3.2.

1 Functions of Electrode Coatings - The ingredients that are commonly used in

coatings can be classified physically in a broad manner as liquids and solids.  The liquids
are generally sodium silicate or potassium silicate.  The solids are powdered or
granulated materials that may be found free in nature, and need only concentration and
grinding to the proper particle size.  Other solid materials used are produced as a result of
chemical reactions, such as alloys or other complex synthetic compounds. 3.2.1.1 the
particle size of the solid material is an important factor.  Particle size may be as coarse as
fine sand, or as minute as sub-sieve size. 3.2.1.2 The physical structure of the coating
ingredients may be classified as crystalline, fibrous or amorphous (non-crystalline).
Crystalline materials such as rutile, quartz and mica are commonly used.   Rutile is the
naturally occurring form of the mineral titanium dioxide and is widely used in electrode
coatings.  Fibrous materials such as wood fibers, and non-crystal- line materials such as
glasses and other organic compounds are also common coating ingredients. 3.2.1.3 the
functions of the coating on covered electrodes are as follows:
a) Shielding of the Weld Metal - The most important function of a coating is to shield
the weld metal from the oxygen and nitrogen of the air as it is being transferred across the
arc, and while it is in the molten state.  This shielding is necessary to ensure the weld
metal will be sound, free of gas pockets, and have the right strength and ductility.  At the
high temperatures of the arc, nitrogen and oxygen combine readily with iron to form iron
nitrides and iron oxides that, if present in the weld metal above certain minimum
amounts, will cause brittle- ness and porosity.  Nitrogen is the primary concern since it is
difficult to control its effect once it has entered the deposit.  Oxygen can be counteracted
by the use of suitable deoxidisers.  In order to avoid contamination from the air, the
stream of molten metal must be protected or shielded by gases that exclude the
surrounding atmosphere from the arc and the molten weld metal.  This is accomplished
by using gas-forming materials in the coating that break down during the welding
operation and produce the gaseous shield.
b) Stabilization of the Arc - A stabilized arc is one that starts easily, burns smoothly
even at low amperages, and can be maintained using either a long or a short arc
length.
c) Alloying Additions to Weld Metal - A variety of elements such as chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, vanadium and copper can be added to the weld metal by including them in
the coating composition.  It is often necessary to add alloys to the coating to balance the
expected loss of alloys of the core wire during the welding operation, due to volatization
and chemical reaction.  Mild steel electrodes require small amounts of carbon,
manganese and silicon in the deposit to give sound welds of the desired strength level.  A
portion of the carbon and manganese is derived from the core wire, but it is necessary to
supplement it with ferromanganese and in some cases ferrosilicon additions in the
coating.
d) Concentration of the Arc Stream - Concentration or direction of the arc stream
attained by having a coating crater form at the tip of the electrodes.  Use of the proper
binders assures a good hard coating that will maintain a crater and give added penetration
and better direction to the arc stream.
e) Furnish Slag for Fluxing - The function of the slag is (1) to provide additional
protection against atmospheric contamination, (2) to act as a cleaner and absorb
impurities that are floated off and trapped by the slag, (3) to slow the cooling rate of the
molten metal to allow the escape of gases.  The slag also controls the contour, uniformity
and general appear- ance of the weld.  This is particularly true in fillet welds.
f) Characteristics for Welding Position - It is the addition of certain ingredients,
primarily titanium compounds, in the coating that makes it possible to weld out-of-
position, vertically, and overhead.  Slag characteristics, primarily surface tension and
freezing point, determine to a large degree the ability of an electrode to be used for out-
of-position work.
g) Control of Weld Metal Soundness - Porosity or gas pockets in weld metal can be
controlled to a large extent by the coating composition.  It is the balance of certain
ingredients in the coating that have a marked effect on the presence of gas pockets in
the weld metal.  The proper balance of these is critical to the soundness that can be
produced. Ferromanganese is probably the most common ingredient used to attain
the correctly balanced formula.
h) Specific Mechanical Properties to the Weld Metal - Specific mechanical
properties can be incorporated into the weld metal by means of the coating.  High
 impact values at low temperature, high ductility, and increases in yield and tensile
properties can be attained by alloy additions to the coating.
i) Insulation of the Core Wire - The coating acts as an insulator so that the core wire
will not short-circuit when welding in deep grooves or narrow openings; coatings also
serve as a protection to the operator when changing electrodes.

3.2.2 Classification of Coating Ingredients - Coating materials can be classified into

the following 6 major groups:
a) Alloying Elements - Alloying elements such as molybdenum, chromium, nickel,
manganese and others impart specific mechanical properties to the weld metal.
b) Binders - Soluble silicates such as sodium and potassium silicates, are used in the
electrode coating as binders.  Functions of binders are to form a plastic mass of
coating material capable of being extruded and baked.  The final baked coating
should be hard so that it will maintain a crater and have sufficient strength so that it
will not spall, crack or chip.  Bind- ers are also used to make coating non-flammable
and avoid premature decomposition.
c) Gas Formers - Common gas forming materials used are the carbohydrates,
hydrates, and carbonates.  Examples would be cellulose (such as wood flock), the
carbonates of calcium and magnesium, and chemically combined water as is found in
clay and mica. These materials evolve carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO),
and water vapor (H2O) at the high temperature of the welding arc.  Free moisture is
another gas-forming ingredient that is found particularly in cellulose type electrodes
and is a part of the formulation in amounts of 2%-3%.  It has a marked influence on
the arc and is a necessary ingredient in the E6010 type electrode.
b) Arc Stabilizers - Air is not sufficiently conductive to maintain a stable arc, so it
becomes necessary to add coating ingredients that will provide a conductive path
for the flow of current.  This is particularly true when welding with alternating
current.  Stabilizing materials are titanium compounds, potassium compounds,
and calcium compounds.
 e)Fluxes and Slag Formers - These ingredients are used primarily to give body to
the slag and impart such properties as slag viscosity, surface tension, and melting
point. Silica and magnetite are materials of this type.
f) Plasticizers - Coatings are often very granular or sandy, and in order to
successfully extrude these coatings, it is necessary to add lubricating materials,
plasticizers, to make the coating flow smoothly under pressure.  Sodium and
potassium carbonates are often used. Note that the moisture content in the cellulosic
E6010 is much higher than in the low hydrogen E7018 type.  The moisture in the
E6010 coating is necessary to produce the driving arc characteristic and is not
harmful when welding the lower strength steels.  

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Beside national organizations, the International Standards Organization (ISO) also issues
filler metal specifications. Many of the less industrialized nations utilize specifications of
the industrialized countries or ISO standards. The ISO standards are available from the
welding or standardization association of each country.

Filler metals can be classified into four basic categories. These are:

1. Covered electrodes
2. Solid (bare) electrode wire or rod
3. Fabricated (tubular or cored) electrode wire
4. A category of miscellaneous or others.

Covered electrodes

The covered electrodes are the most popular type of filler metal used in arc welding. The
composition of the covering on the electrode determines the usability of the electrode, the
composition of the deposited weld metal, and the specification of the electrode. The
composition of coatings on covered arc welding electrodes has been surrounded in
mystery and little information has been published. The formulation of electrode coatings
is very complex and while it is not an exact science it is based on well-established
principles of metallurgy, chemistry, and physics, tempered with experience.
The original purpose of the coating was to shield the arc from the oxygen and nitrogen in
the atmosphere. It was subsequently found that ionizing agents could be added to the
coating, which helped to stabilize the arc, and made electrodes suitable for alternating
current welding.

It was found that silicates and metal oxides helped to form slag, which would improve the
weld bead shape because of the reaction at the surface of the weld metal. The deposited
weld metal was further refined and its quality improved by the addition of deoxidizers in
the coating. In addition, alloying elements were added to improve the strength and
provide specific weld metal deposit composition. Finally, iron powder has been added to
the coating to improve the deposition rate.

An electrode coating is designed to provide as many as possible of the following

desirable characteristics:

1. Specific composition of the deposited weld metal

2. Specific mechanical properties of the deposited weld metal
3. Elimination of weld metal porosity
4. Elimination of weld metal cracking
5. Desirable weld deposit contour
6. Desirable weld metal surface finish, i.e., smooth, with even edges
7. Elimination of undercut adjacent to the weld
8. Minimum spatter adjacent to the weld
9. Ease of manipulation to control slag in all positions
10. Providing a stable welding arc
11. Providing penetration control, i.e. deep or shallow
12. Providing for initial immediate arc striking and re-striking capabilities
13. Providing a high rate of metal deposition
14. Eliminate noxious odors and fumes
15. Reducing the tendency of the coating to pick up moisture when in storage
16. Reducing electrode overheating during use
17. Providing a strong tough durable coating
 18. Providing easy slag removal
19. Providing a coating that will ship well and store indefinitely

Some of these characteristics may be incompatible and therefore compromises and

balances must be provided and designed into the coating. Of course, the requirements
must be achieved at the minimum possible cost.

In addition, the formulation must be manufacturable with conventional extrusion

equipment at high production rates. No single electrode type will meet all of the
foregoing requirements, and there is no one single "universal electrode". Instead there is a
variety of electrode types each having certain desirable characteristics.

The coatings of electrodes for welding mild and low alloy steels may have from 6 to 12
ingredients such as:

 Cellulose, to provide a gaseous shield with a reducing agent. The gas shield
surrounding the arc is produced by the disintegration of cellulose
 Metal carbonates, to adjust the pH of the slag and to provide a reducing
atmosphere
 Titanium dioxide, to help form a highly fluid but quick-freezing slag. It will also
provide ionization for the arc
 Ferromanganese and ferrosilicon, to help deoxidize the molten weld metal and to
supplement the manganese content and silicon content of the deposited weld
metal
 Clays and gums, to provide elasticity for extruding the plastic coating material
and to help provide strength to the coating
 Calcium fluoride, to provide shielding gas to protect the arc, adjust the pH of the
slag, and provide fluidity and solubility of the metal oxides
 Mineral silicates, to provide slag and give strength to the electrode covering
 Alloying metals, including nickel, molybdenum, chromium, etc., to provide alloy
content to the deposited weld metal
  Iron or manganese oxide, to adjust the fluidity and properties of the slag. In small
amounts iron oxide helps stabilize the arc
 Iron powder, to increase the productivity by providing additional metal to be
deposited in the weld

By using combinations and different amounts of these constituents it is possible to

provide an infinite variety of electrode coatings. The binder used for most electrode
coatings is sodium silicate, which is chemically combined and harden to provide a tough,
strong coating.

The design of the coating provides the proper balance to give the electrode specific
usability characteristics and to provide specific weld deposit chemistry and properties. In
general, the different electrodes that meet a particular classification have somewhat
similar compositions.

Solid electrode wires

Solid metal wires were first used for oxy fuel gas welding to add filler metal to the joint.
These wires or rods were provided in straightened lengths approximately 1 m long. The
earliest electrodes for arc welding were also solid and bare, usually in the length of 12 to
14 in. long (300-350 mm). Later on, solid wire was provided in coils for "bare wire"
automatic arc welding and later for submerged arc and electro-slag welding. The latest
process to use solid bare wire is gas metal arc welding, which uses relatively small-
diameter electrode wires.

The manufacture of wire or rod for welding electrodes is essentially the same except that
straightening and cut operation is added for a welding rod. The drawing of steel wires and
nonferrous wires is essentially the same; however, different amounts of reduction per
drawing die, different drawing lubricants, different heat treatments, etc., are involved.

The solid steel electrode wires may not be "bare". Many suppliers provide a very thin
copper coating on the wire. The copper coating is for several purposes. It improves the
current pickup between contact tip and the electrode. It aids drawing and helps prevent
rusting of the wire when it is exposed to the atmosphere.

Solid electrode wires are also made of various stainless steel analyses, aluminum alloys,
nickel alloys, magnesium alloys, titanium alloys, copper alloys, and other metals.

When the wire is cut and straightened it is called a welding rod, which is a form of filler
metal used for welding or brazing which does not conduct the electrical current. If the
wire is used in the electrical circuit it is called a welding electrode and is defined as a
component of the welding circuit through which current is conducted. A bare electrode is
normally thought of as being a wire; however, it can take other forms.

Several different systems are used to identify the classification of a particular electrode or
welding rod. In all cases a prefix letter is used:

 Prefix R: Indicates a welding rod

 Prefix E: Indicates a welding electrode
 Prefix RB: Indicates use as either a welding rod or for brazing filler metal
 Prefix ER: Indicates either an electrode or welding rod

The system for identifying bare carbon steel electrodes and rods for gas shielded arc
welding is as follows:
 ER: Prefix indicates an electrode or welding rod
 70: Indicates the required minimum as-welded tensile strength in thousands of
pounds per square inch (psi)
 S: Indicates solid electrode or rod
 C: Indicates composite metal cored or stranded electrode or rod
 1: Suffix number indicates a particular analysis and usability factor

The system for identifying solid bare carbon steel for submerged arc is as follows:
 The prefix letter E is used to indicate an electrode
 This is followed by a letter, which indicates the level of manganese, i.e., L for
low, M for medium, and H for high manganese.
  A number follows this, which is the average amount of carbon in points or
hundredths of a percent.

The composition of some of these wires is almost identical with some of the wires in the
gas metal arc welding specification.

Flux-cored or tubular electrodes

The outstanding performance of the flux-cored arc welding process is made possible by
the design of the cored electrode. This inside-outside electrode consists of a metal sheath
surrounding a core of fluxing and alloying compounds. The compounds contained in the
electrode perform essentially the same functions as the coating on a covered electrode,
i.e., deoxidizers, slag formers, arc stabilizers, alloying elements, and may provide
shielding gas.

There are three reasons why cored wires are developed to supplement solid electrode
wires of the same or similar analysis.

1. There is an economic advantage. Solid wires are drawn from steel billets of the
specified analyses. These billets are not readily available and are expensive. Also,
a single billet might provide more solid electrode wire than needed.
2. Tubular wire production method provides versatility of composition and is not
limited to the analysis of available steel billets.
3. Tubular electrode wires are easier for the welder to use than solid wires of the
same deposit analysis, especially for welding pipe in the fixed position.

Mild Steel electrodes

Carbon steel electrodes are classified by the American Welding Society specification,
"Carbon steel electrodes for flux-cored-arc welding". This specification includes
electrodes having no appreciable alloy content for welding mild and low alloy steels.
The system for identifying flux-cored electrodes follows the same pattern as electrodes
for gas metal arc welding, but is specific for tubular electrodes. As an example, for E70T-
1:

 E: Prefix indicates an electrode.

 70: Indicates the required minimum as-welded tensile strength in thousands of
pounds per square inch (psi).
 T: Indicates tubular, fabricated, or flux-cored electrode.
 1: Suffix number indicates the chemistry of the deposited weld metal, gas type,
and usability factor.