Unit 12 Idea of Qualitication

UNIT 12: IDEA OF QUANTIFICATION

UNIT STRUCTURE
12.1 Learning Objectives
12.2 Introduction
12.3 Propositional Logic and Predicate Logic
12.4 Singular and General Propositions
12.5 Propositional Function
12.6 Quantification: What it is
12.6.1 Types of Quantifiers
12.7 Quantification of Four-Fold Classification of Propositions
12.7.1 Square of Opposition
12.8 Proving Validity and Invalidity: Rules of Quantification
12.9 Let Us Sum Up
12.10 Further Reading
12.11 Answers to Check Your Progress
12.12 Model Questions

12.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

l explain 'what is quantification',
l discuss simple and compound proposition,
l define propositional function,
l identify quantifiers and kinds of quantifiers,
l describe four-fold classification of proposition by quantification,
l discuss the rules of quantification.

12.2 INTRODUCTION

This unit introduces to you to the quantification theory of predicate

logic. Predicate logic is dealt with the symbolization of both simple and
compound propositions. This logic is also concerned with the internal logical
structure of both simple and compound propositions. Predicate logic

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 Idea of Qualitication Unit 12

introduces special symbols for quantifying. That is why this logic is known
as predicate calculus or predicate logic or quantifier logic. Predicate logic
provides the technique of symbolization of the logical structure of simple
propositions which is different from the symbolic structure of compound
propositions. It also gives us the technique or method for determining the
validity or invalidity of arguments.
This unit also provides us the informations about quantification, kinds
of quantifiers, Symbolizations of A, E, I, and 0 through quantifiers and rules
of quantification theory from which we determine the validity of invalidity of
arguments respectively.

12.3 PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC AND PREDICATE LOGIC

The two important branches of symbolic logic are- propositional logic

and predicate logic. In Propositional logic simple or atomic proposition is
considered as the unit of logical thinking. This kind of logic does not analyse
the internal structure of the simple proposition. It deals only with the internal
structure of compound propositions. So, propositional logic is also known
as the truth-functional logic. But predicate logic deals with the internal
structure of both simple and compound propositions. This logic is also known
as 'quantifier logic' as it introduces special symbolic for quantifying.
Predicate logic provides us the technique for proving the valid
arguments which are invalid when symbolized in the notation of propositional
logic. For example, the following argument is a valid argument. It is the
BARBARA mood of first figure.
All men are mortal
All poets are man
All poets are mortal
This argument has to be symbolized in propositional logic as-
1. A
2. B / C
In this notation it appears to be invalid. This symbolic expression
shows that the conclusion 'C' does not follow from the premises as there is
nothing common between the premises. Premises together do not imply
the conclusion. But its validity can be shown by using the technique of
symbolization adopted by predicate logic.

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 Unit 12 Idea of Qualitication
However, like propositional logic predicate logic follows the rules of
inference and the rules of replacement provided by the method of deduction.

12.4 SINGULAR AND GENERAL PROPOSITION

There is a clear difference between singular and general proposition.

A singular proposition asserts that a particular individual or object has
a particular property or an attribute. For example,
Socrates is a human,
Bombay is a big city,
Sita is beautiful etc.
Singular proposition is not identical with a simple proposition. Of course
a singular proposition is non-compound and being a non-compound it is
included within simple propositions. On the other hand a general proposition
states that not a particular but some or all individuals possess or do not
possess a particular property. For example:
For example: Everything is movable
Something is solid
All men are animals
Some students are not honest etc.
General propositions are concerned with the relation of agreement
and disagreement of classes. The traditional categorical proposition namely,
universal and particular come under the category of general proposition.
The technique for symbolizing singular proposition is different from
that of general proposition. To symbolize a singular proposition two symbols
are needed. They are (a) individual and (b) attribute. We use the first letter
of the name of the individual to denote it. Thus we denote Socrates by 's',
Bombay by 'b' and 'Sita' by 's' and so on. These symbols are called individual
constants.
We use capital letters to denote attributes. We generally use first letter
of the attribute to denote it. Thus, we denote human by 'H', port by 'P', beautiful
by 'B', and so on.
Having symbolized the individual and attribute in this way we write the
predicate or attribute symbol before the individual symbol. As for instance,
the proposition "Sita is beautiful' can be symbolized as 'Bs'. Similarly,

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 Idea of Qualitication Unit 12

1. Amit is honest (Ha)

2. Bipul is good (Gb)
3. Either Amit is honest or Bipul is Good (Ha V Gb)
On the other hand general propositions are to be symbolized by the
employment of appropriate quantifiers.
Now it becomes clear that the subject of singular proposition is singular
while the subjects of general propositions are class names. Moreover the
quantifying word 'All' and 'Some' are present at the beginning of the general
propositions.
Further, both singular and general propositions are obtained from
'propositional function' but the process is different in both the cases.

12.5 PROPOSITIONAL FUNCTION

In order to understand the nature of a singular and a general proposition

we are to know what a propositional function is. Quantification theory is
directly related with the notion of propositional function.
A propositional function is a symbolic expression which contains
individual variable. For example, Hx, Px are propositional functions. Here 'X'
is an individual variable. This individual variable can be replaced by an
individual constant which results a singular proposition. A propositional
function is neither true nor false, but a proposition is either true or false.
Any singular proposition is a substitution instance of a propositional
function. As for example, 'Hx' (x is human) is propositional function. Here
the individual variable 'X' may be substituted by the individual constant 's'
(Socrates). In that case the proposition will be 'Socrates is human'. The
symbolic expression of this proposition is 'Hs'. It is a singular proposition.
Singular proposition is obtained from propositional function. Thus the process
or technique of obtaining a singular proposition from a propositional function
by replacing an individual variable is known as instantiation.
But the process of obtaining a general proposition from propositional
function is somewhat different. In case of general proposition it is
quantification or generalization.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q 1: State whether the following statements are
true or false

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 Unit 12 Idea of Qualitication

a) Propositional logic is known as the truth

functional logic.
b) Propositional logic deals with the internal structure of
compound propositions.
c) 'Hx' is an example of propositional function.
Q 2: What is propositional function? (Answer in about 15 words)
Q 3: What is instantiation? (Answer in about 40 words)

12.6 QUANTIFICATION: WHAT IT IS

Instantiation and quantification are two processes of converting
propositional function into proposition. Through the process of instantiation
propositional function is converted to singular proposition. While through
the process of quantification propositional function is converted to general
proposition.
Thus quantification is a process or method or technique for obtaining
general proposition from propositional function through the employment of
quantifiers. As for example, 'Mx' (X is moving) is a propositional function. By
prefixing a quantifier we may have the following general proposition.
(X) Mx (Everything is moving). It means for all values of X, or given any
X, X is moving. Thus, asserting or denying a propositional function for all or
some of the values of the individual variable is quantification.
Quantification is a method or technique for symbolizing general
proposition by considering their inner logical structure. By this technique
appropriate quantifiers are added to bring out the formal nature of general
propositions.

12.6.1 Types of Quantifiers

Quantifier is a specific collection of number, objects and persons. So,

quantifiers are the symbols used in predicate logic to signify the quantity
(i.e., how many) of the general propositions.
There are two types of quantifiers:
Universal quantifier
Existential quantifier
Universal quantifier: Universal quantifier is the symbol which is used to assert
that all entities have a certain property or properties. The symbols for

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 Idea of Qualitication Unit 12

universal quantifier are (X), (Y), (Z). They are used to signify the quantity of
'All' or 'Every'. As for example, the general proposition, 'Everything is moving
' can be symbolized by prefixing universal quantifiers as - (X) Mx. It is to be
read as "For all x, Mx", or "Given any x, Mx" or "Given any x, x is moving".
Similarly,
Everything id perfect-(X) Px
Everything is illusive ---(X) Ix
All Humans are mortal ----(X) (Hx ? Mx)
Existential quantifier: Another quantifier is existential quantifier. The symbol
for the existential quantifier is (x). It is used to assert that 'some entities' or
'at least one entity' have a certain property. As for instance - 'something is
solid' can be symbolized by using existential quantifier as- (x) Sx. It is to be
read as 'there is atleast one x such that, x is solid' or for some x, x is solid.
Similarly,
'Something is moving' -- (x) Sx
Ghost exists -----(x) Gx (It means that there is something which is
Ghost.) Some men are honest- (x) (Mx.Hx). The phrase 'there is at least
one x such that 'is called an existential quantifier and is symbolized as (x).
In predicate logic brackets are used to avoid ambiguities. The brackets
indicate the scope of the quantifier.
Variables are of two types. They are free and bound variable. An
unquantified variable is free variable e.g., in the sentence form 'Mx', x is free
variable. On the other hand quantified variable is bound variable. For
example, in (X) Mx, 'X' is bound variable.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 4: State whether the following statements are
true or false:
a) (X) is used to asset that 'some entities' or 'at
least one entity' have a certain property.
b) ( x) is used to assert that all entities have a certain property.
c) Variables are two types, free and bound variable.
d) There are three types of quantifiers.
Q 5: What is quantification? (Answer in about 20 words)
Q 6: What are the two types of quantifiers?

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 Unit 12 Idea of Qualitication
ACTIVITY: 12.1
Is quantification theory the replacement of the formal
proof of validity?
Discuss
Ans: ..............................................................................
..............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

12.7 QUANTIFICATION OF FOUR CLASSIFICAT IONS OF

PROPOSITIONS
We can symbolize the traditional four-fold types of propositions by
using the existential and universal quantifiers in predicate logic. The four
fold types of traditional subject-predicate propositions are:
l Universal affirmative (A)
l Universal negative (E)
l Particular affirmative (I)
l Particular negative (O)
These four-fold propositions can be shown by examples and can be
symbolized by quantifiers:
All humans are mortal (X) (Hx ⊃ Mx)
No humans are mortal (X) (Hx ⊃ ~Mx)
Some humans are mortal (x) (Hx. Mx)
Some humans are not mortal (x) (Hx. ~Mx)
Now, we can analyse A, E, I and O propositions by the quantification
theory.
l Quantification of A Proposition
A. All humans are mortal. This proposition can be analysed that- Given
any individual thing, whatever, if it is human, then it is mortal. This expression
can be symbolically formulated as, given any X, If X is human then X is
mortal. Replacing the horse-shoe symbol for 'if-then' we get: Given any X, X
is human X is mortal. This symbolic expression can be finally formulated
as: (X) (Hx ⊃ Px)

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 Idea of Qualitication Unit 12

l Quantification of E proposition
E. No humans are mortal. This proposition can be analysed that-Given
any individual thing, whatever, if it is human, then it is not mortal. This
expression can be symbolically formulated as, Given any x, if x is human,
then x is not mortal.
Substituting the horseshoe symbol ' ' for 'if-then', we can express the
symbolic form of sentence as such- Given any x, x is human x is not mortal.
Finally, this symbolic expression can be symbolized as (X) (Hx ⊃ ~Mx)
l Quantification of I proposition
I. Some humans are mortal. This proposition can be asserted that
there is atleast one thing that is human and mortal. This expression can be
analysed as there is atleast one x such that x is human and x is mortal.
Substituting the dot symbol '.' for 'and' we can symbolize the proposition as:
there is atleast one x such that x is human. X is mortal. Using the existential
quantifier (x) we finally symbolize the proposition as: (x) (Hx. Mx)
l Quantification of O proposition
Some humans are not mortal. This proposition can be paraphrased
as there is atleast one thing that is a human and not mortal. Substituting 'x'
for humans in the sentence form we can analyse the propositions as - there
is atleast one x such that 'x' is a human . 'x' is not mortal. Using quantifiers
and propositional function we finally symbolize the proposition as ( x) (Hx.
~Mx)

12.7.1 Square of Opposition

The general connection between universal and existential quantification

can be shown in terms of square array which is known as square of
opposition.
We use the Greek letters Phi, Psi etc. to stand for any predicate symbol
whatsoever. The four fold traditional forms of propositions can be symbolized
as:

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 Unit 12 Idea of Qualitication

(x) (φ x) A (E (x) (~φ x)

(Sub-altern opposition)
(∃x) (φ x) I O (∃x) (~φx)

We can explain the square of opposition in such a way:

A. The two top propositions are contraries. Because they might both be
false but both cannot be true.
B. The two bottom propositions are sub-contraries, because they
might both be true but cannot both be false.
C. Propositions that are at opposite ends of the diagonals are
contradictories.
D. On each side of the square, the truth of the lower proposition is implied
by the truth of the proposition directly above it.

12.8 PROVING VALIDITY OR INVALIDITY: RULES OF

QUANTIFICATION

To test the validity of arguments in predicate logic, rules of inference

and rules of replacement of the method of deduction are applied. In addition
to the two sets of rules of propositional logic, four rules of quantification are
also used to test the validity of arguments in predicate logic.
They are respectively: i) Universal instantiation
ii) Universal generalization
iii) Existential instantiation
iv) Existential generalizations
Now, we can apply these rules to test the validity of arguments in
predicate logic.
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 Idea of Qualitication Unit 12

Rules of universal quantifiers:

Universal instantiation: This rule states that, if a proposition is true for all
individuals or everything is true for an individual or any arbitrarily specified
thing. This rule permits us to infer validly any substitution instance from a
true universal quantification. Symbolically it can be expressed as---
If (X) Mx then Ma, where a is individual instance or as
(X) Mx
Ma where a is any individual. As for instance true. This rule is denoted
as UI. By using this rule we can prove the validity of the following argument.
All men are rational
Hari is a man
Hari is rational
This argument can be symbolized and proved as follows.
1. (X) (Mx Rx)
2. Mh
Rh
We can now apply the rules of inference and the rules of replacement
to test the validity of argument.
3. Mh Rh 1 U.I
4. Rh 2, 3 M.P
Universal generalization: The second rule of universal quantifier is universal
generalization. This rule states that if a proposition is true for any arbitrarily
selected individual then it is true for all individuals. This rule is denoted as
(U.G). This rule permits us to infer
Fy ………
(X) Fx
Here Y is any arbitrarily selected individual. By this rule of propositional
logic we can make a formal proof of validly of the following argument.
As for instance:
All human beings are mortal
All rational beings are human
All rational beings are mortal

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 Unit 12 Idea of Qualitication
We can symbolize this argument using quantifiers and variables.
1. (X) (Hx Mx)
2. (X) (Rx Hx)/ (X) (Rx Mx)
3. Ha Ma 1. U.I
4. Ra Ma 2. U.I
5. Ra Ma 4,3 H.S
6. (X) (Rx Mx) U.G
Rules of Existential Quantifiers:
Existential instantiation: This rule states from the existential quantification
of a propositional function we may infer the truth of its substitution instance.
This substitution contains individual constant that occurs nowhere earlier in
that context. For example, according to this principle, if 'some businessman
are honest' is true then we can infer from the premise that there is atleast
one individual who is a businessman is also honest.
This rule allows us to infer--- Fx ___
Fa
Where a is an individual constant. This rule is denoted as E.I.
Existential generalization: This rule states that from any true substitution
instance of a propositional function we may validly infer the existential
instantiation of that propositional function. Thus this rule permits us to infer
Fa ___
(X) Fx Where a is any individual. In other words this rule states that if
a proposition is true for one individual then there exists at least one individual
for which the proposition is true. This rule is denoted as E.G.
Thus we can prove the validity of the following argument.
No honest men are perfect
Some industrialists are honest man
Some industrialists are not perfect
We symbolize this argument using existential and universal quantifiers.
1. (X) (Hx ~Px)
2. (X) (Ix. Hx) / .
. . (x) (Ix. ~Px)

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 Idea of Qualitication Unit 12

3. Ia. Ha 2. E.I
4. Ha ~Pa 1. U.I
5. Ha 3 Simp
6. ~Pa 4, 5 M.P
7. Ga 3 Simp
8. Ga. ~Pa 6, 7 Conjunction
9. (x) (Gx. ~ Px) 8 E.G

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 7: What are the traditional fourfold types of

propositions?

Q 8: Symbolize '0'proposition using the

quantification technique.
Q 9: What are the four rules of quantification theory?
Q 10: What is universal generalization? (Answer in about 60 words)
Q 11: What do you mean by existential instantiation? (Answer in
about 60 words)
Q 12: What is 'Square of opposition'? (Answer in about 60 words)
Q 13: Fill in the blanks:
a)................................ is the symbol of existential quantifier.
b) Predicate logic is also known as ..........………………..
c) (X) (Gx) means that……………………which is ghost.

12.9 LET US SUM UP

l The quantification theory is the technique to symbolize the inner logical

structure of general propositions with the help of quantifiers.
l The process of symbolizing simple propositions by replacing individual
constant for individual variable from propositional functions in predicate
logic is known as instantiation.
l There are two types of quantifiers: existential and universal quantifier.

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 Unit 12 Idea of Qualitication

(x) is the symbol for existential quantifier.

(X) is the symbol for universal quantifier.
l The four fold types of traditional subject-predicate propositions are:
Universal affirmative, Universal negative, Particular affirmative,
Particular negative
l There are four rules of quantification: Universal instantiation, Universal
generalization, Existential instantiation, and Existential generalization
l Quantification theory helps us to symbolize not only A, E, I and O
propositions but also provides us the technique to symbolize singular
and general proposition.
l Quantification is the technique of bringing out the inner logical structure
of general propositions with the help of quantifiers.

12. 10 FURTHER READING

1) Copi, Irving M. Symbolic Logic (fifth edition). New Delhi. Prentice Hall
of India ( Private Ltd.)
2) Jain, Krishna(1998). A textbook of logic (fourth Revised Edition)
3) Singh, S. Shyam Kishore. Modern Logic (Vol.1) Lamyana Press
4) Copi, Irving M., Cohen, Carl, Cohen., Priyedarshi, Jetli.,& Monica,
Prabhakar. Introduction to Logic (Twelfth edition). Dorling Kindersley
(India) Pvt. Ltd

12.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: (a) True b) True c) True

Ans to Q No 2: A propositional function is a symbolic expression which
contain individual variable.
Ans to Q No 3: Instantiation is the method of obtaining propositions replacing
individual constant for individual variable from propositional functions. As for
instance, Ha, Hd, Hr etc. are the examples of instantiation of getting singular
propositions out of propositional function, 'Hx'.
Ans to Q No 4: a) False b) True c) True d) True

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 Idea of Qualitication Unit 12

Ans to Q No 5: Quantification is the technique of symbolizing general

propositions with the help of quantifiers.
Ans to Q No 6: Universal Quantifier and Existential quantifier
Ans to Q No 7: A, E, I and O are four fold types of propositions.
Ans to Q No 8: (x) (Hx. ~Mx) is the example of 'O' proposition
Ans to Q No 9: Two rules of universal quantifier:
i) Universal instantiation
ii) Universal generalization
Two rules of existential quantifier:
i) Existential instantiation
ii) Existential generalization
Ans to Q No 10: This rule states that if a proposition is true for any arbitrarily
selected individual then it is true for all individuals. This rule is denoted as
(U.G) As for instance, if Ram is mortal is true then all men are mortal is also
true. Similarly, If 'Ram is four footed' is a false proposition, 'all men are four
footed' is also a false proposition.
Ans to Q No 11: This rule states that from the existential quantification of a
propositional function we may infer the truth of its substitution instance. As
for instance, if "Some businessmen are honest" is true then we can infer
from the premise that 'the businessman is honest' or 'there is at least one
individual who is a Businessman' is also true.
Ans to Q No 12: The logical connection between universal and existential
quantification can be shown in terms of square array which is known as
square of opposition.
Ans to Q No 13: a) ( x) b) Quantifier logic
c) There is atleast something

12.12 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions

Q 1: What is predicate logic?
Q 2: What is quantification?
Q 3: What is propositional function?

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 Unit 12 Idea of Qualitication
B) Short Questions (Answer in about 150 words)
Q 1: Do you find any difference between instantiation and propositional
function? Discuss
Q 2: Explain the quantifiers with suitable examples.
C) Short notes (Answer in about 150 words)
Q 1: Square of opposition
Q 2: Existential quantifier
Q 3: Universal quantifier
Q 4: Rules of quantification
Q 5: Propositional function
D) Distinguish between (Answer in about 150 words)
Q 1: Universal quantifier and existential quantifier
Q 2: Singular and general proposition
Q 3: Propositional logic and predicate logic
Q 4: Universal instantiation and existential instantiation
Q 5: Universal generalization and existential generalization
E) Long Questions (Answer in about 300-500 words)
Q 1: What is predicate logic? Do you find any difference between
instantiation and propositional function? Discuss
Q 2: What is quantification? Explain the quantifiers with suitable examples.
Q 3: Discuss the symbolic formulations of A, E, I and O by quantification
Q 4: What are the rules of quantification? Discuss with suitable examples.
*****************

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