Piping Design

The term Piping means not only pipe but includes components like fittings, flanges,
valves, bolts, gaskets, bellows etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF PIPES
1. PIPE MATERIAL
Metallic- Ferrous ( Carbon steel, Low alloy steel, Stainless steel)and Non ferrous (
Nickel, Monel, Brasses)

Non metallic- organic (Plastic- Thermosetting, Thermoplastic ) and In

organic(Ceramic, Glass, Graphite)

Composite(lined material)- rubber lined, glass lined, cement lined, PTFE lined

2. METHOD OF MANUFACTURING
Seamless-for smaller size of 1 to 6 inch diameter
Welded- Electric resistance welding (ERW) ,Electric fusion welding (EFW)

3. APPLICATION
Pressure pipe
Line pipe
Structural pipe

It is usual industry practice to classify the pipe in accordance with the pressure
temperature rating system used for classifying flanges
piping classified as Class 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500
Codes and Standards

Codes usually set forth requirements for design, materials, fabrication, erection, test,
and inspection of piping systems, whereas standards contain design and construction
rules and requirements for individual piping components such as elbows, tees,
returns, flanges, valves, and other in-line items.

The basic principles of piping design and construction may not differ much from
one country to another, but the requirements of country-specific codes and standards
may vary substantially. Therefore, the personnel involved in the engineering design,
construction, operation, and maintenance of piping systems must ensure that the
requirements of applicable codes and standards are complied with to ensure the
safety of the general public and workers associated with the facility.

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) is one of the leading

organizations in the world which develops and publishes codes and standards. The
ASME established a committee in 1911 to formulate rules for the construction of
steam boilers and other pressure vessels. This committee is now known as the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Committee, and it is responsible for the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. In addition, the ASME has established other
committees which develop many other codes and standards, such as the ASME
B31, Code for Pressure Piping. These committees follow the procedures accredited
by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
Editions and Addenda
Code editions are published every three years and incorporate the additions and
revisions made to the code during the preceding three years.

ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE-

The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code contains 11 sections:
Section VIII Pressure Vessels
● Division 1 Pressure Vessels
● Division 2 Pressure Vessels (Alternative Rules)
● Division 3 Alternative Rules for Construction of High-Pressure Vessels
ASME B31: CODE FOR PRESSURE PIPING Developed by the ASME and accredited by
ANSI.
the following sections of ASMEB31, Code for Pressure Piping are -
ASME B31.1 Power Piping
USAS B31.2 Fuel Gas Piping
ASME B31.3 Process Piping
ASME B31.4 Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons,
Liquid Petroleum Gas,
Anhydrous Ammonia, and Alcohol
ASME B31.5 Refrigeration Piping
ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
Systems
ASME B31.9 Building Services Piping
ASME B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) was earlier known as the American
Standards Association (ASA). For a short period of time, from 1967 to 1969,
it was called the United States of America Standards Institute (USASI).
ANSI provides a forum for development or obtaining a consensus for approval
of standards having national impact and serves as a focal point for distribution of
national and other standards, including those developed and issued by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and foreign governments.
Safety is the basic objective of the engineering design and construction requirements
contained in standards developed, approved, and distributed by ANSI.

A13.1-96 Scheme for the Identification of Piping

Systems

B16.5-96 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings

AMERICAN GAS ASSOCIATION

The following publications of the American Gas Association (AGA) are of interest
to people associated with the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of
gas systems piping.
Z223.1-92 National Fuel Gas Code, Fifth Edition
Z22.3-92 National Fuel Gas Code Handbook,Second Edition

The American Petroleum Institute (API) publishes specifications (Spec.), bulletins

(Bull.), recommended practices (RP), standards (Std.), and other publications
(Publ.) as an aid to procurement of standardized equipment and materials. These
publications are primarily intended for use by the petroleum industry. However,
they can be and are used by others in that they are referenced in a code or invoked
in the purchase order/specification governing the design and construction of piping
systems.
The American Water Works Association (AWWA) publishes standards that cover
requirements for pipe and piping components used in water treatment and distribution
systems, including specialty items such as fire hydrants.
The American Welding Society (AWS) publishes handbooks, manuals, guides,
recommended practices, specifications, and codes.
TheAir-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI) publishes standards, guidelines,
and directories of certification.
standards, guidelines, and handbooks published by the American
Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
relate to piping.
The American Society of Sanitary Engineers (ASSE) publishes many standards
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), contain information related to piping. The
contents of these documents can be used in design and construction of appropriate
piping systems.
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) publishes recommended
practices concerning procedures, equipment, and qualification of personnel for
nondestructive testing.
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) provide design guidelines for use of stainless
steel in piping systems.
American Nuclear Society (ANS) standards contain requirements for nuclear power plant
piping systems
The Pipe Fabrication Institute (PFI) publishes advisory Engineering Standards (ES)
and Technical Bulletins (TB) intended to serve the needs of the pipe-fabricating
industry at the design level and in actual shop operations.
Plastics Pipe Institute (PPI) publications include application of plastics piping systems.
BRITISH STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS
DIN STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS
ISO STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS
Seamless pipe is made when steel in a solid, round cylindrical shape, called a “billet” or a
“tube round” is heated and then either pushed or pulled (while being rapidly rotated) over
a mandrel with a piercing point positioned in the center of the billet. This activity produces
a hollow tube or “shell”. Seamless pipe is made in sizes from 1/8” to 26”.
Mandrel Mill Process is used to make smaller sizes of seamless pipe form 1/8” to 26”.
Plug Mill Process is used to make larger sizes of seamless pipe from 6” to 26” diameter.
Extrusion Process is used for tubes only.
Seamless pipes are stronger and more reliable, however, expensive, in short supply and
unavailable in long lengths.

WELDED PIPE MANUFACTURING

Seam welded pipe
● Submerged Arc Weld Pipe (SAW)
Longitudinal Submerged Arc Weld Pipe (LSAW)
Spiral Submerged Arc Weld Pipe (SSAW))
● Electric Fusion Weld Pipe (EFW)
● Fusion weld (FW) Pipe Or Continues Weld (CW)
● Electric Resistance Weld Pipe (ERW)

FUSION WELD (FW) / CONTINUES WELD (CW)

FW or CW pipes is used in sizes 1/8” to 4‐1/2”. The ribbon of steel is fed into a leveler and
then into a gas furnace where it is heated to the required temperature for forming and
fusing. The forming rolls at the end of the furnace shape the heated skelp into an oval.
The edges of the skelp are then firmly pressed together by rolls to obtain a forged weld.
The heat of the skelp, combined with the pressure exerted by the rolls, form the weld.
Synchronized with the speed of the pipe as it emerges from the final rolls is a rotary saw
which cuts the pipe to its desired length. The pipe is then cooled, descaled, straightened,
inspected. tested hydrostatically, coated as required and end finished. No metal is added
into the operation.
Continuous weld pipe is commonly used for the conveyance of water. air. gas, steam; for
sprinkling systems, water wells. fencing. and a multitude of structural applications. These
pipes are generally the lowest cost steel piping material available.

ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELD (ERW)

ERW pipes is used in sizes 2” to 24”. The coils of strip steel or skelp is pulled through a
series of rollers that gradually form it into a cylindrical tube. As the edges of the now
cylindrical plate come together, an electric current is applied at the proper points to heat
the edges so they can be welded together.
As in CW pipe, no extraneous metal is added; in fact, due to the extreme pressure of the
rolls, steel is extruded on both the inside and outside of the pipe at the point of the weld.
This is called flash and is removed by stationary cutters while still white hot. This process
leads to coalescence or merging. It produces uniform wall thicknesses and outside
dimensions.
The High Frequency Induction Technology (HFI) welding process is used for
manufacturing ERW pipes as well. HFI is generally considered to be technically superior to
“ordinary” ERW when manufacturing pipes for critical applications.

SUBMERGED ARC WELD (SAW)

SAW pipes is used in sizes 10” to up. Submerged Arc Welded (SAW) pipe derives its name
from the process wherein the welding arc is submerged in flux while the welding takes
place. The flux protects the steel in the weld area from any impurities in the air when
heated to welding temperatures.
The two types of pipes produced through these technologies are Longitudinal Submerged
Arc Welded (LSAW) and Spiral Submerged Arc Welded (SSAW) pipes.
Due to their high cost, LSAW pipes are seldom used in lower value non‐ energy
applications such as water pipelines. SSAW pipes are produced by spiral (helicoidal)
welding of steel coil and have a cost advantage over LSAW pipes as the process uses
coils rather than steel plates.

Terms used for pipe fabrication

Pipe size:
pipe Wall Thickness: Schedule number, 12, 14,16,18
Schedule no. increase pipe thickness increase

Tube thickness: 7 to 24 : BWG increase tube thickness decrease

pipe Length: mm inch feet, equivalent length of pipe: length of all fitting s between
Pipe Price:
Joint efficiency E: joint efficiency E used in pressure design equation,
where for Seamless E = 1.0,
for Longitudinal Seam Welded E = 1.0 in case of full radiography and
may be = 0.85 for other cases,
for spiral E = 0.65 or 0.60
Method:
Seamless used hot process, Spiral used cold rolling with extrusion process while
longitudinal used cold process with bend and rolled.

Vibration:
Definitions:
1) the period of vibration T(seconds):
It is the time of one complete oscillation which is repeated in every respect.

2)the frequency of oscillation f (cycles per second): it is equal to the reciprocal of the
period of vibration. The angular frequency ( radians per second)= 2*3.14/T

3)Principal mode of vibration: it is a free vibration of a system vibrating at definite

frequency.
The number of principal modes is equal to the number of degrees of freedom. A Beam or
pipe has an infinite number of principal modes

.
4)Damping can be defined as the reduction of vibration amplitude through action of
frictional force. An example of a typical friction dampener is the shock absorber used in
some piping systems to limit the amplitude of possible resonant vibrations.
Resonance occur when a system is excited periodically with a frequency at or very near
the natural frequency of the system

5)In an elastic system, periodic application of a force as distinct from a static force May
lead to vibratory deflections( amplitude) equal to, larger than or smaller than static
deflections.

types of vibration:
three main types of oscillation must be carefully distinguished.
Free,
forced and
self excited

in free vibration the system is excited by an external transient impulse (for a short time)
and the system vibrates under no external force.

In forced vibration, the system oscillates under the external excitation of periodic
perturbing force.A primary source of excitation might be the unbalance of rotating
machinery (Electric motors, turbines, compressor, fans or pumps). other frequently
encountered sources of forced piping vibrations are the periodic variations of fluid
pressure and acceleration of masses within the reciprocating devices.

self excited oscillation is a complicated phenomenon. The system vibrates under no

periodic external force and the vibration persists, due to internal energy sources, even in
the presence of damping.
Examples are the humming of Telegraph wires, flow surging of fans or
blowers,Combustion and flow instability in furnace and boilers.
In piping systems, vibrations of self excited character have been encountered usually in
Association with flow instabilities, surging of compressors due to unsuitable operating
characteristics, pulsating gas-solid streams.

Sources of periodic excitation

rotating machinery constitutes a major source of Mechanical Vibration, due to the
inevitable mass unbalance existing in the rotating parts of the machine.

A compressor of the reciprocating type is a source of periodic pressure excitation at a

frequency equal to rotational speed X the number of cylinders for single single action and
twice the number of cylinders for double action for any given stage .
the pressure pulsation can be transmitted directly to the foundation and buildings and via
bends acted on by periodically variable forces, or through the connecting pipe itself to
other vessels, structures or foundations.

the source of excitation can be corrected or minimise by

balancing of rotors,
inclusion of vibration dampener,
pulsation snubbers

Another source of periodic excitation of exposed piping systems involves the action of
wind. These Aerodynamic forces are due to vortex motions around the cylinder and act at
right angle to the direction of wind. the magnitude is relatively small and essentially equal
to the dynamic pressure acting on the projected area of the cylinder. Example of this
phenomenon is the humming of telephone wires.

Unexpected sources of excitation may exist in an installation or or may develop in the

course of operation. they must be dealt with as they occur as such excitation sources
cannot be provided for in advance.

An example of an apparently self excited vibration is that which appeared in oil refinery
fluid catalytic cracking plants in the form of structural vibrations as well as pressure
surges, and which was traced to the gas solid stream in the catalyst carrier line. Changes
in the line configuration and particularly the catalyst injection detail greatly influence this
vibration.
Other similar difficulties are occasionally encountered in other process equipment and
remedies usually involve trial and error, changes in detail of the fluid injection mechanism.

Vibration prevention and control

elimination or isolation of sources of vibration is unquestionably the most desirable
solution to a vibration problem . however it is not often possible to accomplish this
objective completely. A slight unbalance of rotating parts will probably persist. some
pressure pulsation due to flow machinery, wind or earthquake effects etc should be
expected by the piping engineer.

Self- excited vibrations are difficult to predict analytically and the designer may have to
rely largely on field experience and data in estimating probable frequencies of excitation.

Since the piping designer has numerous other consideration which determine a piping
system layout, it is not suggested that an elaborate vibration analysis of all standard
piping system be carried out, the engineer will usually be justified in spending the time
needed to ensure that
 ● the fundamental natural frequency of a piping system bearing pulsating flow(
piping directly connected to reciprocating compressors) will not be in the
neighborhood of a forcing frequency.
● proper choice and spacing of supports and braces( guides and damping devices)
as well as gas pulses and smoothing devices may be added in the original design
at little initial cost and is much less expensive than correcting trouble when
uncountable in the field .

Relative to allowable piping stresses and deflections, the designer should review available
information on probable forcing frequencies and estimate natural frequencies of critical
piping.

● Knowing the possible forcing frequencies( from data on rotating and reciprocating
machinery) an attempt should be made by the designer to prevent resonance of
the piping system.
● Moreover, shifting natural frequencies towards the lower end as compared with
the exciting frequency has the disadvantage of not completely eliminating
possible vibrations during startups and shutdowns of machinery. The Other
approach, that of introduction of additional intermediate fixed or elastic supports
for the purpose of shifting the natural frequency of piping towards the high side,
Appears to be a more appropriate method of eliminating vibration although less
economical and conflicting with requirements thermal expansion.

● Whenever it is not possible to follow either of the above two methods, and the
natural frequency of the piping system remains dangerously close to that of the
exciting force, considerable attention must be devoted to isolation by gas
pulsation dampeners, elastic Foundation, balancing of rotating machinery and
provision of adequate damping devices( shock absorbers) at strategic points in
the system.

Unfortunately no general analytical treatment is available for dealing with vibrations so

the sound judgement in making Simplifying assumptions as well as experience is always
required.

Flow pulsation smoothing :

Surge tanks: surge tank or bottle is used to reduce pressure pulsation and fluid
oscillations. Smoothing of flow pulsations via a Surge tank is achieved by means of
volume capacity( energy storage) and some moderate pressure drop between tank and
piping system corresponding to moderate energy dissipation.
Hydraulic hammer:

This may occur due to fairly Rapid closure of valves with consequent possible high
pressure build up. To reduce this effect, The time of valve closure can be increased. If
this is not possible thenOther means to prevent excessive pressure build up can be
instituted such as “accumulator” tanks in liquid supply systems and relief valves in
power systems.

Vibration measurement:
Mechanical vibrometer
Reed vibrometer
Electric and electronic meters
Stroboscopic device

Mechanical properties of materials:

Piping materials:
The selection of materials for piping applications is a process that requires consideration
of material characteristics appropriate for the required service.
Material selected must be suitable for the flow medium and the given operating
conditions of temperature and pressure safely during the intended design life of the
product.
Welding type bend, and the operating environment surrounding the pipe or piping
component must be considered
The selection process should lead to the most economical material that meets the
requirements of the service conditions and codes and standards that apply.

The most comprehensive reference for material is ASTM. American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM), is an international standards organization that develops and
publishes technical standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems, and
services.
The ASTM Standards covers 15 sections:
1. Iron and Steel Products
2. Nonferrous Metal Products
3. Metals Test Methods and Analytical Procedures
4. Construction
5. Petroleum Products, Lubricants, and Fossil Fuels
6. Paints, Related Coatings, and Aromatics
7. Textiles
8. Plastics
9. Rubber
10. Electrical Insulation and Electronics
11. Water and Environmental Technology
12. Nuclear, Solar, and Geothermal Energy
13. Medical Devices and Services
14. General Methods and Instrumentation
15. General Products, Chemical Specialties

ASTM DESIGNATION SYSTEM

Example 1 ‐ ASTM A 582/A 582M‐95b (2000), Grade 303Se ‐Free‐Machining Stainless
Steel Bars:
‘A’ describes a ferrous metal, but does not sub classify it as cast iron, carbon steel, alloy
steel, tool steel, or stainless steel;
582 is a sequential number without any relationship to the metal’s properties;
M indicates that the standard A582M is written in rationalized SI units (the M comes from
the word Metric)
95 indicates the year of adoption or last revision and
a letter b following the year indicates the third revision of the standard in1995;
(2000), a number in parentheses, indicates the year of last re‐approval;
Grade 300Se indicates the grade of the steel, and in this case, it has a Se (selenium)
addition.
Note: Grade is used to describe chemical composition;
Type is used to define the deoxidation practice; and
Class is used to indicate other characteristics such as strength level or surface finish

Typically an increase in alphabet (such as letters A, B, C) results in higher tensile or yield

strength steels, and if it’s an unalloyed carbon steel, an increase in carbon content;

PIPING MATERIAL SPECIFICATION

PIPING CLASS : 150 #
BASE MATERIAL : CARBON STEEL
CORROSION ALLOWANCE : 1.5 MM
SPECIAL REQUIREMENT :
TEMP. (0 C) : -29 TO 65
PRESS. (kg/cm2) :
SERVICE : NON CORROSIVE PROCESS - FLAMMABLE / NON FLAMMABLE, NON
LETHALHYDROCARBONS, AMMONIA, STEAM & GAS CONDENSATE (NON- IBR),
UTILITIES (WATER, INST, AIR, NITROGEN, CARBON DIOXIDE) AND LUBE OIL BEFORE THE
FILTER.

EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STEEL

Carbon- Increases the hardness and strength by heat treatment

Manganese -Improves hot working properties and increases strength, toughness and
hardenability

Chromium- Increases resistance to oxidation and also improve hardenability and strength

Nickel- Improves resistance to oxidation, corrosion, toughness and temperature strengths

Molybdenum -Improves resistance to pitting corrosion especially by chlorides and sulphur

chemicals

Tantalum -Stabilises carbon and also strengthens steels and alloys for high temperature
service

Silicon- Improve hardness and silicon is used as a deoxidising (killing) agent in the
melting of steel
Chapter 2
Design Calculations for piping
Piping materials include the following but not limited to the same.
a. Pipes (All sizes and schedule)
b. Flanges (All sizes, types & Pressure ratings).
c. Fittings (All sizes, types and schedule)
d. Valves (All sizes, types and Ratings)
e. Gaskets (All sizes, types & Ratings)
f. Bolts, Nuts or M/C Bolts (All types)
g. Expansion Joint/Bellows (All types)
h. Speciality items like online filters, ejectors, sample coolers, steam traps, strainers, air
traps etc.
i. Online instruments like control valve, orifice flange, rotameter, safety valves etc.

Pipe Sizes
Availability –1/8” to 44” diameter
Process piping –1/2” to 24” diameter
Instrument lines –1/8” to 1/2” diameter

NPS: Nominal pipe size is a dimensionless designator of pipe size

It indicates standard pipe size

The NPS 12 and smaller pipe has outside diameter greater than the size designator (say,
2, 4, 6, . . .)
the outside diameter of NPS 14 and larger pipe is the same as the size designator in
inches

For example, NPS 14 pipe has an outside diameter equal to 14 in

The inside diameter will depend upon the pipe wall thickness specified by the schedule
number
Schedule number increase pipe thickness increase
Tubes: BWG(birmingham wire guage) increase the thickness decrease

DN: Diameter nominal is also a dimensionless designator of pipe size in the metric unit
system, developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO).
It indicates standard pipe size when followed by the specific size designation number
without a millimeter symbol
For example, DN 50 is the equivalent designation of NPS 2

Schedule is expressed in numbers (5, 5S, 10, 10S, 20, 20S, 30, 40, 40S, 60, 80,
80S, 100, 120, 140, 160)

The formula to approximate calculate of Schedule Number = (1,000)(P/S)

Where, P = the internal working pressure, psig and
S = the allowable stress (psi) For example,
the schedule number of ordinary steel pipe having an allowable stress of 10,000
psi for use at a working pressure of 350 psig would be: Schedule Number =
(1,000)(350/10,000) = 35 (approx. 40)
The higher the schedule number, the thicker the pipe is.
The outside diameter of each pipe size is standardized
Therefore, a particular nominal pipe size will have a different inside diameter
depending upon the schedule number specified.
The schedule numbers followed by the letter S are per ASME B36.19M, and they
are primarily intended for use with stainless steel pipe
P = Rho * g * h

Mm Hg ,
m of water column,
m of LC(Benzene)

60 torr convert to m WC

1 atm = 760 torrr

1atm = 10.33 m WC
= 60/760*10.33 =

Rho1 g H1 = Rho2 *g* H2

H1 = (60/760*10.33) mWC

1000*H1 = 870* H2
H2 = m Bezene column

Antoine equation
Ln Pv = A - B/(T+C)
A, B, C = constants
T=
Chapter 3 Piping component and flow through pipe line

Pipe Fittings

Enable pipe to change direction and size

Provided for branches and connections

Types

–Welded

–Screwed

2Union –Connection in a straight run of pipe.

Pipe Union is a type of fitting equipment designed in such a way to unite two pipes which
can be detached without causing any deformation to the pipes. Any kind of small diameter
piping connections requiring a positive seal and easy assembly as well as disassembly
are made with the help of pipe union. In other words, the pipe unions can disjoint two
pipes very easily.

Coupling –Attaches two lengths of pipe

Half coupling –Used for instrument connections

is a very short length of pipe or tube with either socket or female pipe
threads at one or both ends that allows two pipes or tubes of equal or
different sizes to be joined together.
Screwed Fittings

Bushing –Reducing fitting

Plug –temporary seals the screw-end of a fitting

90 Elbow –90-degree elbow –Can be attached directly to a fitting

45 Elbow

Weld Tee

Stub-in connection: require only 1 weld whereas tee require 3 weld

Reducer:

28
Flange
Flanges Creates a bolted connection point
Circular piece of steel –Contains center bore equal to pipe ID –Several bolt holes spaced
evenly around center bore.
Flange Types:
● Slip on
● –Weld neck
● –Blind
● –Stub end
● –Reducing and expander
● –Orifice
Flanges differ in method of attachment to the pipe, i.e., whether they are screwed,
welded, or lapped
Unfired Pressure Vessels, of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, three types of
circular flanges are defined, and these are designated as loose-type, integral-type and
optional-type flanges
Loose-Type Flanges.
Integral-Type Flanges.
Optional-Type Flanges :

Flange Facing
Selection of the type of facing depends to a considerable extent on the nature of the
service:
plain face: Flat face flanges (FF) have a contact surface having the same height as the
bolting line of the flange. Full face gaskets, generally of the soft type, are used between
two flat face flanges.
According to ASME B31.3, a flat face flange should never be mated with a raised face
flange as the resulting flanged joint would definitely leak.
Raised face: The main scope of a raised face flange design is to concentrate the
pressure of the two mating flanges on a small surface and increase the strength of the
seal.
Raised face flanges are the most sold type of flange, at least for petrochemical
applications.

RTJ face:
A ring joint flanges (RTJ) is used when a metal-to-metal seal between the mating flanges
is required (which is a condition for high-pressure and high-temperature applications, i.e.
above 700/800 C°).
TONGUE AND GROOVE FLANGE (T AND G)

Two tongue and groove flanges (T&G face) perfectly fit one into the other: one
flange has a raised ring, the other a groove and they can be mated easily (the
tongue enters the groove and seals the joint).

Tongue and groove flanges are standardized in both large and small types.

MALE AND FEMALE FLANGE (M AND F)

Similarly to tongue and groove flanges, male and female flanges (M&F face
type) match one to the other as well.

One flange has an area extended beyond its face area, the male flange, the
other flange has a matching depression machined on the facing surface, the
female flange.
serrated raised-face joints

Gasket
VALVES
Valves Purpose
● –Provide on/off service
● –Control and regulate fluids
● –Maintain constant pressure
● –Prevent pressure buildup
● –Prevent backflow

Valve types: Ball, gate, plug, butterfly, globe, diaphragm, needle, and check valves have
all been used in production facilities

Ball valves are suitable for most manual on-off hydrocarbon or utilities service when
o erati tem erat re are et ee -2 a d 18 a o e 18 F should be
carefully considered due to the temperature limitations of the soft sealing material
Ball valves are available in both floating ball and trunnion mounted designs. Valves of the
floating ball design, develop high operating torques in high pressure services or large
diameters but tend to provide a better seal,
Trunnion mounted ball valves turn more easily but may not seal as well. Thus, a trade-off
decision is required to select the proper type for each application
Ball valves are not suitable for throttling because in the partially open position, sealing
surfaces on the exterior of the ball are exposed to abrasion by process fluids.

Gate valves are suitable for most on-off, non-vibrating hydrocarbon of utilities service for
all temperature ranges.
In vibrating service, gate valves may move open or closed from their normal positions
unless the stem packing is carefully adjusted.
Gate valves have better torque characteristics than ball or plug valves but do not have the
easy operability of quarter turn action.
In sizes 2 inch and larger, manually operated gate valves should be equipped with flexible
discs or expanding gates
Gate valves with unprotected rising stems are not recommended since the marine
environment can corrode exposed stems and threads, making the valves hard to operated
and damaging stem packing.
Gate valves should not be used for throttling service. Throttling, especially with fluids
containing sand, can damage the sealing surfaces.

Plug valves are suitable for the same applications as ball valves and are also subject to
similar temperature limitations.Plug valves are available with quarter turn action in either
lubricated or non-lubricated designs.
Plug valves are typically utilized in chemical processing applications In contrasts to the
ball valve, the plug valve typically requires higher operating torques, meaning larger and
more expensive automation packages. They do not require frequent maintenance
lubrication but may be more difficult to free after prolonged setting in one position. The
application circumstance will generally dictate a selection preference based on these
characteristics.

Butterfly valves are suitable for coarse throttling and other applications where a tight
shutoff is not required.
It is difficult to accomplish a leak-tight seal with a regular butterfly valve.
Butterfly valves are typically utilized in large line sizes in chemical services, waste and
water treatment applications and fire protection systems.
They are not suitable as primary block valves for vessels, tanks, etc. where a tight seal is
required, use a high performance valve or limit the valve to low differential pressure and
o tem erat re 1 2 F ) service.
Because low torque requirements permit butterfly valves to vibrate open, handles with
detents should be specified.

Globe valves: When good throttling control is required ( e.g., in bypass service around
co tro a e ) o e a e are the mo t ita e. id f o i “S” atter .

Diaphragm ( bladder valves). In this valve design, a diaphragm made of an Elastomer is

connected to the valve stem. Closure is accomplished by pressing the diaphragm against
a metal weir which is a part of the valve body.
Diaphragm valves are used primarily for low pressure water ( 200 psig or less ) service.
They are especially suitable for systems containing appreciable sand or other solids.

Steam trap
The function of a steam trap is to discharge condensate from steam piping or steam
heating equipment without permitting live steam to escape.
Some principal types of steam traps are:
● oat
● Thermo tatic
● Thermody amic
● I erted cket

STRAINERS …
Strainers are used in piping systems to protect equipment sensitive to dirt and other
particles that may be carried by the fluid
During system start-up and flushing, strainers may be placed upstream of pumps to
protect them from construction debris that may have been left in the pipe
1)The “Y” strainer is generally used upstream of traps, control valves, and instruments
2)Basket strainers are generally used where high flow capacity is required
Basket strainers are also available in a duplex style which consists of two parallel basket
strainers and diverting valves,
3)Permanent strainers may be installed upstream of control valves, traps, and
instruments to protect them from corrosion products that may become dislodged and
carried throughout the piping system
Strai er are a ai a e i a ariety of ty e i c di “Y” a d a ket

Valve sizing
Valves must be sized correctly to perform the job for which they were
intended. Undersized valves cannot deliver sufficient quantities for
maximum load conditions, and oversized valves attempt to perform
correctly but must do so at the very end of their strokes where hunting or
cycling is hard to avoid. Oversizing is definitely the most prevalent in
industry because safety factors are used when designing the system which
may result in oversizing, control valves included. Sizing, however, is not
complicated. It is typical that the specifications supplied by the consultant
will indicate the required flow and pressure drop of the valve.

Valve flow coefficient

The first step in finding the size of a valve is to determine the flow
coefficient (Cv) that is required for the system. Cv factor is defined as
“the number of US, gallons per minute of 60F water that will flow through
a fully open valve with a 1 psi drop across it”. This factor is determined
by the construction of the valve and will not change. Identical valves sizes
may have different Cv’s if the body style or valve trim is different. This
value of Cv is probably the most useful piece of information necessary
to size a valve.

Moody charts are collection of plots of friction factors versus Reynolds number for a
variety of relative roughness values (ε/D).
Two phase Flow:

Because two-phase flow applications and their flow equations can be so challenging with
regard to selecting pipe size directly, an indirect approach is often employed in which a
trial pipe size is selected and the corresponding pressure drop is evaluated. This cycle is
repeated until a size is found that results in an acceptable energy loss for the required
flow rate. Lockhart & Martinelli developed a semi-empirical method that conservatively
approximates a two phase pressure drop that is applicable to the four major two phase
flow patterns of stratified, wavy, slug, and dispersed.

Flow Patterns:
Flow pattern is distinguished from flow regime where the fluid is said to be laminar or
turbulent.
Depending on the gas to liquid ratio and the mixture velocity, flow patterns range from
bubble flow to dispersed flow.

The Lockhart & Martinelli correlation is based on the application of a factor derived from
the independent single phase pressure drops of the two phases.
This factor is applied to the single phase pressure drop of either phase to arrive at the
mixture pressure drop. Like most other analytical exercises, determination of an
appropriate friction factor presents the single biggest burden.
The Lockhart & Martinelli method uses normal flow equations to compute common
values associated with single phase pressure drop as if each phase was flowing singly in
the pipe.

The subscripts l and g refer to liquid and gas respectively:

Example:

Water Hammer:
Pressure transients are also referred to as surge pressure or, if referring to water
systems, water hammer. The term water hammer suitably reflects the harmful effects
that the hammer-like blows accompanying the pressure surges can have on pipes and
system components. Water hammer causes piping, valves, pipe fixtures, supports, system
components, etc. to suffer the added strain of dynamic loads. The term “water hammer”
is used to describe the phenomenon occurring in a closed conduit when there is either an
acceleration or retardation of the flow.

As it is not possible to altogether avoid pressure transients when operating a piping

system, the art lies in keeping the pressure transients within controllable limits. What
makes matters is Often the consequences do not become apparent until long after the
event, for example a pipe rupture, loose or disconnected flanges. The root cause of
damage then tends to remain in the dark. Some representative incidents caused by water
hammer are listed in the following:

Water hammers can be created if

● valves opens or closes to fast

● pumps suddenly stops or starts
● parts of the pipeline bursts
For Slow Valve Closure:

The water hammer pressure spike in a pipeline caused by a closing or opening a

valve can be estimated as

Δp = 0.070 Δv* l / Δt

where

Δp = increase in pressure - pressure spike (psi)

Δv = change in flow velocity (ft/s)

Δt = valve closing time (s)

l = upstream pipe length (ft)

Example 1:
What is the pressure spike (water hammer) in a 100 ft water pipe where the water
flow velocity is reduced from 6 ft/s to 0 ft/s when a solenoid valve closes in (i) 0.1 s
and (ii) 1 s.

Δp = 0.070 ((6 ft/s) - (0 ft/s)) (100 ft) / (0.1 s)

= 420 (psi)

With a closing time of 1 s (solenoid valve with damper) - the pressure spike (water
hammer) can be estimated as

Δp = 0.070 ((6 ft/s) - (0 ft/s)) (100 ft) / (1 s)

= 42 (psi)

Example 2:
solenoid valve, with a 50 ft long upstream pipe connection:
L = 50 ft
V = 5.0 ft / sec( recommended velocity for PVC piping design)
t = 40 ms(solenoid valve closing time is approx. 40-50 ms)
P1 = 50 psi inlet pressure

therefore,
Δp = 0.070 Δv* l / Δt =

P = 0.07 x 5 x 50 / 0.040 + P1
P = 437.5 psi + P1
Total Pressure = 437.5 + 50 = 487.5 psi

Pressure rise:
• Pipe rupture
• Damaged pipe fixtures
• Damage to pumps, foundations, pipe internals and valves

Pressure fall:
• Buckling of plastic and thin walled steel pipes
• Disintegration of the cement lining of pipes
• Dirty water or air being drawn into pipelines through flanged or socket connections,
gland packing or leaks
• Water column separation followed by high increases in pressure when the separate
liquid columns recombine (macro-cavitation)

The sudden closure of a valve in a pipeline causes the mass inertia of the liquid column to
exert a force on the valve’s shut-off element. This causes the pressure on the upstream
side of the valve to increase; on the downstream side of the valve the pressure decreases.

If mass inertia causes the fluid flow on the downstream side of the pump to collapse into
separate columns, a cavity containing a mixture of water vapour and air coming out of
solution will be formed. As the separate liquid columns subsequently move backward and
recombine with a hammerlike impact, high pressures develop. The phenomenon is
referred to as liquid column separation or macro-cavitation.
Macro cavitation following a pump trip

Sudden closure of gate valve, visualised by a heavy steel spring

WATER HAMMER RAPID VALVE CLOSURE CALCULATIONS

Prior to water hammer, liquid initially flows at a constant velocity through a pipe. A
downstream valve closes instantaneously, and the liquid slams against the closed valve
causing a pressure spike ΔP also called water hammer.

If a valve is closed faster than the wave travel time, then it is considered an
instantaneous valve closure for the water hammer.

tw = 2L/c

EQUATIONS FOR WATER HAMMER PRESSURE DUE TO RAPID VALVE CLOSURE

AND FOR WAVE TRAVEL TIME

The water hammer instantaneous valve closure calculation predicts the maximum
increase in pressure that will occur due to a sudden valve closure. The valve closure time
in water hammer is considered to be instantaneous if the valve closes faster than (or
equal to) the time required for a pressure wave to travel two pipe lengths (i.e. the time
for the wave to travel upstream from the valve, reflect off the upstream boundary and
return to the valve).

The pressure predicted by the water hammer instantaneous valve closure calculation
provides the engineer with the expected maximum pressure increase. The water hammer
calculation can also be used in reverse - to compute the pipe velocity - if a maximum
pressure rise due to water hammer is input.
Joukowski Equation:

One-dimensional momentum conservation for frictionless flow is used to derive the

Joukowski equation for water hammer. The equation was developed for a liquid flowing
steadily through a pipe and then instantly the velocity drops to zero due to a sudden valve
closure in a water hammer event. The water hammer equation assumes that liquid
compression and pipe friction are negligible. Though the Joukowski equation's primary
applicability is for a liquid velocity that drops to zero upon contacting a closed valve
causing water hammer, the equation is valid for any instantaneous drop in velocity, not
necessarily a drop to zero velocity. The Joukowski equation is seen with and without a
negative sign on the right hand side depending on whether the pressure wave is traveling
upstream or downstream in the water hammer event. In either case, the pressure increase
due to water hammer is a positive number.

The Joukowski equation is

ΔP = ρ c ΔV

ΔP = Maximum pipe pressure increase in water hammer event due to sudden valve
closure [F/L2].

ΔV = Flow velocity change in m/s

ρ = Fluid density [M/L3].

The equation for wave speed, c, during water hammer is based on mass conservation and
allows the pipe wall material to expand:

c = wave speed(wave propagation velocity) ,the sonic velocity in the pipe [L/T]. The sonic
velocity is also the speed at which the pressure waves generated by water hammer travel
in the pipe.

For water in very stiff pipes the sonic speed could be as high as 1480 m/s. But in some
plastic pipe the wave speed can be lower than 200 m/s.

D = Inside diameter of pipe [L].

E = Composite elastic modulus [F/L2].

Ef = Elastic modulus of fluid [F/L2]. The bulk modulus of water is 2.19x10^9 Pa however
this assumes that the water has no air bubbles in it. = 1/medium compressibility factor

Ep = Elastic modulus of pipe material [F/L2].

w = Pipe wall thickness [L].

The ΔP equation for water hammer was derived for liquid upstream of the valve and does
not include effects downstream of the valve. The D/(wEp) portion was derived using a
thin-walled pipe approximation.

Water hammer Wave Travel Time Equation

Instantaneous valve closure due to water hammer is defined to occur if the valve is closed
faster than the wave travel time. The wave travel time is:

tw = 2L/c

L = Pipe length [L].

In water hammer, the wave travel time, tw, is the time for a pressure wave to propagate
from the valve, upstream to the reservoir, and back down to the valve.

Where

K Bulk modulus of fluid

E Yo ’ mod of i e materia

e Wall thickness of pipe

If the liquid pumped is water , i.e. r = 1000 kg/m3

Δh = c/g ΔV = 100 ΔV

Dh: Pressure head change in m

Example 1: In a DN 500 pipeline, L = 8000 m, c = 1000 m/s and v = 2 m/s, a gate valve is
closed in 5 seconds. Calculate the pressure surge. Calculate the force exerted on the
gate.

5second< tw= 2*8000/1000=16sec

i.e. Joukowsky’s equation may be applied.

If the flow velocity is reduced from 2 m/s to zero as the valve is closed, Dv = 2 m/s.

ΔP = ρ c ΔV =1000*1000*2=

Dp = 20 · 105 N/m2 , which is 20 bar.

20 inch diameter- The valve cross-section measures A = 0.2 m2 .
The force acting on the gate is p·A = 0.2 · 20 · 105 = 4*10^5 N= 400 kN

Example 2: A pump delivers water at Q = 300 l/s and a head Δh = 40 m through a DN 400
discharge pipe measuring L = 5000 m into an overhead tank; c = 1000 m/s. The inertia
moments of pump and motor are negligible. Is there a risk of liquid column separation, i.e.
macro-cavitation, following pump trip? If so, what is the anticipated pressure increase?

Q = 300 l/s in a DN 400 pipeline roughly corresponds to a flow velocity v = 2.4 m/s
As a result of pump trip and the loss of mass inertia moment, the pump comes to a
sudden standstill, i.e. Δv = 2.4 m/s.

ΔP = ρ c ΔV

ρ g Δh = ρ c ΔV

Δh = c ΔV/g = 1000*2.4/9.81 =244 m

According to the Joukowsky equation, this causes a head drop of Δh = -100 · 2.4 m = -
240 m. Since the steady-state head is just 40 m, vacuum is reached, the liquid column
collapses and macrocavitation sets in. Following the liquid column separation near the
pump outlet, the two liquid columns will recombine with great impact after some time. For
reasons of energy conservation, the highest velocity of the backward flow cannot exceed
the original velocity of the steady-state flow of 2.4 m/s. Under the most unfavourable
conditions, the cavitation-induced pressure rise will, therefore, be
Dh = 100 · 2.4 = 240 m, which is the equivalent to 24 bar.

Example 3:
A pump delivers water at Q =300 l/s and a head Δh = 40 m into a 2000 m long pipeline DN
400; c = 1000 m/s. The mass moment of inertia of all rotating components (pump, motor,
etc.) is J = 20 kgm2, the speed of rotation n0 = 24 s-1 and the total efficiency = 0.9, i.e.
90%. Is there a risk of liquid column separation, i.e. macro-cavitation, following pump trip?

For the instant of pump failure, the change in speed n . may be derived from the inertia
equation as follows:
Mp = 2*3.14*J*n .

Assuming as an (extremely rough) approximation a linear speed reduction n. =n0/Δt

then, if
Mp = ___p__·_Q___
2·n0·
we obtain a time Dt in which the speed has dropped to zero, and, if Dp = 1000 · 9.81 · Dh,

t =(2 · n0) 2 · J · p · 0.001 · Q Ä 4 · n0 2 · J · h · Q = 3.4 s

The reflection time of the pipeline is Tr = 4 s (for a = 1000 m/s), which means that the
reflected pressure relief wave will not reach the pump until after the speed has dropped to
zero and it is too late for the relieving effect to take place. It is, therefore, probably safe to
say that macrocavitation will develop

Chapter 4
Mechanical design of piping

Design pressure
The maximum internal or external pressure to be used in determining the minimum
permissible wall thickness of
equipment and piping. Note that the minimum permissible wall
thickness may be derived from a lower operating pressure, but
higher operating temperature. The first relief valve is normally
set to open at design pressure.

1) For systems protected by a PSV, the criteria

Design pressure criteria for pressurised systems

2) Where rupture discs are applied, the required design pressure of the pressure
vessel will depend on the type of disc.
3) Design pressure for equipment operating below atmospheric pressure.

Minimum operating pressure

The minimum pressure predicted for deviations from normal operations, like process
start-up and shutdown.

Maximum design temperature

The material temperature representing the most severe condition
of coincident pressure and temperature. The design temperature
shall encompass the maximum operating temperature.
Maximum operating pressure
The maximum pressure predicted for deviations from normal
operations, like start-up/shutdown, process flexibility, control
requirements and process upsets.
Maximum operating temperature
The maximum temperature in the equipment when the plant
operate at unstable conditions, like start-up/shutdown, control
requirements, process flexibility and process upsets.
Minimum design temperature
The minimum temperature which serves as a base for specifying
the low temperature characteristics of the material. The design
temperature shall encompass the minimum operating
temperature.

Minimum operating temperature

The minimum temperature in the equipment when the plant
operate at unstable conditions, like start-up, shutdown and
depressurizing.
Operating pressure
The pressure in the equipment when the plant operates at steady
state condition, subject to normal variation in operating
parameters.
Operating temperature
The temperature in the equipment when the plant operates at
steady state condition, subject to normal variation in operating
parameters.

Design Temperature
The design temperature is the temperature at which the allowable stresses for all
pressure-retaining parts of the piping system are assigned. The design temperature
must be equal to or greater than the maximum sustained temperature that the
pressure-retaining components will experience during all normal and expected abnormal
modes of operation.
The design temperature of the system’s pressure-retaining metal parts is normally
assumed equal to the maximum free-stream fluid temperature. The effects of any
internal or external heat sources such as heat tracing must be considered, as must
any temperature excursions occurring as a result of control system error. The design
temperature should be set at or above the peak of these temperature excursions.
While the pressure-integrity design is based upon the design temperature, most
other thermally related aspects of the design are based upon the normal operating
temperature. The normal operating temperature is the temperature achieved by the
system fluid while the system is operating in full-load, steady-state, nontransient
conditions. It is lower than the design temperature. The normal operating temperature
is used as the basis for all thermal design analyses that relate to the structural
integrity of the piping system, including the thermal flexibility analysis, the spring
hanger sizing and setting calculations, and the thermally induced anchor movement
calculations. If a system has more than one ‘‘normal’’ operating mode (i.e., the
system runs at different temperatures or has branches that run at different temperatures
for different operating modes), then multiple thermal analysis calculations at
all normal operating temperatures may be necessary to fully qualify the design.
Operating pressure (OP): This is the pressure at which the
device/equipment/pressure vessel is operating under normal
conditions. Simply put, you could say the general pressure conditions
in the equipment on a regular basis.
Maximum operating pressure (MOP): The maximum operating
pressure that the engineer considers will be encountered in the
process operation, including a margin for any possible surges or
fluctuations.
Design pressure (DP): Per ASME B31.3, this is the most severe and
coincident condition, internal or external, due to the service that the
equipment is likely to be subjected, meaning the worst possible
temperature and pressure case the fluid can exert on the
vessel/equipment. This is decided by the engineer based on the fluid
service existing, and it also varies with the fluid. The engineer decides
it based on previous experience and a sound judgment.
Maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP): MAOP is not to be
confused with the MOP. It is a definition mainly formulated for
pressurized equipment such as cylinders or pressure vessels, but also
applicable elsewhere. It is considered the maximum possible safe
pressure that the walls of the equipment can withstand.
Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP): This is defined as
the maximum pressure experienced by the weakest point of the
equipment before failure. Some mistakenly refer to it as design
pressure but simply put, it tells us the maximum pressure that the
weakest point in the equipment can withstand before becoming
unpredictable or failing (also referred to as design pressure of the
weakest point, but not the general design pressure as such). An
alternative and equally valid definition for pressure vessels is, it is the
maximum permissible pressure at the highest point or top of the
vessel in normal operating conditions at the coincident operating
temperature for that pressure. The MAWP is usually determined by
the manufacturer of the equipment based on fabrication procedures,
backward correlations, etc. and is usually stamped on the equipment.

The increasing order of the above values is: OP < MOP < DP < MAOP <
MAWP. None of other values are supposed to exceed the MAWP. The
MAWP is usually about 10-25% above the operating pressure, but not
always.
Maximum operating pressure/temperature: Say the operating
pressure range is 700-770 kPag (active rgulator is set at 700 kPag,
monitor regulator is set at 750 kPag). Hence the maximimum
operating pressure is 770 kPag.

Maximum allowable operating pressure/temperature: The

maximum allowable operating pressure is determined and set by
the end user. The manufacturer/supplier then selects equipment
that will operate above this pressure, but incorporates protective
functions to limit the operating pressure (see above).

Design pressure/temperature: Design pressure is the guaranteed

safe pressure for the equipment (in this case, the pipe). Usually,
the design pressure will be selected as 1,000 kPag to allow for
thermal expansion, and the weep relief valve will be set at this
pressure.

Storage pressure/temperature: Storage temperature is the

maximum temperature at which the purchased equipment is
stored in the warehouse. It could be, say, 50 °C during very hot
summer when power is not available.

CHAPTER B2
DESIGN BASES

Example B2.2
Example B2.3.
Design of Piping for Internal and External Pressure
Example B2.8.
ASME BPV code provides two separate procedures for calculating the
minimum required thickness, for Do/t >= 10 and Do/t <10. Here Do=Outside
Diameter of Pipe and t=Minimum required thickness.

Example Problem for External Pressure Design

Pipe Thickness Calculation
We i co ider a 32″ Car o Stee Pi e ith 31.7 mm thick e ith the
following parameters for external pressure design thickness calculation.
● P : External Pressure = 15 psi Section
● Do: O t ide Diameter of i e = 813 mm for 32″ i e a er ASME
B36.10M)
● L: Assumed unstiffened length of pipe = 12000 mm (472.4 inches),
(based on the piping layout for calculation purpose).
● T: Selected Pipe wall thickness based on internal pressure = 31.75
mm;
 ● t: Selected Thickness less mill tolerance of 0.3 mm and corrosion
allowance of 3 mm = 28.45 mm (1.12 inch)
● T : Design temperature = 149 Deg. C
● Y: SMYS of the material = 35000 psi
● E: modulus of elasticity of the material at design temperature =
294000000 psi

Step-1: Calculation of Do/t

Calculate Do/t; Here Do=32″ a d t=1.12 “. So Do/t=32/1.12=28.57 which is
greater than 10.

So we will follow first method of ASME Sec VIII Div 1.

Step-2: Finding L/Do

Find L/Do;

Here L=472.4″ a d Do=32″; He ce L/Do=14.76- approximately 15

Step-3: Finding Factor A

Finding Factor A from Fig. G of ASME Sec II, Sub part 3, Part D,

For finding factor A, Enter ASME BPVC Section II, Part D, Subpart 3, Figure G

at the value of L/Do and Do/t determined in Step 1 and 2. The figure is

reproduced below in Fig. 1 for sample reference purpose.

factor A=0.00135.
Step-4: Finding Factor B
Determining value of Factor B

Using the values of A calculated in step 3 (A=0.00135 for our case), enter the

applicable material chart in subpart 3 of Section II, Part D.

As our material is CS with SMYS=35000 psi, we have to refer Fig. CS-2.

(Reproduced in Fig. 2 for reference)

Factor B=13200.

In cases where the value of A falls to the right of the end of the

material/temperature line, assume an intersection with the horizontal projection

of the upper end of the material/temperature line. If tabular values are used,

the last (maximum) tabulated value shall be used.

Step-5: Calculating Maximum Allowable External Working

Pressure, Pa
Calculation of Maximum Allowable External Working Pressure Pa

Now, Using this value of B (as calculated in Step-4), calculate the value of the
maximum allowable external working pressure Pa using the following equation
(Fig. 3):
Pa= 606.89 PSIg
Pa = 41.8 Bar g
Since Pa (606.89 psi) > P (15 psi), the selected pipe wall thickness can
withstand full vacuum. So our pipe is safe for a full vacuum condition.

https://whatispiping.com/pipe-thickness-calculation-of-straight-pipe-under-
external-pressure-vacuum-pressure-condition/

Jacketed Piping

It is commonly used to convey very viscous process fluids in an inner pipe,

heated by steam/hot water/hot oil or other heating media between the jacket
and core pipe. Vacuum jacketing is also used as an insulator for cryogenic
fluids and can be analyzed using the same calculation method for heated
jacketed piping.

design of steam jacketed piping, continuous (fully jacketed)/discontinuous (Not fully

jacketed), for use on process piping systems where solidification of medium may occur.

The steam jacketing system consists of:

• The team y i i to the jacket from team y ma ifo d
• The i di id a team jacket circ it
• The co de ate o t et i i to co de ate header team tra & tra
installation upto condensate return manifold.

Types of Jacketing
a. Continuous Jacketing_
All straight lengths, flanges, fittings, valves and branch connections are fully jacketed.
b. Discontinuous Jacketing_
Only straight length of pipes are jacketed. Flanges, tees, elbows, branch connections and
welds are not jacketed.

Examples:
a. Continuous (fully) Jacketed Lines:

b. Discontinuous (not fully) jacketed lines.

Location of centering guides, baffles supports and anchors must be specified on the
isometric drawings.
Types And Sizes Of Jacketed Pipe:
Materials of construction vary widely, depending on the process, its temperature and
pressure.

When different materials are used for the core pipe and the jacket pipe, the coefficients
of expansion of the materials should be similar, or the process should have a relatively
low operating temperature. All jacketed piping systems should be stress analyzed. All
jacketed piping systems should be designed, constructed and tested in accordance with a
recognized industry code, such as ASME B31.3.

Jacketed Pipe Sizes

Vapor Heating Media (Core) x (Jacket)
1" x 2"
1-1/2" x 2-1/2"
2" x 3"
3" x 4"
4" x 6"
6" x 8"
8" x 10"
10" x 12"
12" x 14"
Jacketed Pipe Sizes
Liquid Heating Media (Core) x (Jacket)
1" x 2-1/2"
1" x 3"
1-1/2" x 3"
2" x 4"
3" x 5"
4" x 6"
6" x 8"
8" x 10"
10" x 14"
12" x 16"
Spacers support the core pipe from jacket pipe and to ensure uniform gap
between core and jacket pipes. Partition plate and end plate placed where the
flow of steam is interrupted.

Key successful for jacketed piping system installation is the location of steam
supplies and condensate removal points. The steam supply to each
jacketed circuit shall be taken from the main header or sub headers and
condensate from the steam trap shall be returned to a condensate sub header/
main header. In principle, the steam inlet pipe must be connected to the
uppermost point of the circuit. The steam supply line to jacketing system and
steam/ condensate line from jacketing system shall have block valve(shutoff
valve) located near nozzle of jacketing pipe.

Centering guide is used to support the core pipe for long span. Centering guide shall be
place for 3m between the core pipes(Spacing is depends upon the project guide lines).
Guides are similar to the plates which will be welded in the core pipe. A gap of 1.5mm to
be provided between the guide plates and Jacketed pipe.

During fabrication of a jacketed piping system, close monitoring and quality

control to be taken to prevent problems. Failure of a core pipe will lead to
mixing of molten sulfur and steam. Failure can be the results of poor welding,
faulty fabrication and incorrect design. The core pipe can develop a crack in
the heat affected zone of a butt weld. When the sulfur pressure is higher than
the steam pressure, sulfur will enter the steam / condensate system. The
sulfur in the core pipe will be freeze and process will be stopped. Hence
proper care to be taken while fabrication and erection of the core and jacketed
pipe. When the core fabrication is completed, it should be hydraulically tested.
Any defect should be repaired prior to the fabrication of the jacket.

Examples:
Page no. 11 T.N.Gopinath IIT
Chapter 5 pipe supports and P&I Diagram

Pi i oad are c a ified i to three ty e :

sustained loads,
occasional loads, and
expansion loads.
Types of Loads:
a) Thermal Loads at Various Operating Conditions
b) Sustained Loads

○ Design pressure.
○ Weight of Pipe and associated components such as Flanges,
Valves, Strainer,
○ Sight glass etc., mounted on the Piping System.
○ Weight of Fluid/contents in the piping.
○ Insulation and cladding weight.
○ Hydro test loads, if applicable for the line.
○ Snow load, if applicable
c) Seismic Loads
d) Wind Loads
e) PSV Reaction Force
f) Slug Force
g) Forces Induced by Surge Pressure

Pipe is held either from above by hangers or supports of various types on

which it rests. Hangers are also referred to as supports.

A pipe support is a designed element that transfer the load from a pipe to the
supporting structures.
The load includes the weight of the pipe proper, the content that the pipe
carries, all the pipe fittings attached to pipe, and the pipe covering such as
insulation.
The four main functions of a pipe support are to anchor, guide, absorb shock,
and support a specified load.

Purpose or Functions of piping support:

The various functions that pipe support serves are as follows:

● To prevent Pipe stresses in excess to allowable.

● To eliminate the Leakages in joints.
● To absorb Excessive Line Vibrations.
● To counter the undesirable effects of Seismic, wind, water hammer,
slug, and other dynamic loadings.
● To remove unintentional disengagement (lift-off) of piping from its
supports.
● To prevent excessive pipe sag (Normally more than 10 mm for process
piping and 2.5 mm for power piping; 12.5 mm for GRE/GRP piping)
● To eliminate exposure of elements to temperature extremes, outside
their design limit.
● To limit undesirable line movements to protect sensitive equipment
against overloading.
● To redirect pipe thermal movements to the favourable direction.
● to reduce excessive loading in support itself

Piping Support Types

Pipe Supports are categorized based on the following parameters

1. Based on attachment with Pipe

○ Primary Piping Support
○ Secondary Piping Support
2. Based on Support hardware rigidity
○ Rigid support
○ Resilient Support/ Elastic Support
○ Adjustable Support
3. Based on Piping Insulation
○ Piping Supports for Hot Insulation
○ Piping Supports of Cold Insulation
 ○ Piping Supports for Acoustic Insulation
4. Based on Welding
○ Welded Pipe Support
○ Clamped Pipe Support
5. Based on Pipe Support function
○ Resting Support
○ Guide Support
○ Axial Stop or Line Stop
○ Anchor Support

https://whatispiping.com/supporting-of-piping-systems/

Piping Support Design and Selection

The com ex req ireme t of today’ i i ort de i i re ia e

functioning, maintenance-free operation, economic and easy installations,

quick delivery of components, and low unit prices.

Major Criteria (Parameter) governing the pipe support hardware selection are

● Pipe Support function,

● Pipe Material of construction
● The magnitude of expected operational and occasional load,
● Available space limitations,
● Design temperature of the piping system,
● Expansion effects of the piping systems,
● The piping attachment and supporting structure material
compatibility,
● Piping insulation/cladding, material, and thickness
● Suitability to the environment,
● Ease of operation, inspection and installation.

Determination of Support locations

Support locations are dependent on many considerations, such as pipe size,

piping configuration, the location of heavy Valves and fittings, and the structure

that is available for support. Following rules of thumb will help when doing the

flexibility analysis and operation and maintenance:

● As much as possible, attach supports to straight pipe rather than

elbows, other fittings, Valves, flanges or instruments, but provide
 supports near instruments, and other devices that are likely to be
removed for maintenance.
● Provide space for adding loops to piping near load sensitive equipment,
e.g. in pump suction lines.
● Consider the need to add friction reducing slides between the piping
and support steel.
● Support piping such that spools to be removed for equipment
maintenace can be removed without adding temporary supports.
● Minimize the use of spring hangers.

Pipe Support Span

Typically piping is supported at regular intervals on steel supports embedded

in concrete foundation or directly on the steel structure. The distance between

supports is the supporting span.

There are three main factors that affect the support span.
 ● Stress
● Deflection/ sagging and
● Frequency of piping system (for two-phase flow lines, reciprocating
equipment connected lines, vibrating lines, etc.).

These spacing values are based on ASME B31.1 standards.

Support Spacing for Steel pipe (ASME B31.1)

Pipe Size(in) Water(ft) Gas(ft)

1 7 9

2 10 13

3 12 15

4 14 17

6 17 21

8 19 24

12 23 30

16 27 35

20 30 39
 24 32 42

This spacing changes at high temperatures and for materials other than steel.
For example,
for copper tubing, support spacing varies from 8-ft for 1" tubing to 12-ft for 4".
For PVC pipe the spacing depends on the pipe schedule and operating
temperature.

Different types of expansion joints

● Single Expansion Joint

● Universal Expansion Joint
● Fabric Expansion Joint
● Hinged Expansion Joint
● Gimbal Expansion Joint
● Rectangular Expansion Joint
● Elbow Pressure Balanced Expansion Joint
● In-Line Pressure Balanced Expansion Joint
● Externally Pressurized Expansion Joint
● Thick Wall Expansion Joint
● Refractory Lined Expansion Joint
● Toroidal Expansion Joint
● Slip Type Expansion Joint
● Duct Work

METAL BELLOWS
Metal bellows are elastic-like vessels that can easily be compressed
when pressure is applied or extended under a vacuum, making them
ideal for absorbing the thermal movement and vibration in piping
systems that is being transported at a high temperature, such as
vibration caused due to exhaust gases or steam. Some of the
different types of metal bellows available are:

● Duct Type

● Dual
 ● Expansion Compensators

● Externally Pressurized

● Hinged & Gimbal

● Pump Connectors

● Ring Controlled

● Single

● Universal

Application of Expansion Bellows:

The Bellows are generally employed in a piping system in one of the following situations:

1. When the space constraints do not permit providing adequate flexibility by

conventional methods (e. g. expansion loops etc.) for maintaining the system
stresses within acceptable limits.
2. When conventional solutions (e.g. expansion loops etc.) create unacceptable
process conditions (e.g. excessive pressure drop).
3. When it is not practical to limit the piping induced loads on the terminal nozzles of
the connected equipment within admissible limits by conventional methods.
4. When the equipment such as Compressors, Turbines, Pumps etc. necessitate
isolating the mechanical vibrations from being transmitted to the connected piping.

FABRIC JOINTS
Commonly used in industrial plants, fabric expansion joints are
installed as flexible connections in duct and piping systems in order
to take up or compensate for thermal expansion, vibration, or
misalignment. Fabric expansion joints are available in a selection of
different product types, such as:
 ● FC Series Flouroplastic

● FL Series Flouroplastic

● M Series

RUBBER JOINTS
Rubber expansion joints are specifically designed to safely absorb
vibrations, including those caused by the temperature-induced
expansion and contraction of pipes. This type of expansion joint is
a ai a e i ize ra i from 1″-72″ a d ca he red ce oi e
caused by vibrations. Some of the different rubber expansion joints
available include:

● Concentric/Eccentric Reducer

● Filled Arch

● Offset

● Rubber/PTFE Lined

● Sleeve Type

● Spherical

● Spool Type

● Wide Arch

PTFE JOINTS
PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene) expansion joints are the ideal solution
for industrial piping applications that can be affected by erosive or
corrosive environments. This means that this type of expansion joint
can perform well in chemically reactive piping environments. PTFE
expansion joints are available in a wide variety of different designs,
sizes, and customized configurations, making it easy to find the
perfect fit for your specific application.