Universidad Autonoma de Chiapas

Licenciatura en Enseñanza del Inglés

Facultad de Lenguas Campus Tuxtla

“LEARNING STRATEGIES”
Psychological Aspects

Professor: María Beatriz de Ibarrola

Presented by Candy Abarca & Luis Pérez

 Introduction
The significance of Language Learning Strategies is increasing in current years, especially
with the increasement of foreign language acquisition all over the world. In past years,
teaching strategies used to play a higher role in education while the focus on learners did
not receive the attention it deserved. The above was perhaps, one of the main reasons why
Language acquisition was always limited in students, since no one made emphasis on the
different efficient ways to either boost or facilitate learning on said pupils. In the following
presentation, we are going to introduce through the use of solid quotes, the most common
and useful Language Learning Strategies implemented by most learners around the world.
 New concepts
Deductive
reasoning Inductive
Monitoring reasoning

Storage Technique Retrieval

 New Concepts
Storage: the state of a concept that is retained in memory after encoding and before retrieval.

Retrieval: the techniques of storing and recovering and often disseminating recorded data.

Technique: is a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills.

Deductive reasoning: reasoning that involves drawing conclusions logically from other things that are already
known.
Inductive reasoning: is making an inference based on an observation, often of a sample.

Monitoring: the act of observing something.

Meaning of Language Learning
Strategies
“Language Learning Strategies have been defined as the
steps or operations which are used by a learner to
facilitate acquisition, storage, retrieval, or the use of
information”.

(O’Malley, 1985 as cited in Azadikhah et. al, 2016, p. 135)

Acquisition Retrieval

Storage Use of the

language
Definition of Language Learning
Strategies by different authors
 By Oxford By Stoynoff
“Actions taken by second and “Learning strategies are
foreign language learners to techniques and practices
control and improve their own learners use to facilitate and
learning”. enhance the learning process”.

(Oxford, 1990, p. 1) (Stoynoff, 2010, p. 1)

By Chamot
“Processes, techniques, approaches and actions
that students take to facilitate the learning and
recall of both linguistic and content areas of
information”.

(Chamot, 1987, p. 1713)

 Reflective questions
1.- Why do you think Learning Strategies are important?

2.- What learning Strategies do you know?

3.- Have you ever used any specific strategy or technique

when learning something new? Explain it.
Characteristics
According to Griffiths, there are two types of learning
strategies:
Directly to learning Indirectly to learning
(6 types) (2 types)
Memorization Production tricks
Monitoring Creating opportunities for practice
Deductive reasoning
Guessing/inductive inferencing

Practice
Clarification/verification

(Griffiths, 2004 as cited in Azadikhah et. al, 2016, p. 135)

 Oxford 1990
Direct Indirect
strategies strategies

Language Learning
Memory strategies
Strategies Metacognitive strategies

Cognitive strategies Social strategies

Compensation strategies Affective strategies

 Reflective questions
1. Mention the two main types of strategies proposed by
Oxford and their characteristics?

2.- What type of Learning strategy do you think is the

most effective and why?
Direct strategies
 Direct strategies
“Language learning strategies which directly
involve the target language are called direct
strategies. These strategies include memory,
cognitive, and compensation strategies. All of
these direct strategies involve mental processing
of language”.

(Oxford, 1990, p. 151)

 Direct strategies
Strategy Function Examples

Memory Enable learners to store and retieve new Grouping, imagery, associations, using
information of a new language words in context, semantic mapping and
using key words.

Cognitive Enable learners to understand and produce new Reasoning, anaylizing, summaraizing,
language translating, recognizing formulas and
patterns and imitation.
Compensation Allow learners to use the language despite lack Infering, guessing, meaning on context,
of knowledge using synonyms, body language, coining
words
01 Memory strategies
“Memory strategies. are employed for storing and
retrieving new information .The principle of
memory strategies is meaning. All the steps that
the learner adopts relating to memory strategies
have to be personally meaningful to the learner in
order to make the strategies work.”

“An example of memory strategy is ‘I use new

English words in a sentence so I can remember
them’”.

(Oxford, 1990, p. 294)

 Grouping (memory strategy)
“Classifying or reclassifying material into meaningful units, either mentally or in writing”

Could be based on:

• Type of the word (noun, verb, etc.)
• Topic (weather, clothing, etc.)
• Similarity (warm, hot, tropical)
• Opposites (friendly, unfriendly)
• Feelings (likes, dislike)
• Linguistic function (apology, request, demand)
Real world examples:

⭐ Tae Hyun writes down new words he hears and categorizes them grammatically, then he labels them
(noun, pronoun, adjectives).

⭐ Sun Wook groups words he has read by concept (hot, warm, fire) then looks for their opposites (cold,
cool, ice).

(Hall, 2020, p. 13)

 Associating/Elaborating (memory strategy)
“Relating new language information to concepts already in memory or
relating one piece of information”

Must be meaningful to the learner:

Bread and butter
School, book, paper

Real world examples:

⭐ Juan associates the English word “billboard” with a previously learned

word, board (used for displaying).

⭐ Tim reads the Russian word “soyuz” (union) and associates it with his
friend Suzie.

(Hall, 2020, p. 19)

 Placing new words in a context (memory strategy)
“Placing a word or phrase in a meaningful sentence, conversation
or story in order to remember it”

Real world example:

⭐ HOMES (acronym for the Great Lakes). Karen uses this in the
context of the spoken sentence, ‘my HOME’S on the Great
Lakes’.

(Hall, 2020. p. 21)

 Using imagery (memory strategy)
“Creating a mental image to remember what has been heard or
read in the new language” (This strategy involves remembering
by means of visual images)

Real world examples:

⭐ Da Young remembers the word “Steakhouse” by

remembering the place she first read the word: Outback
Steakhouse.

⭐ Geun Yong remembers various prepositions by illustrating

them using a soccer ball as an example.

(Hall, 2020, p. 24)

 Semantic mapping (memory strategy)
“Arranging concepts and relationships on paper to create a map
or diagram in which the key concepts are highlighted and are
linked with related concepts via arrows or lines.”

Real world example:

⭐ Se Yeon draws a semantic map to help her understand the

relationship between different modes of transportation.

(Hall, 2020, p. 25)

 Using keywords (memory strategy)
“Combines sounds and images so that the learners can more easily remember what they hear or
read in the new language”

2 steps:

• Identify a familiar word in one’s own language or another language that sounds like the new
word.
• Generate a visual image of the new word and the familiar one interacting in some way.

Real world examples:

⭐ Brian links the new French word “Froid” (cold) with a familiar word, “Freud”, then imagines
Freud standing outside in the cold.

⭐ Julie reads the new Spanish word for waitress, camarera, relates it to camera, then imagines a
waitress with a camera slung around her neck.

(Hall, 2020, p. 26)

02 Cognitive strategies
“Cognitive strategies. Have a unified common
function: manipulating or transforming the target
language .There are various approaches under
this category, however, the common function is
manipulating or transforming the target language
by the learner”.

“An example of cognitive strategies is ‘I try to talk

like native English speakers’ “

(Oxford, 1990, p. 295)

 Imitation or worthwhile repetitions (cognitive strategy)
“Saying or doing something over and over. Listening to something several times;
rehearsing; imitating a native speaker.”

Real world example:

⭐ Mario always pays attention to the way his American English teacher uses the
language. After classes, he tries to imitate him so that Mario can go familiarizing with
the real use of the target language.

Note: Mindless or meaningless repetition is generally not worthwhile. Imitation of a native

speaker, however, is a valid and worthwhile technique. By imitating the student can
improve their: vocabulary, pronunciation, use of idioms, use of gestures, use of style and
tone.

(Hall, 2020, p. 40)

 Recognizing and using formulas and patterns
(cognitive strategy)
“Formulas are unanalyzed expressions while patterns have at least one slot that can be filled with an
alternate word”

Real world example:

⭐Using a routine formula such as “Hello, how are you?” and a pattern like “it´s time to ________”

Some patterns:
• I don’t know how to _______
• I would like to ________

Some formulas:
• Yes, that’s right!
• That’s not bad.
• That’s a funny story!
(Hall, 2020, p. 46)
• I know what you mean
 Analyzing and reasoning (cognitive strategy)
“These strategies help the learners to use logical thinking to understand and use the
grammar rules and vocabulary of the new language”

Real world examples:

⭐ June knows the sentence “would you like to go the library?” is a question because he
recognizes that part of the verb comes before the subject (a general rule he has
learned).

⭐ Mary does not understand the phrase “premediated crime” she then breaks down the
phrase into its parts. Crime (bad act), mediate (think about), pre- (before). So, she
then figures out the phrase: a bad act that is planned in advance.

(Hall, 2020, p. 63)

 Translating (cognitive strategy)
“Most effective in early language learning. Uses the L1 as the
basis for understanding the L2. However, a word for word
translation can become problematic and provide incorrect
interpretations”

Real world example:

⭐ The French words “beau-frere” and “belle-soeur” are

translated by Erick as handsome brother and beautiful
sister. However, the actual meanings are “brother-in-law”
and “sister-in-low”. Erick will have to be careful with
avoiding the word by word translation.
(Hall, 2020, p. 75)
 Summarizing (cognitive strategy)
“Making a summary or abstract of a longer passage”

Real world example:

⭐ Placing pictures which depict a series of events in the order

in which they occurred in the story (links the verbal with
the visual).

(Hall, 2020, p. 85)

03 Compensation strategies
“Compensation strategies. Are used to help
learners use the new language for comprehension
and production regardless of the limited knowledge
learners have with the new language. Making up
for an inadequate repertoire of grammar , and
especially vocabulary, is the purpose of
compensation strategies”.

“An example of compensation strategy is ‘to

understand unfamiliar English word , I make
guesses’“.

(Oxford, 1990, p. 295)

 Guessing (compensation strategy)
“Guessing is essential for listening and reading. Students need
to recognize every single word before they can comprehend the
overall meaning”

Using linguistic clues: using previous gained knowledge of the

target language or the learners own language can provide
linguistic clues to the meaning of what is heard or read.

Real world example:

⭐ Tae Wan doesn´t know the English word “shovel”,

nonetheless, on the text other words such as grass, mower,
and lawn also appear so he guesses the reading has to be
(Hall, 2020, p. 89)
about gardening.
 Using mime or gestures (compensation strategy)

“Using a physical gesture in place of the word or expression in a conversation to

indicate the meaning.”

Real world examples:

⭐ Clapping or giving a “thumbs up”

⭐ Pointing
⭐ Indicating objects

(Hall, 2020, p. 101)

 Coined words (compensation strategy)

“Making up new words in the L2 because one lacks the

vocabulary or knowledge to communicate a concept”

Real world examples:

⭐ Namra does not know the English word “balloon” so she

coins the word “airball”.

⭐ Jenny does not know the word “dentist” so she makes up

the term “tooth doctor” drawing on words she does know.

(Hall, 2020, p. 105)

 Using a circumlocution or synonym (compensation strategy)

“A circumlocution is a roundabout expression involving several

words to explain a single concept”

“A synonym is a word having the same meaning as another word in

the same language”

Real world examples:

⭐ Robert doesn’t know “car seatbelt” so he says, “I’d better tie my

self in” (circumlocution)
.
⭐ Tommy doesn’t remember the word “Briefcase” so he says, “I lost
my portfolio” (synonym)

(Hall, 2020,, p. 107)

 Reflective questions
1. What’s your opinion about memory strategies?

2.- What do Cognitive Strategies share in common?

3.- In accordance to the characteristics of Compensation Strategies,

what would you do if you do not understand a word in a text?
Indirect strategies
 Indirect strategies
“Indirect strategies are Metacognitive, affective,

and social strategies and they provide indirect

support for language learning through focusing,
planning, evaluating, seeking opportunities,
controlling anxiety, increasing cooperation and
empathy, and other means”.

(Oxford, 1990, p. 151)

 Indirect strategies
Strategy Function Examples

Metacognitive Allow learners to evaluate their own Self-evaluation and paying attention
learning pattern and coordinate the learning
process

Affective Help learners gain control and regulate Anxiety reduction and self-
personal emotions, attitudes and values encouragement

Social Allow learners to interact with other Asking questions and cooperating with
language users or learners native speakers
01 Metacognitive strategies
“Metacognitive strategies. Are “actions
which go beyond purely cognitive devices,
and which provide a way for learners to
coordinate their own learning process”.

“An example of metacognitive strategies is

‘I pay attention when someone is speaking
English’”.
(Oxford, 1990, p. 296)
 Self evaluation
(metacognitive strategy)
“Self-evaluation or autonomous evaluation, is understood as a
practice in which students can judge their own achievements and
reflect on them, in order to learn from errors and improve one´s
weaknesses”

Real example:

⭐ Carolina gave a presentation in her English class, she considered she had a great domain
of the subject matter but she failed in other aspects such as the tone of voice, control of
the audience, time management and logical order of the presentation. Because of that, she
decides to carry out a self-evaluation process and give feedback to herself.

(Álvarez et al., 2020, parr. 4)

 Paying attention (metacognitive strategy)
“The very first step to learning is paying attention. Whether in the
classroom, reading a textbook, listening to a podcast, or practicing a skill
for work, dedicating complete attention is absolutely critical. All of these
activities entail learning.”

Real example:

⭐ Francisco is about to learn prepositions in his English lessons; his teacher starts the
class by introducing each preposition and exemplifying them through either physical
or printed representations. Francisco needs to be attentive to every word and
movement said or done by his teacher in order to be able to store the new
information.

Note: “Attention means focusing on what is being stated,

discussed, or shown, using the senses to literally bring
information into the brain.” (Álvarez et al., 2020, parr. 3)
02 Affective strategies
“Affective strategies. Refer to learners emotional,
attitudes, motivation and values. Learners can gain
control over the above factors. Good language
learners are often the ones who know how to
control their emotions and attitudes towards
learning.”

“An example of an affective strategy is ‘I encourage

myself to speak English even when I am afraid of
making mistake’”.

(Oxford, 1990, p. 296)

 Anxiety reduction (affective strategy)
“The term foreign language anxiety (FLA) can be defined as “the
worry and negative emotional reaction aroused when learning or
using a second language. Language teachers often observe
learners struggling with physical signs of anxiety such as tense
muscles, trembling, and dry throat. Therefore, anxiety reduction
strategy aims to help the learner control their levels of anxiety in
order to be able to learn easily and without unnecessary pressure.”
Real example:

⭐ Carlos needs to learn a new vocabulary list, but lately, he has been overstressed for the
pressure of passing his exams. He can´t manage to concentrate on studying the new
concepts and that´s why he decides to do some self-relaxing exercises in order to firstly
break free and let his brain rest for a while.
(Macintyre, 1999, p. 2)
 Self-motivation (affective strategy)
“Self-motivation is, in its simplest form, the force that
drives us to do things. This learning strategy consist in
encouraging oneself to achieve the desired academic
goal.”
“

Real example:

⭐ Sophie is a very shy student who frequently deals with the fact of using the language
she is learning (English) in her lessons. However, she´s trying to employ the self-
motivation strategy in order to be able to get over her fear.

She is starting to encourage herself to speak English although she still being afraid of
making mistakes while doing it.

(Maclntyre, 1999, p. 2)
03 Social strategies
“The last category is social strategies, which
refers to learner’s communication with
people who use the target language”.

“There are three ways in which social

learning strategies can be employed, these
are: asking question, cooperating with
others, and empathizing with others”.

(Oxford, 1990, p. 296)

 Questioning (social strategy)
“Learners become active participants in class the minute they are asked questions
rather than just when they are given the information. This social strategy has the
purpose of allowing students practice with other classmates in order to build their
knowledge together. Sometimes teachers take part on some classroom activities,
monitoring learners´ work and motivating them to take roles for either asking or
answering questions.”

Real example:

⭐ Teacher Cameron introduces the frequency adverbs for the simple present tense. Then,
instead of just giving examples of her own, she asks students questions like 'How often do
you go to the park?’ Once students have practiced with her, she has students ask the same
or other similar questions to their peers.

(Reinoso, 2017, parr. 3)

 Cooperating with native speakers (Social strategy)
“Learning is more easily reached when foreign language
learners are involved in collaborative activities where native
speakers are also in. By working together, they do not have only
the possibility of using the language but also of mastering their
other language skills. There is no one better from whom we could
learn more than from natives.”

Real example:

⭐ In his Spanish lessons, Maddie is having some dynamics with two native Spanish
assistants. She is so excited about the activities both guys prepare because in them, all
sophie´s classmates have the chance of practicing and learning more about the language
with native speakers.

(Reinoso, 2017, parr. 8)

 The diamond of Language learning strategies
Oxford´s representation

(Oxford, 1990, p. 201)

Our representation
 Reflective questions
1. If after a presentation, you carry out a self-evaluation process and give
feedback to yourself in order to work on your weaknesses. What type of
indirect Learning Strategies are you putting into practice?

2.- Do you think affective strategies influence the way we learn? How?

3.- Do you consider that Social strategies can also contribute to broaden our
cultural horizons? Why?
 Conclusion
As we could appreciate throughout the presentation, definitions of LLS were expressed by different
authors and their respective characteristics. In addition, all scholars agreed that Language Learning
Strategies had to do with techniques, approaches or steps that learners use to enhance and facilitate their
learning acquisition.

It is also worth mentioning that in Oxford’s Taxonomy, she represents it in a Diamond draft as a
representation in which learners cannot only have one technique to study a new language but distinct ones
in order for them to increasingly acquire more knowledge and be able to have better and significative
learning outcomes.

In the same way, in this work we could visualize Oxford’s classification of LLS, which has given us a deep
and clear understanding of the different strategies that learners can use when learning either a foreign or a
second language. Now, we are more aware of the multiple learning techniques that we can implement at
the time of storing new concepts or information.
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