CELL: THE UNIT OF LIFE

→ basic unit of life

Cell
→ differentiate living from nonliving
Organisms→ multicellular → unicellular

What is a cell?
→ structural and functional unit
Unicellular organism capable of→ independent existence
→ performing essential functions of life

# anything less than cell→ no independent living

 →
# Anton van leeuwenhoek First living cell
→
# Robert Brown nucleus
→ →
all structural details by electron microscope

CELL THEORY:
1838, Schleiden (German botanist) and Schwann ( British zoologist)

→
Schleiden all plants made up of cells and tissues
→ → →
Schwann animal cells thin outer layer plasma membrane
→ →
presence of cell wall only in plants
→ →
cell theory did not explain how a new cells were formed →
→
modified by Rudolf Virchow in 1885
→ explain cell division and how new cells are formed from
preexisting cells
→ given final shape to cell theory
# all living organisms→ made of cells and their products
[ omnis cellula e cellulae ]
# all cells arise from preexisting cells
An overview of cell:
→
onion cell cell wall + plasma membrane
→
human cheek cell only plasma membrane [Dense bound structures]
→ has chromosomes---->Nucleus & genetic material

→
NUCLEUS: membrane → eukaryotic cells (Has membrane bound
→
organelles endoplasmic reticulum, , Golgi complex lysosome,
mitochondria microbodies, vacuole)

→Non membrane → prokaryotic cells → also lack membrane

organelles
BOTH PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC HAVE CYTOPLASM:
→ semi fluid matrix
→ occupies volume of cell
→ Main area of cellular activity
→ various chemical reactions occur here to keep silent the living state
RIBOSOMES:
→ Non membrane bound
→ both in Eukaryotic and prokaryotic
→ not only in cytoplasm but also in chloroplast and mitochondria + on
rough endoplasmic reticulum

CENTROSOMES
→ only in animal cell
→ nonmembranous
→ help in cell division

→
cell different size shape and activities→ varies according to
function
Size: Shape
→ mycoplasma: smallest [0.3 μ] → disc like
→ Bacteria: [3-5μm] → cuboidal
→ largest: egg of ostrich →Polygonal
→ RBC [7μm in diameter] →columnar
→ longest: nerve cells →
thread like
→Irregular
Prokaryotic cells
→ represented by: bacteria, blue green algae, mycoplasma, pplo
→ generally smallest
→ vary greatly in shape and size

4 basic shapes:
→ Bacillus: rod-like
→ Coccus:Spherical
→ Vibrio: Comma Shaped
→ spirillum: Spiral
→ organization of prokaryotic cell sos fundamentally similar even
through prokaryotes exhibit a wide variety of shapes and functions
→ Have cell wall [except mycoplasma]
→ no well defined nucleus ie. no membrane
→ Genetic material → Naked → in the form of nucleoid
(single cell circular DNA)

→ Many bacteria , have small circular DNA outside genomic DNA →

Plasmid DNA → Certain unique phenotype characters → Resistance
to antibodies → Used to monitor bacterial transformation with foreign
DNA
RIBOSOMES (present)
→
Has inclusion bodies unique feature
→ infoldings of cell membrane performs function of chlorophyll

CELL ENVELOPE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS:

→ →
Prokaryotic cells [especially bacterial] Cell Envelope (-tightly
bound, -cell membrane, -cell wall, -glycocalyx
→ Each layer performs different functions
 →
Classification of bacteria on the basis of staining procedure
1. gram positive ( response to staining)
2. Gram Negative

a. Glycocalyx
→ difference in composition and thickness
→ →
maybe loose sheath Slime layer
→ →
maybe thick and tough capsule

B. cell wall
→ determine the shape of a cell
→ provides strong structural support
→ prevents bursting or collapsing
C. plasma membrane
→ selectively permeable
→ interact with the outside world
→ structure similar to that of eukaryotes

→ the extensions→ Mesosomes → in the form of vesicles tubules lamellae

→Helps in cell wall formation DNA replication distribution to daughter cells
→ helps in respiration→ increase in surface area
in cyanobacteria→ extensions→ chromatophore→ contain pigment
Bacterial cell
→ → →
motile have thin filament from cell wall → flagella→ three
→
parts filament hook, basal body
→ non motile

Thin filamentous
1. Pilli : Elongated tubular structures made of special proteins
2. Fimbriae : Small bristle like fibers sprouting out of cell, helps to attack
bacteria instead and to host tissues.
→ Pili and Fimbriae do not help in motility
Mesosomes and Inclusion bodies:
→ →
Prokaryotes associated with PM
– Subunits 50 s 30 s } together 70 s →
– Site of protein synthesis
→ →
– Several ribosomes + mRNA Polyribosomes / polysomes
mRNA Proteins
→ Translates
→→
INCLUSION BODIES:
Reserve material
Non-membranous (ie. lies freely)
Eg: Phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules, glycogen granules

→→
GAS VACUOLES:
Found in Blue green + Purple + green synthetic bacteria
Helps maintaining buoyancy
→→
PROKARYOTIC CELLS:
→
includes protists, plants, animals and fungi
Extensive compartmentalization of cytoplasm Membrane bound

→→
organelles
→
Well organized nucleus nuclear envelope

→ →
has complex locomotory & cytoskeletal structures
Genetic material Chromosomes

→→ CellPlastids
PLANT CELL:
wall

→→ Large central vacuole

Centrioles absent
→→
CELL MEMBRANE:
After the discovery of the electron microscope in 1950s
chemical studies:
1. On human RBCs
→ → →
2. Cell Membrane composition Lipids + Proteins
LIPIDS Phosphoglycerates, Phospholipids, Cholesterol too

→→
Phospholipids arranged in a bilayer.
Polar head outward
Hydrophobic tail Inner side
 → → → →
Later plasma membrane Lipids +protein + carbohydrate. } Classification
Ratio varies In human Rbcs 40% + 52% protein. On the basis

→→
Integral. Actually / totally buried.
Peripheral Lie on the surface of the membrane.
of-

Fluid mosaic model → By Singer and Nicholson.

→Quasi Fluid nature of lipid→ Enables lateral movement of proteins.
Fluidity→ Formation of intercellular.
→→Endocytosis.
→→CellCellgrowth
Phagocytosis.
division.
→ Plasma membrane → Transport of molecules →
Active Passive
ATP Diffusion / Osmosis.
Example: Examples : Neutral solutes
Na+ / K +
Pump
→ Cell wall
Non living rigid.
Outer covering of plasma membrane: of fungi & plants.
Gives shape to cell + protection from mechanical damages and
infections.
Helps in cell to cell interaction.
Barrier to undesirable macromolecules.
→
Algae Cellulose galactans, mannans and minerals.
→
Plants Cellulose + Hemicellulose + Pectins + Proteins
→ Plant cell wall:
Primary: In young cell, capable of growth, diminishes as cell matures
Secondary: Formed on inner side of cell
 → → → →
Middle lamella Calcium pectate Hold /glues Different neighboring cells.
Cell wall Transverse by plasmodesmata Connects neighboring cells

→→
Endomembrane system:
Endoplasmic reticulum.

→→ Golgi complex.
Lysosomes.
Vacuoles.

→→Network
Endoplasmic reticulum

Divides intercellular space. (Luminal→ Inside ER) (Extra luminal →

of tiny tubular structures scattered in cytoplasm

→ Ribosome attached to the outer surface.

Outside ER)
Types: On the basis of presence or absence of ribosomes.

Positive:
Rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Actively involved in protein synthesis and secretion
Extensive and continuous outer membrane of nucleus.

Negative:
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Major site for the synthesis of lipids and steroid hormones.
GOLGI APPARATUS

→→ ByDensely
camilio golgi in 1989
→→Consists stained reticular structure near the nucleus.
of flat, disc shaped sacs or cisternae [0.5 μ - 1]

→ Has a distinct convex cis / Forming face + Concave./ Trans / Maturing

Stacked parallel to each other.
face } Entirely different, plus interconnected.

→
FUNCTIONS :
→ →
Packing of materials in vesicles delivered Intracellular targets. +
→→
Secretes Outside the cell.
Important site for the formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.

→ → → →
Remains in close association with the ER.
→
Ribosomes Protein Cis face Modified Released in trans
face.
Lysosomes:
Membrane bound.
→
Vesicular structures Formed by The process of packaging in Golgi
apparatus.
Rich in all types of hydrolytic enzymes [Hydrolases - Lipids, proteases,
carbohydrates.
Optimally active at acidic pH.
Capable of digesting carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and acids
VACUOLES:
Membrane bound space in cytoplasm.
Has water, SAP, excretory products and other materials (useless)
→
Single membrane Tonoplast
→
Plant cell occupies 90% of volume of cell
→
Tonoplast facilitates transport and number of ions and other
→
materials against gradient into vacuole Hence, concentration is
higher in vacuole than cytoplasm.

1. Amoeba → Contractile vacuole → For excretion

→ Food vacuoles → Engulfing food particles.
2. Protists
→→
Mitochondria:
Visible only after staining.
→→ Number depends upon the physiological activities of cell
Variability in shape and size.

→ Sausage shaped cylindrical.

Double membraned:
1. Outer membrane.
2. Inner membrane.

→1. OuterLumencompartment
divided into 2 compartments:
(Forms limiting boundary of cell.)
2. Inter compartment (Dense homogeneous substance)
 →
→ → →→
Membrane no. infoldings Cristae Increase Surface Area
Membrane Own specific enzymes associated with
mitochondrial functions
→
Sites of aerobic respiration
Introduces cellular energy In the form of an ATP
Called the ‘powerhouse’ of the cell
→
MATRIX ssDNA + Few RNA, Ribosomes [70s]
Divides by fission
→→
PLASTIDS

→
Found in all plants + Euglenoids
Easily observable Due to large size
Specific Pigments → Imparts specific Color

1. Chloroplasts → Chlorophyll + carotenoid → Traps light energy.

2. Chromoplast → Fat soluble carotenoids → Like xanthophyll, carotene
3. Leucoplasts → Colorless Plastids → store nutrients
(gives yellow, orange & red color)
 →
Amyloplasts store carbohydrates
→
-Elioplasts Oil & fats
→
-Aleuroplasts Proteins

→ Majority of chloroplasts → Found in mesophyll cells.

Lens shaped, Oval, spherical discoid ribbon like.

→ No: 1 - Chlamydomonas (Green algae)

2 - 20-4 → Mesophyll
Double Membranous
→ Outer
→ Inner, relatively less permeable

→
STROMA Has thylakoids (flattened sacs, stacks arranged → Grana)
→ ssDNA, circular
→ Enzymes required for carbohydrates, proteins synthesis
→ 70s Ribosomes
→ Encloses space - lumen
RIBOSOMES:

→→ Granular structures, visible by electron microscope

→→ Composed
by george Palade [1953]
of Ribonucleic acid + Proteins.
→→Eukaryotes
Not surrounded by membrane
Svedberg Unit → Sediment coefficient
60s & 40s } 80s

→Indirect measure of size

→→
CYTOSKELETON:
Network of filamentous proteinaceous structure
Involved in: Mechanical Support, Motility, Maintenance of cell shape
→→ →
CILIA & FLAGELLA:
Hairlike outgrowths of cell membrane

→→ Cilia small structures + covered by PM

Works like oars
Causes movement of either the cell or surrounding fluid

Flagella → comparatively longer

→→ Responsible for the cell movement
→ Covered with PM.
Prokaryotic flagella differs from eukaryotic flagella

→→ hasPoses9 pairs
AXONEME:
of doublets → 9 + 2 arrangement

→Emerges
Cilia + Flagella → Core
microtubules running parallel to long cell

from centriole like str. → Basal bodies

→→ Central tubules → Connected by bridges

→Interconnected
connected to peripheral doublets → radial spoke
Enclosed by central sheath

by linkers & 9 radial spokes

CENTROSOMES & CENTRIOLES:

→materials
Lamellae : having two cylindrical str. → surrounded by pericentriolar
→ ⊥ to each other → cartwheel

→mademadeof proteins
of 9 evenly spaced peripheral fibrils → by radial spokes →
like arrangements

→→ forms
Forms spindle fibers → spindle apparatus → During cell division →
basal bodies of cilia / flagella/

Animal cells
 → →
NUCLEUS: Material of Nucleus Chromatin [Fleming]
→
→
Nucleus Highly extended and elaborate nucleoprotein fibers
chromatin, nuclear matrix & more spherical bodies Nucleoli

→ →
Nuclear Envelope Two parallel membranes + Perinuclear Membrane
forms barrier b/w materials present inside nucleus and cytoplasm

→ Continuous with ER + has ribosome

OUTER MEMBRANE:

→ Have nuclear envelope is interrupted → Due to fusion of two

NUCLEAR PORE:

→
membranes
Passage through which movement of RNa and protein molecules takes
place in both direction
→ NUCLEUS → absent on some living and mature cells. Eg: Erythrocytes
of Mammals + sieve tube cells of Vascular Plants.
NUCLEOPLASM / NUCLEAR MATRIX → Nucleolus + Chromatin
→→SPHERICAL STRUCTURES
Non-Membranous →
DNA
→
BASIC PROTEINS
Histones + some non-histone +
RNA 1 cell 23 pair of
Content continuous with
chromosomes
→
nucleoplasm
Site for active Ribosomal RNA
→
Synthesis
Larger & More in number of
→
nucleoli
present in cells actively varying
out protein synthesis
→ →
Interphase nucleus Chromatin.
→
During different stages of cell divisions Cells show structural
chromosomes.
→ → →
Every chromosome Has Primary constriction Sides disc like
structures (KINETOCHORES)

→small2fragments
constrictions: satellites 1. At constant location 2. Appearance of
 Classification of chromosomes :- On the basis of position of centromere

CHROMOSOME
Metacentric
POSITION OF CENTROMERE
→
Has middle centromere Equal arms of chromosomes
Slightly away from the middle → One shorter and longer arm
Close to its end → Extremely short and long arm
Sub-Metacentric
Acrocentric
Telocentric Terminal centromere

→→
MICROBODIES :-
Membrane bound small vesicles
→ Has various enzymes
Present in Plant Cells