CHAPTER 3 3.1 INTRODUCTION S— BLOCK ELEMENTS , The elements of [A and IIA groups of the periodic table are referred to as "s-Block Elements" because they are associated with ns* and ns? valence shell electronic configuration respectively as shown in table 3.1 Lithium Sodium Caesium Group IIA Beryllium Elements of Group IA Potassium Rubidium Elements of Table 3.1 Electronic Configuration of s—block elements ‘Symbol Atomic Number 37 Atomic Number. MN {Ne]3s' 19 [Ar}4s? Electronic Configuration (He]2s' Principal Oxidation State 1 | _ tKnsst ipal Oxidation State Magnesium Calcium Strontium Barium — — 21The elements Francium—87 and Radium—88 are radioactive and have been omitted from respective groups. The IA group elements are called alkali metals because they form soluble hydroxides which are alkaline, While ITA gr- oup elements are known as alkaline earth metals. Their hydroxides are also alkaline but they are sparingly soluble in water and these metals exists as their oxides in the earth, ‘The elements of both these groups with the exception of Bewhichgives many distinctly covalent compounds, form colourless ionic compounds, KMaQ, is pink colour due to the colour of MnO, ions. In these compounds, they exhibit fixed oxidation state.of 1* and 2* respectively. The compounds of [A group and ITA group elements differ markedly in their solubility and thermal stability, These differences in properties arise mainly from differences in ionic size and charge densities. The lightest elements (Li and Be) of these groups are unique in many ways, because their small sizes result in a high charge densities on the ions which produce strong polarizing effects and high heats of hydration. Lithium and beryllium differ markedly from their heavier congeners. Lithium has many similarities to its diagonal neighbour magnesium in Be group, Be shows resemblance to aluminium which is its diagonal neighbour in boron group, 3.2 GROUP TRENDS IN ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS In this section, the group trends in properties such as electronegativity, ionization potential, heat of hydration. sizes of atoms and ions and other physical properties are discussed (i) Electronegativity= The elements have very small electronegativity values and are generally called electropositive elements. Electronegativity decreases from Li through Cs as one moves down the group. Pauling’s electronegativity values for JA and IA groupelements aresummarizedin table 3.2 Table 3.2 The electronegativity values of s—block elements Elements of Group 1A Electronegativity 07 Elements of Bi Group IlA ° Electronegativity 09 —— 22(ii) Tonization Potential:~ —s-Block elements in general have low first ionization enthalpies because the outer’s — electron is shielded very effectively from the nucleus by the inner electrons, The first ionization enthalpy of each of the alkali metal is lower than corresponding alkaline earth element in the same period, because the latter has an extra nuclear proton which causes an increase in the electrostatic attractive force between the nucleus and the outermost electrons, Secondly there is a progressive decrease in ionization enthalpies in each series as the outer most electron is less firmly held as the group is descended. These generalizations can be seen by comparing the ionization enthalpy values of s—block elements given in table 3.3 Table 3.3 First and second Ionization enthalpies of s — block elements First lonization Second Ionization EI : ements of GroupIA | aipy AH-KI mol~! | enthalpy AH-KJ mol +525 + 7304 +500 + 4563 +424 + 3068 + 408 + 2644 +308 + 2257 Second Ionization First Ionization Elements of Group WA | 5. apy aH-KJ mol”? | Enthalpy AH-KJ mol” +1760 +906 +742 +1450 Mg +596 +1150 Ca +554 +1060 +508 +1000 Be feart i Jements that is the firmness with which outer jonization enthalpies ofe a re are held, is also related to the sizes of the atoms (See table 3.4). The ionization enthalpies decrease with increasing size of the atom down the group. 23(iii) Radii Sizes of Atoms and Cations of s — Block Elements:— The alkali metals have the largest covalent radii of all the elements in their respective periods because they possess the smallest nuclear charge which exerts the weakest electrostatic attractive force on the outer most electrons. The elements of Be family have the next largest atoms because of the same reasons. The covalent radii of these elements are listed in table 3.4. Table 3.4 Covalent radii of s-block elements 1A Group Cs elements al Covalent 0.123 0.157 0.203 0.216 0.236 radius (nm) r IIA Group Be Mg Ca Sr Ba elements | Covalent 0.089 0.089 0.174 0.191 0.198 radius (nm) . ai (iv) Radii_(Sizes) of Cations:— Since the elements of IA and IIA groups have large sizes. Low ionization enthalpy, elements readily lose their valence electro! charge of 1° and 2" respectively. Inthe alkaliand alkaline earth metals ac gases in the previous period. e.g. low electron affinity values, these ns to form cations with a positive Process of forming M** and M?° ions. quire the configurations of the Tespective inert Na = ————> na" +3 [Na] 3s! [Na] and Mg ————> Mg?* + 2e7 [Ne] 3s? [Ne] In Na* ions the outer electronic level now bein Protons in the cation exceeds the number of electrons, The size of the cation is relatively much smaller than the parent atom, The alkaline earth metal cations are even smaller than corresponding alkali metal counterpart in the same period. The sizes of cations are summarized in table 3.5, 24 '@ €mpty, the number ofTable 3.5 Ionic sizes of s ~block elements. IA Group ions Cation radius (nm) IA Group Be?* ions Cation radius 0.031 (nm) (v) Hydration Energy of lons:— The alkali and alkaline earth metals require considerable amount ofenergytoform M},, and M,,, ions respec- tively (See table 3.3). But when these ions are formed in solution, My, and M2, , the energy required in the formation of gaseous ions is off set by the high negative values for the enthalpies of hydration of the ions listed inthe table 3.6. Table 3.6 Enthalpies of Hydration for s—block elements inKJ mol7*. [Bipg Na~ Key | Rb* Cs” 499 -390 -306 -281 +248 Be* iS Mg? Cae s?* Ba?” 1891 1562 | The alkaline earth metal ions ( M> metal ions (M‘*) because mM’?* enthalpy increases wi d M?* ions. Thus Li'* isthe most readily hydrated of the alkali ive value and small ionic size for the y of hydration. The same is true for the Be** ions in the IIA group ions. Jown the group with increasing size of the ion. ions. Hydration both for M’* an metal ions as shown by its high negat enthalp: The ease of hydration falls d jons have a stronger *) are more strongly hydrated than alkali lectric field than M‘* th decreasing size of the ion and it is true 25r ctrode Potentials:—. The s—block elements are powerful Feducin, agen ths earn from their high negative ate eccods Potentials (reduction)e.g, Lijz,, /Li,,, couple has exceptionally ie ees Clectrode potential because of its large value for the hydration enthalpy inet Promotes oxidation of Li, toform Lift, ion. The electra le potential va UES are useg to predict the ease of the formation of M @y ions from the respective meta] atoms, Table 3.7 shows the electrode potential values of s— block elements, Table 3.7 Electrode potentials ( Reduction)of s—block elements TA Group elements EV) IIA Group elements Lit ni [ Na*/Na KtK 1.85 ediately These values i i cannot be used in vole cells bax es that the alkali and alkaline earth metals tapid oxidation by that solvent, econ water as the solvent because of the i of s—block elements ate listed in tahieoe than s—block elements. Den! | 26 | ITable 3.8 Densities of s—block elements esta: a Na « eon, 0.53 0.67 0.86 cee | _ “ oa 1.85 1.74 2.54 a The densities of elements increase as the groups are descended. Alkaline Se are, however, denser than corresponding alkali metals in the given period. The IA group metals have very low melting and boiling points. The general decrease in melting and boiling points is seen as the group is descended. The IITA group metals are appreciably harder than alkali metals because the presence of divalent cations in their metallic structure produce greater binding forces. Thus they also have larger values for their melting and boiling points as shown in table 3.9 Table 3.9 Melting and boiling points of s—block elements 1A Group elements Melting point @C) Boiling point (°C) ILA group elements Melting point (°C) Boiling point (°C)3.3 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ;—BLOCK ELEMENTS All the s—block elements of the periodic table except Be ard donee reactive elements. The reactivity increases down gach eeembers at berylifum lithium group are more reactive than correspon’ eenive of all the §-block family. Thus metallic caesium (Cs )is the most reacti clements. . The chemistry of s-block elements is dominated by nation. s-valence electrons and to attain the stable inert ges contiguration potential cy is supported by low ionization enthalpy and high negativ ful reducing agents values for these elements. They are among the most powertul tig eal and combine directly with most non — metals yielding binary io: hi Reactions with Halogens: 2M +X, 2MX (M = Li, Na, etc) M+X, ———~MKX, (M= Be, Mg, etc) Reactions with Hydrogen: — 2M +H, 2MH (All alkali metals) M+H, MH, (M = Ca, Sr, Ba). Reactions with Nitrogen: — 6M +N, 3M +N, —+ 2M,N (All alkali metal nitrides) MN, (All alkaline earth metal nitrides except Be). Reactions with Oxygen: The alkali and alkaline earth metals directly combine with oxygen producing Variety of compounds, ¢.g, normal oxides : _ “1 (O¥), peroxides (0!) and super oxides (O;). The type of the product de- pends upon the metal and conditions, 4Li+ 0, ———+ 2L4,0 (Lithium oxide) 2Na + O, —__~ M+0, 2M +0, Na,O, (Sodium Peroxide) MO, (Super oxide M=K,Rb, Cs) ———~ 2M0 (M= Be, Mg, cay M+HO, ae MO, (Peroxides M=sSr, Ba) 28with water: — Most of the alkali i 5 = 4 alkali and alkaline earth metals react eee explosively, Be and Mg form a protective coating of n their surface by the action of water and are protected from extensive corrosion by w with 8 y water, i i i i sn Magnesium reacts more extensively 2M +2H,0 eae (Alkali metals) 2M" OH + Haw Waite M™ (OR) auy + Hao (Alkaline metals) rai Mg + 2H,0 Bll 40 (oH), + Hayy 3.4 OCCURRENCE AND EXTRACTION OF METALS (a) The Alkali Metals: The 1A group metals are very reactive and do not occur free in nature but are found in variety of compounds which are very stable. The alkali metals sodium and potassium are most abundant. Caesium is rather rare and Francium exists only in trace quantities as the product of radioactive decay. Fr is itself radioactive. The metals can be obtained in the free state by electrolysis of fused salts such as chlorides. The following discussion gives the extraction of sodium as an example. ufacture of Sodium by Down's Process: The electrolysis of molten sodium chloride for industrial production of 5 the reduction of Na ions at the cathode. This is carried sodium metal involve: out in Downs cell shown in fig-3.1. cam CF Fused sodium chloride {and calcium chloride) Fig. 3.1 Electrolysis of a |__ tron gauze fused NaCl. === diaphragm Carbon {ron eae cathode ie 29In this process a mixture of sodium chloride and calcium chloride is electrolyzed in a cylindrical outer iron cell lined with fire—bricks. Calcium chloride is added to sodium chloride to decrease the fusion temperature to about 600°C (The melting point of pure sodium chloride is 801 ©). This lowering in melting temperature makes the process feasible. The cell is fitted with a central graphite anode and a surrounding iron cathode. The two electrodes are separated by a cylindrical iron gauze diaphragm which screens the graphite anode from the ring—shaped iron cathode. This keeps away the molten sodium metal which floats to the top of the cathode compartment from gaseous chlorine formed at the anode. The sodium metal collects in the inverted trough (T) placed over the cathode, rises up the pipe (P) and is tapped off through the iron vessel (V). Some of the calcium ions are also reduced at the cathode to give calcium metal but calcium being much denser than sodium, does not mix with it and can easily be separated. During electrolysis of molten salts Na* and Cl™ are free to move to the respective electrodes and the following reactions occur: Cathode Anode Na” ions migrate to the cathode and CT ions migrate to the anode and are reduced by the gain of electrons. are oxidized by the loss of electrons. Nat +e Nay, 2 —~cl, ,, +28 Over ail reaction will be as illustrated below: + 2Na* + Je“ = —___, 2Na,, Cathode reaction - 2c" Dome Sy +2 Anode reaction 2Na* + 2C)7 2Na,, + Cl, e (b)The Alkaline Earth Metals: Magnesium occur as lite dou a carnallite double sal (MgCl 2KCl.6H,O), as Magnesite ( ; MgCO,) and Dolomite (MgCO, CaCO,). lt 'S extracted in different ways. Fused carnallite can be di a Sora mixture of chlorides for elec e directly electrolyzed 0 l Tolysis can be obtained by heating the carbonate ores and heating the resulting oxides with carbon and chlorine, e MeCO, ——____ woo, 4.00 MgO, +C 40 ener Ck), an MgCl, + CO, aie)Alternately, Magnesium chloride j +t i i It d as mag- nesium hydroxide by adding aed nese water can be precipitate 1B: MgClaug) + Ca(OH), nM * Mg(OH), + CaCla ea) ‘agnesium hydroxide is h wines 7 Fe a i verted to chloride as above. eated to obtain magnesium oxide which is con- see metal is obtained by electrolysis of a fused mixture of calcium chloride and calcium fluoride, the latter lowers the melting point. __ Barium occurs as Barytés (BaSO,) and Whiterite (BaCO,). The carbonate is converted into the chloride by reaction with hydrochloric acid and barium is obtained by electrolysis of fused chloride, 3.5 INDUSTRIALLY IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF S—BLOCK ELEMENTS (i) Sodium Chloride (NaCl):— Sodium chloride (i.e common salt or table salt) occurs in nature as "Rock salt". Large deposits of rock salt are found in Pakistan at Khewra, It also occurs in sea water to the extent of about 3 percent. The salt is mined as solid or pumped from under ground deposit as a saturated solution known as "Brine" by flooding underground salt beds with water by boring. Most of the brine is used in industry for the production of sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide. In tropical regions, sodium chloride is obtained by the solar evaporation of sea—water, the impurities such as calcium and magnesium are removed by treating brine with sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide to precipitate these. metals. ae + Wn2- cL eet Ca Clg + Na,CO. —— CaC0,,,, + 2NaCl 3 (aa) Mg" Cl, + 2Na0H,,,, Mg(OH), + 2NaCi,,,, 2 (aq) Soluble barium chloride is used to precipitate sulphate. This purified pro- duct is suitable for industrial use but requires further purification for its use as table salt. Sodium chloride is an essential part of our daily diet. It is also used as food preservative. In chemical industry, it is used in the manufacture of sodium metal, chlorine gas, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium hypochlorite (I) 31sodium chlorate (V), etc. The other chemical uses of sodium chloride are in glazing earthen ware, regeneration of water softeners and in salting out of soap. (ii) Sodium Carbonate (Na,CO,):— Sodium carbonate is manufactured by Ammonia —solvay process. The raw materials used are sodium chloride, lime stone and ammonia gas. The process involves three important steps and its flow —sheet diagram is shown in Fig 3.2. - NH,eNaci solution Ammonical brine + L- = waste gases Fig. 3.2 G Ammonia-Solvay Suspension of NaHCO, process Finraton NH,CI NaHco,H@#, co, + 7Na,CO) eat Heat Hest__caco, = ye Step | — Ammoniation of Brine: In this step a saturated solution of sodium chloride (about 28 percent by mass) or brine is allowed to flow down an ammoniating tower. The tower consists of mushroom —shaped baffles at short intervals which control the flow of brine and ensures proper saturation with ammonia passing up the tower. Step I — Carbonation of Ammoniated Brine; In this step ammoniated brine is allowed to trickle down a carbonating tower, called SOLVAY TOWER fitted with baffle—plates and meets an upward current of carbon dioxide gas obtained by heating lime stone. The baffle —plates check the flow of liquid and break up the carbon dioxide into small bubbles to ensure good conditions for the reaction. The carbon dioxide and ammonia react to give NH; and HCOfions. INH, yy + COny + HzO, ——= 2NHL,,..+ COny 2 - COs at COae) + H20y, ——~ 2HCO jug) Hydrogen carbonate ion (Bi carbonate ion) 32ie. 1-2NH, + CO, + H,0 (NH)? COhuy Rin..xs = I (NH,),COx,,, + CO,,, + H,Q,, 2NH, HCOstee» + - The NH,and HCO, ions then react with Na* and Cl~ ions of brine to precipitate less soluble sodium hydrogen carbonate leaving ions of ammonium and chloride (NH and C!~) in solution. 7 Pe Nacl,., « NH|HCO;! NaHCO, ,, + NH.CI;, sua a aa Sodium bicarbonate Since the overall effect of these reactions is exothermic, the temperature of the material rises. This tends to increase the solubility of sodium hydrogen carbonate and thereby inhibits its precipitation. To counter this adverse effect the lower part of the tower is cooled, The precipitated product (NaHCO,) is removed by vacuum filtration and washed to free of ammonium salts, Step IN] — Conversion to Sodium Carbonate:— The sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated to give anhydrous sodium carbonate (Soda ash), Na,CO,uy + HyOy + COs 2NaHCO. a) The CO, liberated by this reaction is recycled to the carbonating tower. Soda ash isre —crystallized from hot aqueous solution and yields sodium carbonate deca hydrate (Na,CO, .10H,O) which is known as washing soda. Sources of Materialsi— (i) Brine is obtalned from natural sources of common salt. (ii) Carbon dioxide is obtained by heating limestone; large deposits of which are found in nature. cco... ——_- C20, + CO 20) ~ eo lime stone Quick lime vered from the solution of ammonium chloride left iii) Ammonia is reco t an Pe removal of NaHCO, by vacuum filtration. Thisis done by steam—heat- lime-obtained above. ing the solution with quick caO,, + H,O,, ————* Ca(OH), ,, QNH ICI, + CHO) ——* C8Chuy 2H, + 2NH, 4, 33Uses of Sodium Carbonate: Sodium carbonate has extensive uses: eg. (1) Inthe manufacture of glass and water glass. water glass is made by fusing sodium carbonate with sand. Na,CO, + SiO, Na,SiO, + CO,,., sand or silica water glass ‘The ordinary soda glass is manufactured by fusing a mixture of sand, calcium carbonate and anhydrous sodium carbonate. (2) Washing soda is used as water —softener as it precipitates calcium ions from water as carbonate. CaCO,,, + 2Naz,, 30a) 30) 2+ cats + Na,CO (3) Sodium carbonate is used in the making of soap, paper, detergents and chemicals such as NaOH. (iii) Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate (NaHCO, ): Sodium hydrogen carbonate commonly known as baking soda can be obtained as precipitate by ammonia — solvay process but it is all converted to sodium carbonate. However, sodium hydrogen carbonate is commercially produced by treating saturated sodium carbonate solution with carbon dioxide: Na,CO, + H,O + CO, 2NaHCO, Uses: — Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used as baking powder, in medicines and as an antiacid. (iv) Sodium Hydroxide or caustic soda (NnOH):— Sodium hydroxide i one aa i most important chemicals of industrial use. This Giiet beaded carefully because it is caustic to touch and causes pai: is carefolly becse Painful burns. It is commonly Sodium hydroxide is now manufactured by an el. ; Castner — Kellner's process, y an electrolytic process, known as Castner -Kellner's process :- This processis used for the preparation of sodium hydroxide. Construction and working of Castner-Kellner's cell 3- Thi: diagrammetically shown in figure 3.3. The electrolyte is ae solution of sodium chloride containing Na and Cl ions as: 2NaCl—*5 2Na+2Cl, 34The anode consists of a number of Utanlum plates where chlorine Is liberated. 2cl »Cl, +2e (Oxidation) The cathode Is a steam of flowing mercury. In ordinary process of electrolysis of acqueous solution of sodium chloride, H, and Cl, are liberated at cathode and anode respectively as H* ions are more easily discharged as compared to Nq tons. Titanium ae + anodes Used chloride. —>= —+~ sodium chloride solution 4 Hydrogen Sodium — > hydroxide solution Amalgam Marcury | cathode Graphito blocks —— DENUDER Water P= gee Mercury Fig: 3.3 Electrolytic manufacture of sodium hydroxide In castner - Kellner's process, Ht lons arc not easily discharged due to high voltage of H* lons, on the contrary, Na icns ale easily discharged over mercury surface. The sodium, thus liberated dis- solves in mercury forming an amalgam. 2Nat+2e———>2Na (Reduction) Na + Hg——— Na / Hg (Amalgam) 35The mercury containing dissolved sodium is sent to another chamber called denuder where sodium reacts with water forming sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. 2Na / Hg + 2H,0 > 2NaOH + Hy + Hg) The mercury is recycled to dissolve more of sodium. Denuder is packed with graphite blocks as hydrogen is easily liberated over graphite surface. The solution which flows out from denuder, is a solution of NaOH which is evaporated to dryness. Advantages of the process:- (i) The process is very efficient. (ii) This Process gives products of high purity. (iii) The possible reaction between NaOH and Cl, is avoided by obtaining NaOH and Cl, in separate chambers. van if ri := () This process consumes large quantity of electricity. (ii) inspite of strict control some mercury vapours escape from the factory. This mercury contaminates sea water. As a result, mercury becomes parts of tissues of marine animals and plants resulting in pollution of food chain. The use of this process has been banned and is being replaced by Gibb's diaphragm cell Process which does not use mercury but &lves the products of high purity. i A iesi— It isa white deliquescent and slightly translucent solid. It melts at 322°C with the decomposition. It is highly soluble in water and dissolution evolves large quan- tities of heat. . 0) Sodium hydroxide is a Strong alkali and ionizes fully as Na* and OH™ ions in solution. Its characteristic alkaline Properties include its action on indicators (Litmus turns blue) and neutralization reactions, e.g,, +on7 tar —- Na Owe au Claw Na* cl, at H,0,, (ii) Sodium hydroxide reacts with a i . 5 ammonia: mmonium salts on warming and liberates NaOH+NH, Cl ——_ nu" on-+Nact + 1 NH, @@ OH. 7 NH, + H,0,, 36(iii) It precipitates in soluble metal hydroxides from their salts: Fee + 30H7 a) (aa) Fe(OH), 20) However, when precipit i i i i 7 ipitated hydroxides are amphoteric, they redissolve in excess of sodium hydroxide forming complex anions, e.g., 2+ - ZnQQ + 20HZ,, ———- Z0(0H), ,, Zn(OH),,, + 20H), (Zn(OH), 2, Tetrahydroxo—Zincate (II) ion Usesi— Sodium hydroxide is used in the preparation of variety of chemicals such as phosphine, sodium chlorate (I) and sodium chiorate (V), etc. In industry, it is used in the manufacture of soap, purification of bauxite, Paper making and the manufacture of petroleum products. In textile industry, it is used in bleaching and dyeing process in mercerizing cotton and in the production of rayon. Compounds of Alkaline Earth Metals: (v) Magnesium Sulphate (Epsom = MgSO, ):— Magnesium —sulphate occurs in nature as Kieserite (MgSO, .H,O). It is prepared by the reaction of sulphuric acid on magnesium metal, its oxide, hydroxide or carbonate ¢.g. MgSO, + H, MgSO, + H,O MgSO, + 2H,O MgSO, + H,O + CO, Mg + H,SO, — MgO + H,SO, Mg(OH), + H,SO, MgCO, + H,SO, The hepta hydrate (MgSO, .7H,O) is the best known form of magnesium sulphate and is commonly known as “Epsom salt". Itis used as a mild purgative. It is soluble in water. When heated crystalline Epsom loses water forming anhydrous magnesium sulphate, (vi) Calcium Sulphate (CaSO,): Calcium sulphate occurs in nature as anhydride. It also occurs as dihydrate (CaSO, .2H,O). C sparingly soluble solid and produces permanent hardness in water. ‘When’gypsum (CaSO, .2H, O) is heated to about 100°C, it loses some water of crystallization and is converted to calcium sulphate hemihydrate 37ASSIGNMENT 1, Explain the following: (i Lithium and berylli i , respective groups. Ty!lium markedly differ from other members of their (ii) Te ie ionization enthalpies of alkali and alkaline earth metals are generally low. However, ionization enthalpies of ITA group elements are higher than IA group elements. (ii) Ionization potential decreases from Li to Cs. (iv) Alkali metals have largest covalent radii. (v) Alkali and alkaline earth metals easily form cations. (vi) Na* ions are smaller than sodium atoms. (vii) Alkaline earth metal ions are more strongly hydrated than alkali metal ions. (viii) Li* ions are more readily hydrated than K* ions. (ix) Alkali metals are powerful reducing agents. (x) Li*/Li couple has exceptionally high negative electrode potential. (xi) Alkali metals cannot be used in voltaic cells. (xii) Alkaline earth metals are harder than alkali metals. (xiii) In manufacture of sodium, the two electrodes are separated by iron—gauze diaphragm. (xiv) Alkali metals are highly reactive. (xv) How the given reaction is avoided during the preparation of sodium hydroxide. 60K. + Clay Chey + ClOsue) + 3H,0,, (xvi) Na + ions are discharged at the cathode in preference to H™ in the f NaOH. manufacture 0! (xvii) Zinc hydroxide is soluble in excess of sodium hydroxide solution, (xviii) Plaster of Paris is used in making plaster coats and moulds, 392, Describe the extraction of sodium from common salt. How ve ate conditions sodium reacts with: (a) Water, (b) Nitrogen, (c > (d) Hydrogen and (e) Oxygen. 3, Describe the physiochemical principles involved in the aa of sodium carbonate by Ammonia —solvay process. How sodium carbonate reacts with: (i) Carbon dioxide, (it) Silica, (iii) Calcium Hydroxide. 4. How sodium hydroxide is manufactured by electrolysis of sodium chloride? Describe uses of sodium hydroxide. 5. What happens when sodium hydroxide reacts with: (i) Ferric chloride, (ii) Carbon dioxide, (iii) Sulphuric acid, (iv) Zine hydroxide,(v) Chlorine gas and (vi) Ammonium chloride 6. Write brief account and uses of the following: — (i) Sodium chloride, (ii) Calcium sulphate, (iii) Bleaching powder (iv) Magnesium sulphate. (y) Sodium hydrogen carbonate. 7. Compare the properties of alkali and alkaline earth metals with respect to their first ionization enthalpies, electrode potentials, melting and boiling points and hydration enthalpies. 8. Alkali and alkaline earth metals form only 1* +; Sy sciively Explain. ly 1° and 2” ions respectively. 9. Discuss the variations in electrone; ativity val ‘ ne le ments. gativity values and sizes of s—Dblock el