For top level periodic
• For mid-level, it may be any frequency
Exception Report: Used when decision is used on exception basis
Special report: A special report of a project is a document that communicates the
progress of aspects of the project, containing data relevant to that part of the project.
• Project management reporting is one of the ways you communicate with your
project team and stakeholders.
Project Management Information System (PMIS)

• A Computerized reporting System

• Project Management Information System (PMIS) are system tools and techniques

used in project management to deliver information. Project managers use the

techniques and tools to collect, combine and distribute information through electronic

and manual means. Project Management Information System (PMIS) is used by upper

and lower management to communicate with each other. Project Management

Information System (PMIS) help plan, execute the project management’s goals.

During the planning process, project managers use PMIS for budget framework such

as estimating costs. At the execution of the project management goals, the project

management team collects information into one database. The PMIS is used to

compare the baseline with the actual accomplishment of each activity, manage

materials, collect financial data, and keep a record for reporting purposes.

Meetings

• This is also one kind of way to communication where project management

team or group members are sitting together and discuss about the projects

which will be useful or not for the project.

 • All types of reports are delivered on face to face meeting
Project Control

• Controlling is the act of reducing the difference between plan and reality

• Project controls are the data gathering, management and analytical processes used to

predict, understand and constructively influence the time and cost outcomes of a

project or program. Consequently, the project controls discipline can be seen as

encompassing:

• Scheduling including development, updating and maintenance;

• Cost estimation, cost engineering/control and value engineering;

• Risk management, including maintaining the risk register and risk

analysis/assessment;

• Document control;

Areas of Control

Physical asset control

 A physical asset is an item of economic, commercial or exchange value that

has a material existence. Physical assets are also known as tangible assets.
For most businesses, physical assets usually refer to properties, equipment,
and inventory.
 Physical assets are the opposite of intangible assets, which include such
things as brand names, patents, trademarks, leases, computer programs,
customer lists, franchise agreements, domain names or trade secrets.
Human resource control
 Controlling and maintaining the growth of people
  People working on projects can gain a wide range of experience
 Measurement of human resource conservation is difficult
 Performance appraisals and other measures are not satisfactory devices
Financial Resource Control
 Current asset control
 Project budget
 Capital investment control
 Techniques same as those applied to general operation of the firm
 Context is different because project is accountable to an outsider
 Must exercise due diligence over resources owned by the client
What is project auditing?
• Project auditing can be defined as the process of detailed inspection of the
management of a project, its methodology and procedures, its records, its
properties, its budget and expenditures and its level of completion.
• Project auditing can help you assess the current state of a project, and tells you if
your project management processes are being followed.
The audit report should focus on:
1. Current status of the project: Does the work completed match the planned
level of completion?
2. Future status: Are significant schedule change likely?
3. Status of crucial tasks: What progress has been made on tasks that could
decide the success or failure of the project?
4. Risk assessment: What is the potential risk for project failure or monetary
loss?
5. Lessons learnt: What lessons leant from the project can be applied for other
project?
6. Limitations of audit report: What assumptions affect the data in the audit?
Depth of Audit
 • Time and money are constraints which limit depth of audit
• Audit/evaluation is always distracting to those working in the project.
• It lowers the level of activity
• Depth of investigation depends on the circumstances
• Detail audit is warranted when unacceptable level of performance is noticed
Timing of audit
• Depends on the circumstances of a particular project
• Generally, first audits are generally done early in the project life- sooner the
problems discovered better it is.
• First audits focused on technical issues
• Audits done later are of less immediate value to the project-but it values to
organization
• It relates to management matters
 Construction of Audit report
• Should be written in simple and straight
• Forward format
• Tons should be constructive
• Negative comments about individuals to be avoided.
• Keep it clear, professional, and unemotional
Contents of audit report
1. Introduction
2. Current status
-Cost
- Schedule
-Progress
-Quality
3. Future Project status
4. Critical management issues
5. Risk analysis
 6. Limitations and assumptions
 Public Private Partnership (PPP)

• PPP means an arrangement between a government/statutory entity/government

owned entity on one side and a public sector entity on the other for the provision of

public assets and and/or public services through investments being made by and/or

management being under by private sector on entity

• For a specified period of time when there is well defined allocation of risk between
the private and public entity and the private entity receives performance linked
payments to specified and predetermined performance standards measured by the by
the public entity.
Objectives
(1) Harness private sector efficiency in asset creation maintenance and service
delivery
(2) Provide focus on the life cycle approach for development of a project involving
asset creation and maintenance over its lifecycle
(3) Enable affordable and improved services to the users in a responsible and
sustainable manner
(4) Create opportunities to bring in innovation and technogical improvement.
Characteristics of PPP
• Private sector arranges resources to build infrastructure
• Private sector bears the cost of building the infrastructure
• Private sector bears the fiduciary and safety related risk related to construction
• Gov’t and public avails the service by paying appropriate prices or fees
• Private sector cannot raise the prices or fees unilaterally
• PPP initiatives are long term (15-20 years
PPP models
 • BOO-The private sector manages the infrastructure on build-own- operate basis.
Presently, the private power generation companies (IPP) are operating on this model.
• BOT-Build –operate-transfer i.e. the private sector manages it until specified time,
after which gov’t takes over the management, e.g. Nairobi expressway Flyover
• BOOT build-own-operate –transfer. This is an extended version of BOT model
Benefits of PPP
A) Public sector:
• Maintaining economic stability: Since the private sector invests in the
infrastructure development, it reduces burden on govt.
• Gains from public sector innovation and expertise: Since the private sector is
responsible in developing infrastructure, they are cost effective, efficient
technology
• Logical estimate of expenditure
• Achieving desired growth rate
• Participation by private sector in infrastructure and production capacity hastens
growth.
C) Public/ users Accountability: Since the services are purchase from the private
sector by paying fees, the service providers are accountable to public and govt.
More responsible govt: since the govt approves the project they are more responsible
Guarantee of safety: Since the private sector has to bear the cost from accidents and
damages, they use reliable and quality materials.
Risks in PPP implementation
• Loss of ownership of public properties
• Approval of inflated cost
• Overlooks public interest while pricing the services
• Dysfunctional infrastructure once ownership is retuned to govt.

How do we monitor projects?

 Using Earned Value Analysis
 Calculate Critical Ratios
  Milestones
 Reports
 Tests and inspections
 End of the project
 Continuously
 Regularly
 Logically

TECHNIQUES FOR MONITORING AND CONTROL

 Project plan monitoring
 Project Milestones
 Project Tolerances
 Project budget monitoring and Control
 S curve
 Earned Value Analysis
 Project Status and/or stage reporting
 Project team reports

Lecture 8 monitoring & controlling (1)

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Project Management Monitoring and Controlling Construction •Project Progress

(scope & time), Cost and Quality

3. Project Management CO : •Able to evaluate elements of project management

and cost for civil engineering work.
4. 4/29/2014 4 Project Management As a contractor for a project, you have to
target your project to complete on time, with acceptable quality and to get
reasonable profit. How do you control and monitor; •Project scope •Project
completion time •Project cost •Project quality

1. 5. 4/29/2014 5 Contractors’ Goals in Implementing Projects •Making profit

•Finishing on time - TIME •Constructing within budgets - COST •Finishing the
projects safely - SCOPES •Delivering quality projects - QUALITY •Getting
new projects
2. 6. 4/29/2014 6 Monitoring & Controlling A Construction Project Defn:
Monitoring and controlling are processes required to track, review and regulate
the progress and performance of the project. (to track = to follow ,to review =
to go over, to regulate = to put in order) By monitoring and controlling – the
project performance is observed and measured regularly and consistently to
identify variances from the project management plan (PMBOK- PMI)
3. 7. 4/29/2014 7 Monitoring & Controlling Projects 1. What are to be monitored
& controlled? 2. What is monitoring ? 3. What is controlling ? 4. Who does the
monitoring & controlling ? 5. What are the project aspects they monitor &
control? 6. What is document used in Monitoring & Controlling ?
4. 8. 4/29/2014 8 Monitoring & Controlling Projects 1.To monitor & control–
project team & work to be done 2.Monitoring - collecting & measuring
performance information & assessing the results 3.Controlling - corrective or
preventive action to be done 4.The monitoring & controlling – by Project
Manager & Project Management Team 5. They monitor & control – scope,
schedule (time) & cost + Quality 6. Document used in Monitoring &
Controlling – Project Management Plan
5. 9. 4/29/2014 9 Monitoring & Controlling A Construction Project To monitor
Project Objectives & “Triple Constraints” : •Performance – to complete scopes
of the project •Time • Cost With Quality
6. 10. Monitor & Control Project Work •The process of tracking, reviewing and
regulating the progress to meet the performance objectives defined in the
project m’ment plan. •Monitoring – collecting , measuring & distributing
performance information . Assessing measurement & trends for process
improvement •Controlling– determine corrective or preventive action or
preplanning & following up actions to resolve performance issue (to align with
the expected project performance) •Monitoring & Control Project Work
Process is concerned with: -Comparing actual project performance vs the PMP
-Assessing performance – any corrective/ preventive action need to be done
7. 11. 4/29/2014 11 Monitoring & Controlling A Construction Project
1)Performance/scope Some factors affecting project performance: •Unexpected
technical problems – eg nature of the project beyond expectation •Insufficient
 resources when needed •Unexpected technical difficulties – eq due to site
condition or soil condition •Client requires changes –ok with EOT & additional
cost
8. 12. 4/29/2014 12 Performance- Scope Control Monitoring status of the project
and managing changes to work program Activities: •Work performance
measurements – variance analysis •Change requests – need client approval.
Avoid implementing unapproved changes. •Project Management Plan
(Programs) updates with all approved changes •Project document updates –
updating drawings due to changes done Outputs: •Work performance
measurements •Change requests •Project management plans •Projects
documents updates
9. 13. 4/29/2014 13 Monitoring & Controlling A Construction Project 2) Time-
schedule •Technical difficulties take longer than planned to solve •Initial time
estimate is not enough •Task sequencing is incorrect – incorrect timing
•Required inputs of matl, personnel, machineries are unavailable when needed
– idling & wasting of time – require extra time •Client want changes and need
rework •New Government regulation
10.14. 4/29/2014 14 Time- Schedule Control Monitoring status of the project to
update project progress and managing changes to the schedule baseline
Activities: •Work performance measurements •Change requests – thru
approved process •Project Management plan updates •Project document
updates Outputs: •Work performance measurements •Change requests •Project
management plans •Projects documents updates
11.15. 4/29/2014 15 Monitoring & Controlling A Construction Project 3) Cost:-
aspects that may increase project cost! •Technical difficulties requires more
resources •Scope of work increase – VO ? •Tender price too low - •Reporting is
poor or untimely – can not monitor ! •Budgeting is inadequate – working
capital is not enough ! •Price of matl increase
12.16. 4/29/2014 16 Control Costs Monitoring and controlling status of the project
- update the project budget - managing changes to the cost baseline Activities
•Ensuring all change requests - approved by the client - do not proceed
unapproved changes – inform client all cost implication on changes made
•Ensuring that cost expenditure do not exceed permissible values •Monitoring
cost performance, understand variance – check std or previous projects
•Monitoring work completed against expenditure – compare cost between cost
in BQ to actual cost spent ! •Taking action to ensure cost overrun within
acceptable limit
13.17. 4/29/2014 17 Control Costs Outputs: •Work performance measurements –
check progress report •Budget forecasts & actual expenditure •Change requests
•Project management plans - cost performance baseline & cost management
plan •Projects documents updates
14.18. 4/29/2014 18 Control Costs Outputs: ….. continue -cost performance
baseline: compare actual results to determine if any change -cost management
plan: describe how the project costs will be managed and controlled
15.19. 4/29/2014 19 Time- Schedule Control Monitoring status of the project and
managing changes to the schedule baseline Activities: •Determining the current
status of the project schedule •Determining that the project schedule has
changed •Managing the actual changes – how to catch up with the time!
Outputs •Work performance measurements – project program •Change requests
– thru approved process •Project Management plan updates •Project document
updates
16.20. 4/29/2014 20 Monitoring & Controlling A Construction Project 4) Quality
Control •Quality ? •Quality Control – depends upon the control of construction
itself •Quality of finished product is responsibilities of Designer (Consultants)
and Contractors •Responsibilities of all participants – RE, COW, Supervisors,
Skilled Workers, Workers - right attitude - let them proud with their work !
•Good design + good materials & workmanship = Quality product
17.21. 4/29/2014 21 Monitoring & Controlling A Construction Project Quality
Control •Inspection of work quality at every part of the work •Selecting
samples of matl to be used – sizes, appearances, testing the samples •Testing
materials and workmanship at every stage of construction to make sure the
work meets requirements of the drawings and specifications •For big project –
they have a Quality Control Officer •Contractor to have A Program of Quality
Control •ISO 9000/9001
18.22. 4/29/2014 22 Perform Quality Control Monitoring and recording results of
executing the quality activities to assess performance and recommend
necessary changes Activities: •Perform Quality Control throughout the project
•Quality control = plan quality - perform quality control - perform quality
assurance •Identify causes of poor process – recommend and/or take action to
eliminate them Quality Assurance = process of auditing the quality
requirements based on results of the Quality Control measurement to ensure
Quality Standard.
19.23. 4/29/2014 23 Perform Quality Control Outputs •Quality control
measurement •Validated changes •Project Management plan updates •Project
document updates
20.24. 4/29/2014 24 Monitoring & Controlling A Construction Project Who to
control ? •Clients ) •Consultants ) - Have to play their roles •Contractors )
How ? •Progress Reports – reporting progress •Site meetings – check &
monitor progress, time, cost & quality •Technical meetings •Regular site visits
by the client, Director of the consultant firms
21.25. 4/29/2014 25 Management of Changes Changes sometimes cannot be
avoided during construction Changes by owner, designer or contractor:
 •Owners – changes to better achieve intended use of the project - caused VOs
•Designer – changes to original drawings or spec – must get owner’s approval
•Contractor – to change matl, system of work, method of construction – must
get SO approval Changes – increase/decrease scope, cost and time !
22.26. Project Organisation 1)Client - management by Client Technical
Department 2)Consultant Site Staffs 3)Contractor Site Staffs Parties in
Project.xls Consultant Site Staffs: ( Number of post and number of Staff
depend on the project size) •Project Director/Project Manager (Head of the
team) •Chief Resident Architect (for Building Project) •Chief Resident
Engineer (Civil & Structure) •Resident Architect •Resident Engineers (Civil &
Structural, Mechanical and Electrical) •Resident Quantity Surveyors •Clerk of
Works (Architecture, C&S, M&E, QS) •General Clerks 26
23.27. 4/29/2014 27 Projects Organisation Consultant Site Staffs: ( For Building
Projects RM10mil -RM20 mil ) •1 Resident Architect (Head of The Team for
building project) = Project Manager •1 Resident Engineers (Civil & Structural)
•1 Clerk of Works (Architecture), •1 Clerk of Works (C&S) •1 Clerk of Works
(M&E)
24.28. 4/29/2014 28 Projects Organisation Contractor Site Staff: ( Number of post
and number of Staff depend on the project size) •Project Manager (Head of the
team) •Site Architects •Site Engineers (Civil & Structural, Mechanical and
Electrical) •Site Quantity Surveyors •Safety Officer (for project above RM20
mil. require full time officer at the site) •Supervisors (Architecture, C&S,
M&E) •Administration Staff
25.29. 4/29/2014 29 Projects Organisation Contractor Site Staff: ( For Building
Projects RM10mil -RM20 mil ) •1 Project Manager/Site Manager – Head of the
team •1 Safety Officer (Not based at the site) •1-3 Supervisors (Architecture,
C&S, M&E) •Administration Staff
26.30. 4/29/2014 30 Project Site Office: 1)Contractor Site Office • Contractor
Project Manager •Site Engineer •Admin staff •Supervisors 2)Consultant Site
Office •Project Director/Project Manager •Resident Architect ( for building
project –as Head of the team) •Resident Engineer – C&S, M, E •Other site staff
27.31. 4/29/2014 31 Records at the Site Office: •Tender Document/Contract
Document (duplicate copy) •Tender Document/Sub-contract Documents
(duplicate copy) •Drawings (latest amended drawings) – all changes are fully
recorded •Site Diaries •Progress Report – progress chart – photographs
•Samples Approved
28.32. 4/29/2014 32 Site Diaries - Site_diary_work_template.pdf •Must always be
kept at the Site Office •Daily recording by Consultant Site Staff specialy
assigned eg by Architect Clerk Of Work & to be endorsed by Contractor’s
Project/Site Manager •Regularly checked by RA/RE & Consultant Project
Manager •Recording work done, no of workers & machineries, weather,
 Consultant Site Staffs’ instructions to Contractors etc •All information will be
used for Contractor’s Application for Extension of Time & disputes & claims
29.33. 4/29/2014 33 Progress Report : •Monthly Progress Report by the Main
Contractor •Progress charts (colouring all completed work) - percentage of
work done on particular date - photographs - Report •Submitted & discussed in
the project Site Meetings
30.34. 4/29/2014 34 Samples •Samples Approved & dates •Kept at the Site Office
•Recorded in “ List Of Sample Approved & Reported in the Contractor’s
Monthly Report Material Testing •For quality control •To check whether
materials proposed by the contractors are in accordance with the contract
specifications eg in term of sizes, strength, contents • Concrete mix - cube tests
for 7 days & 28 days •Cone test for concrete mix • Reinforcement tensile tests
•Timber – chemical contents for tanalised timber
31.35. 4/29/2014 35 Site Meetings : •Schedule site meetings eg every 2 weeks or
every month at the Site Office •Chair by SO (from Client) or RSO (Consultant)
•Attended by all Consultant Site Staff, Main Contractor’s Representatives, NSC
Rep •Purposes –Progress Monitoring – to discuss all problems related to the
project •Discussed Project’s Progress – Progress Report •Minutes of the
meetings – prepare by the consultant’s site staff
32.36. 4/29/2014 36 References: 1.Frederick E. Gould and Nancy E. Joyce. 2003.
Construction Project Management. Prentice3 Hall Publisher. 2.Peter G. 1989.
Management and Construction Control. New York: Longman Inc. 3.Oberlender
G.D. 2000. Project Management for Engineering and Construction. McGraw-
Hill 4.PMI.2008. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge
(PMBOK) 5.Twort A.C and Rees J.G .2005, Civil Engineering Project
Management . 4th Edition, UK: Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann
Managing change, change process, change
types and challenges in change
managementrocess
Jan. 21, 2015
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Al - Qurmoshi Institute of Business Management, Hyderabad

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Managing Change, Change Management Process, Types of Change and Challenges in
Change Management

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1. 1. Managing Change – Process, Types and Challenges Dr. G C Mohanta, BE,

MSc(Engg), MBA, PhD(Mgt) Professor
2. 2. Change Management  Change management is an approach to shifting or
transitioning individuals, teams & organisations from a current state to a
desired future state.  Change management is the process, tools & techniques
to manage the people-side of change to achieve the required business
outcome(s)
3. 3. Change Management Process  The change management process is the
sequence of steps or activities that a change management team or project leader
would follow to apply change management to a project or change.  Change
management processes contain the following three phases:  Phase 1 -
Preparing for change  Phase 2 - Managing change  Phase 3 - Reinforcing
change
4. 4. Change Management Process
5. 5. Change Management Process 1) Preparing for change (Assessment) 
Identifying the problem: Opportunity that necessitates change (symptoms) 
Data collection: Gathering structural, technological and people information and
effects of these elements on the process  Data analysis: Summarizing the data
( advantages, dis-advantages, risks, and consequences)  Strategic
 determination: Identifying possible solutions, barriers, strategies  Decide if
the change is necessary.  Make others aware of the need for the change. 
Swat analysis and basic 4 forces models: (environmental forces ,organizational
forces , task demand , personal need.)
6. 6. Change Management Process (Contd.) 2) Managing change (Planning and
Implementation)  State goal and specific measurable objectives and also the
time allotted.  Establishing the who, how, what, and when of change. 
Allocating resources, budget and evaluation methods.  Plan for resistance
management.  Identify areas of support & resistance.  Include every one in
the planning that will be affected.  Establish target dates for implementation.
 Develop appropriate strategy for alteration.  Be available to support others
through the process.  Evaluate the change then modify if necessary.
7. 7. Change Management Process (Contd.) 3) Reinforcing change (Evaluation) 
Determining effectiveness of change.  Achieved objectives and benefits -
qualitative as well as financial and the documented evidences of being
achieved.  Stabilize the change: - taking measures to reinforce and maintain
the change.
8. 8. Kurt Lewin’s Change Management Process  Lewin provides a social-
psychological view of the change process.  He sees behavior as a dynamic
balance of forces working in opposing directions .  Driving forces facilitate
change because they push persons in the desired direction .  Restraining
forces impede change because they push persons in the opposite direction. 
Status quo level is the person balanced state or state of equilibrium between 2
forces.
9. 9. Kurt Lewin’s Change Management Process
10.10. Unfreeze  The existing equilibrium. Motivate persons by getting them
ready for change and increase willing to change .  Build trust and recognition
for the need to change.  Actively participate in identifying problems and
generate alternative solutions.  Is the development through problem awareness
of a need for change.
11.11. Moving  Work toward change by identifying the problem or the need for
change.  Explore the alternatives,  Defining goals & objectivities  Plan how
to accomplish the goal &  Implement the plan for change.  Get persons to
agree that the status quo is not beneficial to them.
12.12. Refreezing  Does the integration of the change happened into ones
personality & consequently stabilization of the change happened?  Then
reinforce the new patterns of behavior. (Positive change)  New level of
equilibrium.  Frequently person tries to return to old behavior after the change
effort ceases.(Negative change)
13.13. Steps For Successful Change management  Increase urgency : inspire
people to move  Build the guiding team : the right people  Get the vision
right : simple vision and strategy  Empower action : Remove obstacles 
Create short-term wins : Set aims that are easy to achieve  Don't let up :
highlight achieved and future milestones  Make change stick : Weave change
into culture
14.14. Types of Change  There are two types of change in an organization: -
Planned change and - “Emergent” change  Planned change - refers to
initiatives that are driven “top-down” in an organization.  Emergent” change -
refers to a situation in which change can originate from any level in the
organization.
15.15. Areas of Change in an Organisation Strategic Structural Process-
oriented and People-centered
16.16. Strategic Change  Sometimes in the course of normal business operation it
is necessary for management to adjust the firm's strategy to achieve the goals of
the company, or even to change the mission statement of the organization in
response to demands of the external environments.  Adjusting a company's
strategy may involve changing its fundamental approach to doing business: the
markets it will target, the kinds of products it will sell, how they will be sold,
its overall strategic orientation, the level of global activity, and its various
partnerships and other joint‐business arrangements.
17.17. Structural Change  Organizations often find it necessary to redesign the
structure of the company due to influences from the external environment. 
Structural changes involve the hierarchy of authority, goals, structural
characteristics, administrative procedures, and management systems.  Almost
all change in how an organization is managed falls under the category of
structural change.  A structural change may be as simple as implementing a
no‐smoking policy, or as involved as restructuring the company to meet the
customer needs more effectively.
18.18. Process‐oriented Change  Organizations may need to reengineer processes
to achieve optimum workflow and productivity.  Process‐oriented change is
often related to an organization's production process or how the organization
assembles products or delivers services.  The adoption of robotics in a
manufacturing plant or of laser‐scanning checkout systems at supermarkets are
examples of process‐oriented changes.
19.19. People‐centered Change  This type of change alters the attitudes,
behaviors, skills, or performance of employees in the company.  Changing
people‐centered processes involves communicating, motivating, leading, and
interacting within groups.  This focus may entail changing how problems are
solved, the way employees learn new skills, and even the very nature of how
 employees perceive themselves, their jobs, and the organization.  Some
people‐centered changes may involve only incremental changes or small
improvements in the process.
20.20. Reasons for Change  Facing increased competition  Smarter and more
demanding customers  Less brand loyal  Improvements in operations can
simultaneously lower costs and improve customer satisfaction.  Improving
operations often dependent on advances in technology
21.21. Challenges in Change Management Planning  Without step-by-step
planning, change in an organization is likely to fall apart or cause more
problems than benefits.  One need to understand exactly what changes will
take place and how those changes will occur.  One need to know if the new
system is compatible with the old system.  One also need to assign roles to
individuals who are responsible for the change so all duties are covered.  The
time line for the change is also a key component.  One need to plan for
downtime or difficulties in completing regular work tasks while the change
occurs.
22.22. Challenges in Change Management (Contd.) Lack of Consensus  If one
fails to get everyone on board with the corporate changes, one is likely to face
barriers during the process.  The decision to implement changes should come
from the top level of the organization.  All management level staff needs to be
on board and able to deal with the changes or one may face dissension within
the staff.  One may not have everyone on board right from the beginning. 
Showing managers how the changes will affect the company and the steps for
implementing the changes helps get them on board if they initially have
reservations.
23.23. Challenges in Change Management (Contd.) Communication  Failing to
communicate with all employees invites rumours and fear into the workplace. 
Employees want to know what's going on, whether it is positive or negative
news.  The feeling of uncertainty, when management doesn't communicate,
disrupts work and makes employees feel as if they aren't a part of the decision.
 Management should keep employees updated regularly about the plans &
progress toward the change implementation.  Management should involve all
employees as much as possible through meetings or brainstorming sessions to
help during the planning phase.
24.24. Challenges in Change Management (Contd.) Employee Resistance  In
some cases, employees resist change.  They become comfortable with the way
the business is run.  They know the expectations and their role within the
company.  When a major change disrupts their familiarity, some employees
become upset.  They don't want to relearn their jobs or change the way they
do things.
25.25. Causes for Resistance to Change
26. Lack of trust
27. Perception that change is not necessary
28. Perception that change is not possible
29. Relatively high cost
30. Fear of personal failure
31. Loss of status or power
32. Threats to values and ideas
33. Social, cultural or organizational disagreements  Resentment of interference
34.26. Handling Resistance to Change
35. Supporting employees and providing training for any new responsibilities
36. Leadership Commitment
37. Knowledge of Change
38. Effective Communication
39. Active Participation
40. Building the Requisite Technical Capacity
41.  Coercion
42.  Negotiation
43.27. Benefits of Successful Change Management
44.Enhances institutional best practices
45. Projects the organization as progressive, forward looking and proactive
46.  Ensures quality service delivery
47. Earns the institution public goodwill and support  Creates an enabling work
environment  Increases employee morale, attitudes and effectiveness
How to deal with last-minute
scope changes
Reading time: about 6 min

Posted by: Lucid Content Team

Whether you're a freelance designer, an engineering project manager,

or a CEO, understanding the scope of your work is an important part
of your day-to-day effectiveness—and it’s essential to keeping
projects and teams aligned and on track.

But what happens when that scope changes? 

Whether project requirements shift or the first round of deliverables

didn't quite meet expectations, there are plenty of reasons why a
project's scope might change after the initial stages of scope
definition. When this happens—and it will—you need to have a plan
ready to deal with last-minute scope changes and pivots. 

Let's start by clarifying exactly what classifies as a scope change and

then dive into a few tips on incorporating those shifts into your project
plan and workflow. 
 What are scope changes? 

Not all project shifts are the same—but each type of shift needs to be
handled differently. 

Many of us are familiar with the frustration of unexpected scope

changes, particularly changes that don't seem to be rooted in any
strategy or appear to be the result of poor planning or a lack of
resources. For example, freelance creatives know all too well what it's
like for a client to ask for "just one or two more rounds of changes"
after the agreed-upon scope of work is complete. This "scope creep"
frequently happens at a larger scale, too, even when the scope is
seemingly clearly defined.

So how do you define a necessary change in scope for strategic

reasons vs. changes in scope that simply add additional work? 

Scope changes are deviations in functionality, layout, quality, budget,

timeline, responsibilities, or other aspects of a project. 

Typically, scope changes result from careful decisions from a project

manager or stakeholder. Scope changes can also happen when new
data or information comes to light to inform the existing strategy or
plan. These changes are built into most Agile project management
processes and are a healthy, productive part of the product
development process. 

 Data-driven: New information or data-driven insights can often

reveal that an existing scope of work won't achieve the desired
outcome. In this case, a scope change is necessary for success.
 Budget-driven: Simply put, sometimes budgets get cut, which
requires a shift in time and resource investment. A budget increase
would also warrant a reevaluation of scope. 
 Deadline-driven: Maybe the product needs to launch early to beat a
competitor to market. Or maybe the timeline needs to be pushed to
make time for a competing higher priority project. Any timeline
adjustment will result in a shift in the project scope. 
 Resource-driven: Any change in resources on a project will require a
scope change to adjust for stakeholders, owners, responsibilities,
etc. 

Scope creep occurs for reasons outside of business imperatives or

strategy shifts, usually defined by a poorly planned project or scope
that grows beyond the definition of the original statement or scope of
work (SOW). It's wise to avoid scope creep at all costs to ensure you
don't set a precedent for future projects. 

Tips for managing scope changes in project

management 

They say that the only constant is change, and the adage certainly
holds true when it comes to project management. No matter how
solid the scope definition, scope changes are an inevitable and natural
part of the project management process. But even if the reason for
scope change is valid, it still changes your original plan and requires
careful management to keep the project on track. 

Here are some tips to help you with scope change management—and
it all starts with having a process in place. 
Understand and communicate the need behind the change

Change requests can come from executive stakeholders, senior

leadership, or customers. No matter the source, it's important to
understand why the change is being requested. 

Does new data indicate the existing project outcome won't be

successful or meet strategic objectives? Does a new launch date
require a shift in the deadline? Is a new feature required? 

Before you pivot, be sure you fully understand why the stakeholder or
customer asks for the change. Ask questions, or even better,
implement a process to ensure requesters are carefully evaluating the
change. Sometimes, this step will reveal that the requested change is
actually more of a want than a strategic need. 

Document the change 

As soon as a change request comes through, be sure to record it, even

if it ultimately doesn't result in a scope change. This process also gives
you the ability to document and review the request and consider
other, less disruptive, costly, or time-consuming solutions. 

By following this process, you also ensure that you can effectively
communicate reasonable and implementable scope changes to your
team. 

Evaluate the change and understand the impact in scope, schedule,

and budget

Take time to evaluate the requested change, and have a process in

place to do so. Start by asking some simple questions: 
 Why is the stakeholder or customer asking for the change? 
 Is the change relevant and aligned to our strategic priorities? 
 Does the request make sense based on our desired outcomes? 
 Is this request necessary, or is it already part of the scope? 
 How urgent is the change? 

The answers to these questions will help you evaluate the validity of
the request and prioritize accordingly.

A trade-off or priority matrix can help you evaluate whether the

requested changes will help the team stay focused on the
organizations' most important strategic priorities and keep all relevant
projects on track. 

Consider the implications and get any change(s) approved 

Once you've evaluated and approved the request, it must also be

approved by any necessary executive stakeholders outlined in your
scope change approval process. Send the request, details of the scope
change, reasons for your approval, and any other details to the
management team. 

If you've decided the scope change isn't necessary, let the requester
know why. They can always revise their request and submit a new
request form. 

Implement and communicate to the team

Few things are more frustrating than being told to change the way
you're working without a clear reason as to why. And there's also no
quicker way to lose your team's trust and motivation than to
communicate a scope change without also communicating why the
shift is necessary. 

Be sure to involve and inform your team of scope changes as soon as

they happen. By documenting the requests and their evaluation, you'll
be able to clearly demonstrate why a pivot is necessary—and get your
team on board with the change.

Unplanned changes are a predictable part of modern-day business.

Changes can be sudden and transformative, or they can be gradual
and subtle, but they all add up to important changes to your business
over time. By implementing a flexible but process-driven approach to
managing scope changes, you can ensure unexpected changes don't
derail projects. Instead, the ability to pivot effectively will help you
build better products and keep the business agile. 

Learn how you can use Lucidchart to

Scope Creep: Definition, 12 Causes and

Examples
By Indeed Editorial Team
Updated December 24, 2021 | Published January 29, 2021

Scope creep happens when the perimeters of a project, such as budget, deadline or
end goal, change after the project has already begun. When this occurs it can deplete
finances and resources so knowing how to quickly adapt to scope creep can limit its
effects. In this article, we define scope creep, its causes and how to avoid them.

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What is scope creep?

Scope creep literally means when the focus or scope of a project extends or creeps
beyond its expected perimeters. Ordinarily, a team will start a project with a scope,
budget, end goal deadline. This information allows the team to complete a project within
budget and on time. Scope creep can occur any time after a project has begun and may
ultimately affect any or all parts of the project, including the end goal and deadline.

Examples of scope creep include:

 One requested deliverable becomes many deliverables

 A product's number of required features increases
 The customer's needs change
 The customer inadvertently asked for the wrong deliverable
 The end goal for the project is changed by the stakeholder

While you can expect to change and adapt during a project, significant scope creep can
delay a project or cause it to exceed budget. Every project manager should plan for
potential scope creep and know how to prevent or control it.

Related: What Is Project Planning? (With Examples)

12 causes of scope creep

If you can identify common causes of scope creep, you can take steps to avoid delays
and obstacles before they occur. Here are 12 possible causes of scope creep:

1. Extended project length

Long projects are more likely to experience scope creep because there is more time
and opportunity to add extra components to them. If a project has a long deadline and
many requirements, divide it into multiple projects or phases with shorter deadlines (less
than a month) and specific results. As your team finishes each phase of the project,
mark it as completed so you don't return to it and make changes later.
Dividing a long project into shorter milestones or subprojects also helps your team and
stakeholders stay motivated and engaged because they are achieving results more
frequently. Celebrate completing each phase of the project, then focus on the next.

2. Vague project boundaries

A project with unclear parameters and requirements is at significant risk of scope creep.
Avoid this by defining the project's scope to all team members and stakeholders at the
start. Do this by writing a scope statement that describes the project's main goals and
deliverables. Use diagrams, charts and models to show the project's processes and
priorities, and set clear requirements and a strict schedule for all team members to
follow.

3. Lack of management

Every project needs a leader to manage its scope and requirements. Without effective
oversight, the project's focus and direction can stray or change unexpectedly. Project
managers should establish scope management processes to help guide scope
decisions. When managers receive requests for new project features or deliverables,
they should address and incorporate them in a way all stakeholders and team members
can agree on. Having a well-established process for managing scope changes can help
the project move forward and stay organized.

Related: A Guide to Project Scope Management

4. Stakeholders have different or unrealistic end goals

Company stakeholders can influence scope if they don't clearly understand a project or
have different goals than the team working on the project. Stakeholders might want you
to increase your deliverables or change your direction. For example, a stakeholder
might value the relationship with their clients more than maintaining the project's scope.

Try to avoid this type of scope creep by establishing their expected results from the
project's start. If they suggest changes to the project's scope while it's in progress,
clearly explain the effects of that request, which might be financial, quality control or
customer service.

5. Poor communication

A lack of communication and updates can allow a project to deviate from its original
goals. Communicate with team members, stakeholders and clients regularly before and
during a project to make sure everyone understands its scope. At the beginning of the
project, outline all requirements and deliverables to everyone on the team. Throughout
the project, schedule frequent meetings to make sure everyone is staying on schedule
and task.
Keep the client updated and involved in the project's progress, as well, to avoid
surprises or changes that can result in redoing work or extending the deadline or
budget. If an obstacle or issue arises, work with your team to find possible solutions and
communicate those to the stakeholder and client.

Related: 21 Ways To Improve Your Communication Skills

6. User feedback can alter your scope

Projects that involve testing and user feedback are at risk of scope creep if feedback on
a service or product influences the project's direction. After reviewing feedback with
your team, identify any changes you can make that won’t increase the project's scope.
Also, identify and prioritize the changes that will have the most significant positive
impact on the product or user experience. Consider the impact of not making user-
recommended changes when deciding whether it's worth expanding the project's scope.

If your project involves user feedback, gather it as early in the design and development
process as possible, so you have time to make changes without significantly affecting
scope.

7. Third-party dependencies may affect deadlines

If your team relies on other parties or services, such as content or data providers,
computing interfaces or external companies to complete a project, you might be at risk
of scope creep that's beyond your control. To manage a third party's impact on your
project's scope, identify all dependencies at the beginning of the project. Determine
what effect they have on the project and how you plan to react to unexpected changes.

For instance, you might encounter a delay in materials from a supplier or you might
receive content from a provider that's in the wrong format. When creating your project
schedule, give yourself time to manage these types of unexpected obstacles so you can
still meet your deadline. Make sure the stakeholder or client understands the possible
effect of third-party dependencies on the project's scope.

8. The client makes additional requests

Small client requests and changes can add up over time to affect your team's workload
or delay the project. Evaluate each request with your team to determine whether it
improves the deliverable or will just create unnecessary extra work. Identify its impact
on the project as well as the user experience or product.

If a client asks for something that affects the project's scope, be honest with them about
its significance. Rather than saying no to their request, let them know how it will change
the workflow, budget or deadline and offer alternative ideas to achieve similar results.
9. Underestimating project scope

A major part of preventing scope creep is properly estimating the project's parameters
from the start. Determining a timeline, budget and requirements can be challenging
when a project has many parts and unknowns.

To avoid underestimating its scope, involve your entire team in the planning process so
you can get accurate figures. Add extra time or funds to each phase or deliverable. If
you are working with a third party or you added new team members, for example, factor
in additional time for them to complete their portion of the project.

10. Lack of task prioritization

Prioritizing a project's tasks can help you make adjustments and decisions without
causing scope creep. Before starting the project, identify the steps that are critical for
creating the final product. Identify the features that you can eliminate if needed and still
have a usable service or product. Also prioritize the things that drive the project, such
as:

 Deadline
 Budget
 Features
 User satisfaction
 Client satisfaction

Base decisions and changes throughout the project on your priority lists so you can
reduce creep and stay on schedule.

Related: How To Prioritize Tasks in the Workplace

11. Lack of client involvement

If the client is not a participant in the project or involved in its progress, they might
request changes after the project has begun that can significantly affect its scope.
Therefore, involve the client and explain the project's scope before starting. Provide
updates throughout the process to avoid last-minute surprises. Confirm that they
understand the deliverable and that it's what they want.

12. Team members alter tasks without approval

Project members who make decisions or try to solve problems without consulting the
team can unintentionally affect the entire project's scope. For instance, one of your
computer programmers might spend two days building what they think is a useful
feature into the client's website without telling the project manager. As a result, the
project is now two days behind schedule.
Make sure your team works and communicates well together. Emphasize the
importance of making and solving problems as a team before starting the project. Meet
regularly throughout the project to get updates on progress or address potential issues
as a group.